ELECTROTECHNOLOGY 2

COMPLEX ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
LECTURE 5
 Equivalent resistance

Example
For the circuit shown in the figure below, Solution

calculate (a) the voltage drop across the (a)Total Resistance 𝑅𝑇 = 1 + 4 || 5 + 1.5kΩ which gives 4kΩ
𝑉 24
4𝑘Ω resistor (b) the current through the The total circuit current 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑅 = 4×103 = 6𝑚𝐴
𝑇
5𝑘Ω resistor (c) the power developed
5
By current division, current in top branch= × 6 = 3𝑚𝐴
across the 1.5𝑘Ω 5+1+4

Hence voltage drop across the 𝟒𝐤𝛀 resistor= 3 × 10−3 × 4 ×

103 = 12𝑉
4+1
(b) Current through the 5kΩ resistor = × 6 = 3𝑚𝐴
5+1+4

(c) Power in the 1.5kΩ = 𝐼𝑇2 𝑅 = 6 × 10−3 2

1.5 × 10−3 =
𝟓𝟒𝒎𝑾
Equivalent resistance

Sometimes we come across a complicated circuit consisting of many resistances.

The resistance between the two desired points (or terminals) of such a circuit can be
replaced by a single resistance between these points using laws of series and parallel
resistances.

Then this single resistance is called equivalent resistance of the circuit between these
points.
The equivalent resistance of a circuit or network between its any two points (or terminals)
is that single resistance which can replace the entire circuit between these points (or
terminals).
Once equivalent resistance is found, we can use Ohm’s law to solve the circuit.
Equivalent resistance

It is important to note that resistance between two points of a circuit is different for different point-pairs. This
is illustrated in Figure 1

Figure 1
i. Between points A and B, 𝑅1 is in parallel with the series combination of 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 i.e.

𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅1 || 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
ii. Between points A and C, 𝑅3 is in parallel with the series combination of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 i.e.
𝑅3 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅3 || 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
ii. Between points B and C, 𝑅2 is in parallel with the series combination of 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 i.e.
𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅2 || 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
 Solution 1
Equivalent resistance Resistance between E and F is given by ;
1 1 1 1 6
=3+2+6=6
Example 1 𝑅𝐸𝐹

A battery having an e.m.f. of E volts and internal 𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 1 Ω

resistance 0.1 Ω is connected across terminals A 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝐶𝐸𝐹𝐷 = 1 + 5 = 6 Ω
and B of the circuit shown in Figure 2. Calculate
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅, therefore, 𝐼 =
the value of E (PD across AB) in order that 𝑅

potential difference in 2 Ω resistor shall be 2 W. 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 2 Ω =

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
=
2
=1𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐹 = 1 × 2 = 2 𝑉
2
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 3 Ω = 3 = 0,67 𝐴
2
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 6 Ω = = 0,33 𝐴
6
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝐶𝐸𝐷 = 1 + 0,67 + 0,33 = 2 𝐴
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐷 = 2 × 6 = 12 𝑉
12
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 12 Ω = 12 = 1 𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 2 + 1 = 3 𝐴
E=P.D across AB or CD+Drop in battery resistance
Figure 2.
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅
= 12 + 3 × 0,1 = 12.3𝑉.
Equivalent resistance
Example 2 Solution 2
Calculate the values of various G = Conductance
𝐼 = 12 𝐴; 𝐺𝐵𝐶 = 0,1 + 0,2 + 0,3 = 0,6 𝑆
currents in the circuit shown in Figure
Using current divider,
3. What is total circuit conductance
0,1 0,1
𝐼1 = 𝐺 × 𝐼 = 0,6 × 12 = 2 𝐴 ;
and total resistance? 𝐵𝐶

0,2 0,2
𝐼2 = 0,6 × 𝐼 = 0,6 × 12 = 4 𝐴;

0,3
𝐼3 = 0,6 × 𝐼 = 6 𝐴; 𝐼 = 12 𝐴

Now, 𝐺𝐴𝐵 = 0,4 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺𝐵𝐶 = 0,6 𝑆 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

1 1 1 1 1 25
=𝐺 +𝐺 = 0,4 + 0,6 =
𝐺𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 6

