MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is psychology's most widely

used clinical assessment tool, helping psychologists recognize and diagnose mental
health disorders. Developed in the late 1930s, the test has been revised and updated
several times to improve accuracy and validity. The MMPI-2, for example, has 567
true-false questions and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete; the MMPI-
2-RF has 338 true-false questions, taking 35 to 50 minutes to finish.

HISTORY:

The MMPI was developed in 1937 by clinical psychologist Starke R. Hathaway and
neuropsychiatrist J. Charnley McKinley at the University of Minnesota. They felt that
existing self-report inventories were too transparent, allowing respondents to guess
their intent and manipulate the results. In response, the pair developed the test for the
University of Minnesota's Department of Psychology as an objective tool for
assessing psychiatric conditions. The MMPI became one of the most widely
used psychological assessments, finding use in psychology clinics, hospitals,
correctional facilities, and pre-employment screenings. Today, it remains the most
frequently used clinical testing instrument and is one of the most valuable, well-
researched tools used in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

TYPES OF MMPI TESTS

In the years after the MMPI was first published, clinicians and researchers began to
question its accuracy. Critics pointed out that the original sample group was inadequate.
Others argued that the results indicated possible test bias, while others felt the test itself
contained sexist and racist questions. In response to these issues, the MMPI underwent
a revision in the late 1980s. Many questions were removed, reworded, or added.
Additionally, new validity scales were incorporated in the revised test.


MMPI-2: The revised edition of the test was released in 1989 as the MMPI-2.

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The test received revision again in 2001 and updates in 2003 and 2009. It's still the most
frequently used clinical assessment test today.

 MMPI-2-RF: Another edition of the test, published in 2008, is known as the

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-
RF), an alternative to the MMPI-2.

 MMPI-3: The latest version of the instrument, MMPI-3, was released in 2020.
The test takes 25 to 50 minutes and is available in English, Spanish, and French
for Canada formats.

USE:

Clinical psychology professionals use the test to assess and diagnose mental illness, but
it's used in other areas, such as: The MMPI-2 contains 567 test items and takes
approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. The MMPI should be administered,
scored, and interpreted by a professional, preferably a clinical
psychologist or psychiatrist, who has received special training in MMPI use. The
MMPI can be administered individually or in groups and computerized versions are
available as well. MMPI-2 and the MMPI-2-RF are designed for individuals age 18
years and older. The test can be scored by hand or by a computer, but the results should
always be interpreted by a qualified mental health professional that has had extensive
training in MMPI interpretation. The MMPI test should be used with other assessment
tools as well. A diagnosis should never be made solely on the results of the MMPI.

SCALES:

The MMPI-2 have 10 clinical scales that are used to indicate different psychological
conditions. MMPI-2

CLINICAL SCALES: DESCRIPTIONS AND SCORE INTERPRETATIONS

The MMPI-2 includes 10 clinical scales designed to assess specific psychological

symptoms and personality traits. Each scale is scored using T-scores where the mean is

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50 and the standard deviation is 10. A score of 65 or higher is considered clinically
significant.

1. Hypochondriasis (Hs)

Measures: Preoccupation with physical health, fears of disease, and somatic complaints
without medical basis.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Minimal concern about physical health;
no significant somatic complaints.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Occasional worry about health; some physical complaints,
but manageable.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Excessive focus on physical health, frequent somatic complaints,
possibly somatoform disorder or hypochondriasis.

2. Depression (D)

Measures: Symptoms of depression, including sadness, hopelessness, and lack of

motivation.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Positive mood, satisfaction with life, little
or no signs of depression.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Mild to moderate symptoms of depression, dissatisfaction,

or occasional sadness.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Significant depression symptoms such as pessimism,

hopelessness, and fatigue. Scores above 75 may indicate severe clinical depression.

3. Hysteria (Hy)

Measures: Tendency to convert psychological stress into physical symptoms

(somatization) and avoid emotional conflict through denial.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Acknowledgement of psychological issues

without reliance on physical complaints.

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Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Occasional physical complaints under stress but generally
psychologically adjusted.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Frequent physical symptoms when under stress, often denying
psychological problems. Scores may reflect somatization or high stress with physical
symptoms.