6
𝐺𝐴𝐶 = 25 𝑆

1 1 25
Total circuit resistance, 𝑅𝐴𝐶 = 𝐺 = 6/25 = Ω
𝐴𝐶 6
Figure 3.
Equivalent resistance
Example 4 Solution 4
A battery of unknown e.m.f. is connected 20
The current through 8 Ω resistance is 𝐼 = = 2,5 𝐴.
8
across resistances as shown in Figure 5. The
At point A in Figure 5, the current I is divided into two paths;
voltage drop across the 8 Ω resistor is 20 V.
𝐼2 flowing in path ABC of 15 + 13 = 28 Ω resistance and current
What will be the current reading in the
𝐼1 flowing in path AC of 11 Ω resistor.
ammeter? What is the e.m.f. of the battery?
By current divider rule, the value of 𝐼2 is given by ;
11 11
𝐼2 = 11+28 × 𝐼 = 39 × 25 = 0,7 𝐴

Therefore, ammeter reads 0,7 A

28×11 308
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = = Ω
28+11 39

308 1049
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅𝑇 = 8 + 11 + = Ω
39 39

1049
𝐸 = 𝐼 × 𝑅𝑇 = 2,5 × 39
= 67,3 𝑉
Figure 5.
 Equivalent resistance
Example 7
Determine the current drawn by a 12 V battery with internal resistance 0.5 Ω by the following infinite network.

Figure 9.

Let x be the equivalent resistance of the network. Since the network is infinite, the addition of one set of three
resistances, each of 1 Ω, will not change the total resistance, i.e., it will remain x. The network would then
become as shown in Figure 10. The resistances x and 1 Ω are in parallel and their total resistance is 𝑅𝑃 given by ;

𝑥×1 𝑥
𝑅𝑃 = =
𝑥+1 1+𝑥

Figure 10 Figure 11
Equivalent resistance
Solution 7
The circuit then reduces to the one shown in Figure 11. Referring to Figure 11,
𝑥 𝑥
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 1 + 1 + =2+
1+𝑥 1+𝑥
But total resistance of the network is 𝑥 as mentioned above.
𝑥
𝑥 =2+
1+𝑥
Or 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥
Or 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2 = 0

2 ± 4 + 8 2 ± 12 2 ± 2 3
𝑥= = = =1± 3
2 2 2
As the value of the resistance cannot be negative
𝑥 = 1 ± 3 = 1 + 1,732 = 2,732 Ω
Total circuit resistance, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
= 2,732 + 0,5 = 3,232 Ω
Current drawn by the network is
𝐸 12
𝐼= = = 3,71 𝐴
𝑅𝑇 3,232
Equivalent resistance
Solution
Example 8 The circuit shown in Figure 12 reduces to the one shown in Figure
Find 𝑅𝐴𝐵 in the circuit shown 13(i). This circuit further reduces to the circuit shown in Figure 13(ii).
in Figure 12.

Figure 13
Figure 12
Referring to Figure 13(ii), we have,
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 2 + 50| 25 |50 + 8 = 2 + 12,5 + 8 = 22,5 Ω
 Equivalent resistance

Example 11
Solution 11
An electrical network is arranged as shown in Figure
Resistance between E and C
16. Find the value of current in the branch AF.
5 + 9 × 14
𝑅𝐸𝐶 = =7Ω
5 + 9 + 14
Resistance between B and E
11 + 7 × 18
𝑅𝐵𝐸 = =9Ω
11 + 7 + 18
Resistance between A and E
13 + 9 × 22
𝑅𝐴𝐸 = = 11 Ω
13 + 9 + 22
i.e Total resistance, 𝑅𝑇 = 11 Ω
Figure 16 𝑉 22
Current in branch AF, 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 11 = 2 𝐴
𝑇
Equivalent resistance
Example 12
All the resistances in Figure 17 are in ohms. Find the effective resistance between the points A and B.

Figure 17
Solution 12
6×6
Resistance between points A and D is 𝑅𝐴𝐷 = 3 + 3 Ω||6Ω = = 3Ω
6+6
6×6
𝑅𝐴𝐸 = 𝑅𝐴𝐷 + 3 Ω||6Ω = = 3Ω
6+6
6×6
𝑅𝐴𝐹 = 𝑅𝐴𝐸 + 3 Ω||6Ω = = 3Ω
6+6
6×3
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴𝐹 + 3 Ω||3Ω = = 2Ω
6+3
Equivalent resistance
Example 13
What is the equivalent resistance of the ladder network shown in Figure 18?

Figure 18
Solution 13
Referring to Figure 18, the resistance between points K and L is 𝑅𝐾𝐿 = 25 + 75 Ω||100Ω =
100×100
= 50Ω
100+100
Equivalent resistance

Solution 13
The circuit of Figure 18, then reduces to the one shown in Figure 19(i).
Referring to Figure 19(i),
100 × 100
𝑅𝐺𝐻 = 50 + 50 Ω||100 Ω = = 50 Ω
100 + 100

The circuit of Figure 19(i) then reduces to the one shown in Figure 19(ii)
100 × 100
𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 50 + 50 Ω||100 Ω = = 50 Ω
100 + 100

The circuit of Figure 19(ii) then reduces to the one shown in Figure 19(iii).
Referring to Figure 19(iii),

Equivalent resistance of the ladder network= 25 + 50 = 75 Ω

Figure 19
Open Circuits
An open is a gap or break in a circuit path. When there is a break in any part of a circuit, that part is
said to be open-circuited. No current can flow through an open. Since no current can flow through
an open, according to Ohm’s law, an open has infinite resistance (R = V/I = V/0 = ∞). An open circuit
may be as a result of component failure or a breaking of a wire.
Open circuit in a series circuit.
Figure 20 shows an open circuit fault in a series circuit. Resistor 𝑅4 is burnt out and an open
develops. Because of the open, no current can flow in the circuit.

When an open occurs in a series circuit, the following symptoms can be observed :
(i) The circuit current becomes zero.
(ii) There will be no voltage drop across the resistors that are normal.
(iii) The entire voltage drop appears across the open. This can be readily proved.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop ABCDEFA, we have,
−0 × 𝑅1 − 0 × 𝑅2 − 0 × 𝑅3 − 𝑉𝐷𝐸 − 0 × 𝑅5 + 120 = 0
Figure 20 𝑉𝐷𝐸 = 120 𝑉
(iv) Since the circuit current is zero, there is no voltage drop in the internal resistance
Figure 20 of the source. Therefore, terminal voltage may appear higher than the normal.
Open Circuits
Open circuit in a parallel circuit.
Open circuit in a parallel circuit. One or more branches of a parallel circuit may develop an open. Figure 21
shows a parallel circuit with an open. Here resistor 𝑅3 is burnt out and now has infinite resistance.

The following symptoms can be observed :

(i) Branch current I3 will be zero because R3 is open.
(ii) The total current I will be less than the normal.
(iii) The operation of the branches without opens will be normal.
(iv) The open device will not operate. If R3 is a lamp, it will be out. If it is a
motor, it will not run.
Figure 21

Short Circuits
A short circuit or short is a path of low resistance. A short circuit is an unwanted path of low resistance. When
a short circuit occurs, the resistance of the circuit becomes low. As a result, current greater than the normal
flows which can cause damage to circuit components. The short circuit may be due to insulation failure,
components get shorted etc.
Short Circuits
1. Partial short in a series circuit. Figure 22(i) shows a series circuit with a partial short.
An unwanted path has connected 𝑅1 to 𝑅3 and has eliminated 𝑅2 from the circuit. Therefore, the circuit resistance
decreases and the circuit current becomes greater than normal. The voltage drop across components that are not
shorted will be higher than normal. Since current is increased, the power dissipation in the components that are
not shorted will be greater than the normal. A partial short may cause healthy component to burn out due to
abnormally high dissipation.