4. Psychopathic Deviate (Pd)

Measures: Disregard for societal rules, conflicts with authority, and interpersonal
difficulties.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Respectful of social norms, stable

interpersonal relationships, rule-abiding.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Mild rebelliousness, possible conflicts with authority, but
generally well-controlled.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Antisocial behaviors, impulsiveness, difficulty with authority,

and possible conduct disorder. Scores above 75 suggest severe personality or behavioral
issues.

5. Masculinity-Femininity (Mf)

Measures: Interests, behaviors, and roles traditionally associated with masculinity and
femininity.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Strong identification with traditional

gender roles (masculinity for males, femininity for females).

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Balanced gender interests and behaviors.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Non-traditional gender interests or role identification, indicating

departure from traditional masculinity/femininity roles.

6. Paranoia (Pa)

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Measures: Levels of suspiciousness, interpersonal sensitivity, and feelings of
persecution.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Trusting of others, low suspiciousness,

generally not defensive.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Healthy caution, some interpersonal sensitivity, but no

marked paranoia.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Marked suspiciousness, feelings of persecution, possible

paranoid ideation. Scores above 75 may indicate delusional thinking or paranoid
personality disorder.

7. Psychasthenia (Pt)

Measures: Anxiety, obsessive-compulsive tendencies, and irrational fears.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Low anxiety, good coping mechanisms,
emotionally stable.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Mild anxiety, some compulsive tendencies, but not severely
distressing.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Significant anxiety, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, irrational

fears. Scores above 75 indicate severe anxiety or obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD).

8. Schizophrenia (Sc)

Measures: Disorganized thinking, social alienation, unusual experiences, and psychotic

symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Clear, organized thinking, no psychotic

symptoms, good reality contact.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Some eccentricity, mild social withdrawal, but no

significant thought disorder.

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High Scores (T ≥ 65): Psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, or
thought disorder. Scores above 75 indicate significant schizophrenic tendencies or
psychosis.

9. Hypomania (Ma

Measures: Elevated mood, increased energy, irritability, and impulsivity, often linked
to manic states.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Low energy, lethargy, no signs of

hypomanic behavior.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Active and energetic, but within a normal range; possibly
ambitious or driven.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Hyperactivity, impulsiveness, poor judgment, and irritability.

Scores above 75 suggest mania or hypomania, possibly associated with bipolar disorder.

0. Social Introversion (Si)

Measures: Preference for being alone versus seeking social interaction.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Extraverted, enjoys social interaction,

outgoing personality.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Socially balanced, able to interact with others but also
comfortable being alone.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Social withdrawal, discomfort in social situations, and

introversion. Scores above 75 suggest severe social anxiety or extreme introversion.

T-SCORE RANGES AND MEANING

1. Low Scores (T ≤ 40):

Typically indicates the absence of significant psychological distress or issues in the area
measured by the scale. It may suggest well-adjusted, stable functioning.

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2. Moderate Scores (T 41-64):

Reflect normal variation in psychological traits. The person may have some tendencies
toward the traits measured by the scale, but they are not severe enough to indicate
clinical concern.

3. High Scores (T ≥ 65):

Clinically significant, indicating that the person likely experiences substantial distress,
symptoms, or dysfunction in the area measured by the scale. Higher scores typically
correlate with more severe symptoms and potential clinical disorders.

MMPI-2 VALIDITY SCALES: DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS AND SCORE

INTERPRETATIONS

The validity scales of the MMPI-2 are designed to assess the test-taking attitude and
ensure that the responses provided are truthful, consistent, and reflective of the
individual's actual psychological state. These scales detect attempts to distort responses,
whether by exaggeration, minimization, or inconsistency. Like the clinical scales,
validity scales are also interpreted using T-scores,

1. L (Lie) Scale

Measures: Attempts to present oneself in an overly favorable or virtuous manner by

denying common human faults.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Honest, straightforward self-presentation.

The individual acknowledges normal human faults and weaknesses.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Generally honest, but may minimize some minor faults or
present themselves somewhat favorably.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Suggests a strong attempt to present an unrealistically favorable

image, denial of common faults, or lack of insight. Scores above 70 may indicate an
attempt to "fake good."

2. F (Infrequency) Scale

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Measures: Atypical or unusual responses, indicating possible exaggeration of
symptoms, random responding, or severe psychopathology.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Normal, expected responses; likely that
the individual is not exaggerating or over-reporting symptoms.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Slight deviation from typical responses, could be due to
mild distress or unusual experiences.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Suggests exaggerated reporting of symptoms or distress, possibly

indicating an attempt to "fake bad" or severe psychological disturbance. Scores above
100T may indicate random responding or malingering (exaggeration of symptoms for
secondary gain).

3. K (Defensiveness) Scale

Measures: Subtle attempts to deny psychological problems and present oneself in a

favorable light by minimizing faults.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Open, willing to admit to psychological

problems or faults, possibly overly self-critical.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): A generally realistic self-presentation; may minimize some

minor issues, but not excessively defensive.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Indicates defensiveness, denial of psychological problems, and a

tendency to underreport symptoms. Scores above 70T suggest strong resistance to
admitting any problems and could interfere with the accuracy of clinical scales.

4. Fb (Back F Scale)

Measures: Infrequency of responses toward the end of the test, detecting changes in
response consistency, random answering, or exaggeration later in the test.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Consistent responses throughout the test;
no evidence of random answering or exaggeration later in the test.

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Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Generally consistent responses; some mild fluctuations, but
not significant.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Indicates a shift in response style, possibly due to fatigue, random
responding, or exaggeration of symptoms toward the end of the test. Very high scores
could suggest poor test-taking attitude or an attempt to "fake bad."

5. VRIN (Variable Response Inconsistency) Scale

Measures: The consistency of responses to paired questions that should be answered

similarly, assessing random or inconsistent responses.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Consistent responses throughout the test,
indicating a reliable test-taking attitude.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Slight inconsistency in responses; generally reliable, but

with some minor variations in response consistency.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Indicates a high level of inconsistency in responses, suggesting

random answering, confusion, or careless responding. Scores above 80T may reflect
significant problems with test validity.

6. TRIN (True Response Inconsistency) Scale

Measures: Tendency to give inconsistent true or false responses across paired items,
indicating a pattern of either "yea-saying" (answering mostly true) or "nay-saying"
(answering mostly false).

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Indicates a tendency to answer "false" to

most items (nay-saying), suggesting a potential bias or pattern of denying statements.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Generally balanced responses between "true" and "false";
reliable test-taking behavior.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Suggests a tendency to answer "true" to most items (yea-saying),
indicating bias or a pattern of agreeing with statements without careful consideration.
Scores above 80T may suggest random or careless responding.

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 7. Fp (Infrequency-Psychopathology) Scale

Measures: Responses to items that are infrequent even among psychiatric populations,
detecting malingering or severe overreporting of psychopathology.

Score Interpretation: Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Responses are typical and believable, even
for a clinical population; no evidence of malingering or extreme exaggeration.

Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Responses are somewhat unusual but not excessively
exaggerated; mild to moderate levels of distress or pathology.

High Scores (T ≥ 65): Suggests extreme and unlikely reporting of symptoms, even in a
clinical population, indicating possible malingering or overreporting. Scores above
100T strongly suggest an attempt to "fake bad" or a highly exaggerated clinical
presentation.

T-SCORE RANGES AND MEANING FOR VALIDITY SCALES

1. Low Scores (T ≤ 40): Generally accurate and valid responses. The individual is not
attempting to distort their responses, and the results are likely to reflect their true
psychological state.

2. Moderate Scores (T 41-64): Valid responses with minor inconsistencies. These scores
indicate generally reliable test-taking behavior but may include mild defensiveness or
slight exaggeration. Overall, the test is interpretable.

3. High Scores (T ≥ 65): Potential distortion or invalidity. Scores in this range suggest
that the individual may be distorting their responses, either by minimizing or
exaggerating symptoms, or responding randomly. High scores should prompt caution
in interpreting the clinical scales, as the overall validity of the test may be compromised.

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERPRETATION:

High scores on validity scales (e.g., L, F, K) may suggest that the test-taker is not
responding truthfully or is trying to manipulate the results, which can affect the
accuracy of the clinical scales.
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