Figure 22

2. Dead short in a series circuit. Figure 22(ii) shows a series circuit with a dead short. Here all the loads (i.e.
resistors in this case) have been removed by the unwanted path. Therefore, the circuit resistance is almost zero and
the circuit current becomes extremely high. If there are no protective devices (fuse, circuit breaker etc.) in the
circuit, drastic results (smoke, fire, explosion etc.) may occur.
 Short Circuits

3. Partial short in a parallel circuit. Figure 23(i) shows a parallel circuit with a partial short. The circuit resistance
will decrease and total current becomes greater than the normal. Further, the current flow in the healthy
branches will be less than the normal. Therefore, healthy branches may operate but not as they are supposed to.

Figure 23

4. Dead short in a parallel circuit. Figure 23 (ii) shows a parallel circuit with a dead short. Note that all the loads
are eliminated by the short circuit so that the circuit resistance is almost zero. As a result, the circuit current
becomes abnormally high and may cause extensive damage unless it has protective devices (e.g. fuse, circuit
breaker etc.).
 Wheatstone Bridge
This bridge was first proposed by Wheatstone (an English telegraph engineer) for measuring accurately the
value of an unknown resistance. It consists of four resistors (two fixed known resistances P and Q, a known
variable resistance R and the unknown resistance X whose value is to be found) connected to form a diamond-
shaped circuit ABCDA as shown in Figure 24 (i). Across one pair of opposite junctions (A and C ), battery is
connected and across the other opposite pair of junctions (B and D), a galvanometer is connected through the
key K. The circuit is called a bridge because galvanometer bridges the opposite junctions B and D.

Figure 24 (ii) shows another way of drawing the Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 24
Wheatstone Bridge

Working. The values of P and Q are properly fixed. The value of R is varied such that on closing the
key K, there is no current through the galvanometer. Under such conditions, the bridge is said to be
balanced. The point at which the bridge is balanced is called the null point. Another way of drawing
the Wheatstone bridge is seen in Figure 24 (ii).
If 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are the currents through P and R respectively when the bridge is balanced. Since there is
no current through the galvanometer, the currents in Q and X are also 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 respectively.
Wheatstone Bridge

As the galvanometer reads zero, points B and D are at the same potential. This means that voltage
drops from A to B and A to D must be equal. Also, voltage drops from B to C and D to C must be
equal. Hence,
𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑖
𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑋 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑃 𝑅
Dividing 𝑖 and 𝑖𝑖 , we get =
𝑄 𝑋
𝑄
Unknown resistance, 𝑋= ×𝑅 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑃
Wheatstone Bridge
Example 14
Verify that the Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 25 is balanced. Then find the voltage 𝑉𝑇 across the 0.2 A
current source by (i) replacing the 200 Ω resistor with a short. (ii) replacing the 200 Ω resistor with an open.

Figure 25

Solution 14
The Wheatstone bridge is balanced if the products of the resistances of the opposite arms of the bridge are
equal. An inspection of Figure 25 shows that 𝑅1 𝑅4 = 𝑅2 𝑅3 . Therefore, the bridge is balanced.
 Wheatstone Bridge
Solution 14
(i) When 200 Ω resistor is shorted. Figure 26 (i) shows the bridge when the 200 Ω resistor (𝑅5 ) is replaced by a
short. In this case, the circuit is equivalent to a series-parallel circuit as shown in Figure 26 (ii).

Figure 26

Referring to Figure 26 (ii), the circuit is equivalent to parallel combination of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 in series with the
parallel combination of 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 .
The circuit shown in Fig. 26 (ii) further reduces to the one shown in Figure 26 (iii).
Therefore, total circuit resistance, 𝑅𝑇 = 90 + 45 = 135 Ω.
Voltage across 0.2 A current source is 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 0,2 × 135 = 27 𝑉
Wheatstone Bridge
Solution 14 (iii)

Figure 27

Figure 27 (i) shows the bridge when 200 Ω resistor is replaced by an open. In this case, the circuit is equivalent
to a series-parallel circuit in which series combination of 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 is in parallel with the series combination of
𝑅2 and 𝑅4 . This is shown in Figure 27 (ii).
The circuit shown in Figure 27 (ii) further reduces to the one shown in Figure 27 (iii). Referring to Figure 27 (iii),
180×540
the total circuit resistance 𝑅𝑇 is given by ; 𝑅𝑇 = 180+540 = 135 Ω

Voltage across 0.2 A current source, 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 0,2 × 135 = 27 𝑉

End