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Truth Conditions and Sentence Relations-1-1

The document discusses the semantics of sentence relations, highlighting various types such as synonymous, entailment, contradiction, presupposition, tautology, and disjunctive syllogism. It also covers logical reasoning methods like modus ponens, modus tollens, and syllogisms, emphasizing the importance of truth values and logical connectives in determining sentence meaning. The conclusion reiterates the significance of understanding these relationships and logical structures in semantics.

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wazirhabiba609
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20 views

Truth Conditions and Sentence Relations-1-1

The document discusses the semantics of sentence relations, highlighting various types such as synonymous, entailment, contradiction, presupposition, tautology, and disjunctive syllogism. It also covers logical reasoning methods like modus ponens, modus tollens, and syllogisms, emphasizing the importance of truth values and logical connectives in determining sentence meaning. The conclusion reiterates the significance of understanding these relationships and logical structures in semantics.

Uploaded by

wazirhabiba609
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Sentence Relations and Truth

Introduction
• Semantics is the study of meanings.

• Words are connected to each other in a system.

• Just like words, sentences are also connected to each other.


• In some cases relations between sentences occur on the basis of
words.

• In other cases relations occur because of the relation between syntax.

• The semantic theory should take into account English speakers


Knowledge to study the sentence relations
Types of Relations Between Sentences
Synonymous: It is the relationship of similarity between sentences.

Example:
A: My brother is a bachelor
B: My brother has never married
• Entailment: Entailment is a term derived from formal logic and now
often used as part of the study of semantics. It is something which
logically follows from what is asserted in the sentence.

Example:
a. Today is sunny.
b. Today is warm.
• Contradicts: Sentences which convey opposites senses

Example:
my brother Sebastian has just come from Rome
my brother Sebastian has never been to Rome
Presuppose: It is a term used to refer to the assumptions implicitly
made by the speakers and the listeners that are necessary for the
correct interpretation of utterance. [Geoffrey Leech]

It allows us the freedom not to state everything in our communication.

Example:
the Mayor of Manchester is a women
there is a Mayor of Manchester
Presupposition Entailment

The speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an Something logically follows from what is asserted in
utterance. utterance.

Speaker dependent Sentence dependent

Negation does not effect presupposition Negation effects entailment.

Presupposition involve other type of predictions. Entailment is restricted assertions.


• Tautology: Sentence A is a tautology means that A is automatically
true by virtue of its own meaning, but informationally empty

Example:
Ireland is Ireland
• Contradictories: That a and b are necessarily false.

Example:
He is a murderer, but he has never killed anyone
Now is not now
Sense and Logic
• In semantics, we are primarily concerned with the sense of a
sentence.

• When there is sense involved, it is a given that logic has to be there.

• The study of logic comes down to us from the classical Greek


(Aristotle)
• The beginning of logic lie in a search for the principles of valid
argument and inference.
1. Modus Ponens
• It is an argument in three steps.

• In modus ponens, if steps a and b (called the premises) are true then
step c (the conclusion) are also true.
• The truth of the antecedent implies the truth of the consequence

p→q
a. If Smith left work early, then he is in the pub
b. Smith left work early p
c. Smith is in the pub q
• In logical semantics we use a horizontal line to separate the premise
from our conclusion
2. Modus Tollens
• It is a mode of logical reasoning from a hypothetical proposition
according to which if the consequent be denied the antecedent is
denied (as, if A is true, B is true; but B is false; therefore A is false)

• In modus Tollens, P implies Q and if the Q is negated then P is also


negated.
p→q
Example:
a. If Smith has arrived, then he is in the pub - q
b. Smith is not in the pub - q
c. Smith has not arrived
Syllogisms
• A syllogism (Greek: "conclusion, inference") is a kind of logical argument
that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or
more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.

• In its earliest form, defined by Aristotle, from the combination of a general


statement (the major premise) and a specific statement (the minor
premise), a conclusion is deduced.

• For example, knowing that all men are mortal (major premise) and that
Socrates is a man (minor premise), we may validly conclude that Socrates is
mortal
Hypothetical Syllogism
• It is a kind of syllogism which has a conditional statement for one or
both of its premises.

• It is also called chain argument because it is based on a transition.

• In hypothetical syllogism p → q, q→ r

p→ r
• Example:

p→q if Smith is in the canteen, then he is drinking juice


q→r if Smith is drinking juice, he is drinking pine apple
p→r if Smith is in the canteen, then he is drinking pine apple
Disjunctive Syllogism
• Disjunctive: Serving or tending to divide or separate

• It is a valid argument form which is a syllogism having a disjunctive


statement for one of its premises

• In this syllogism only one of the premise can be true.

• If p is true then q is false and vice versa.


It contains a logical disjunction, which simply means an "or" statement.
"P or Q" is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement's disjuncts.
The rule makes it possible to eliminate a disjunction from a logical
proof.

pvq Smith is in the public bar or he is in the lounge


-p Smith is not in the public bar
q Smith is in the lounge
• Semanticists call a sentence(s) being true of false its true value.

• The facts which are or have to be obtained in reality to make a


sentence true or false its truth condition.

• The truth value of sentences can be checked with a simple negation


• Example:
a: Your car has been stolen
b: Your can has not been stolen

p
p

Truth value table:


p p
T F
F T
Some more Sentences
• (1) A statement represented by a single statement variable (without any
connective) is called a simple (or primitive) statement.
• (2) A statement represented by some combination of statement variables
and connectives is called a compound statement.

• A number of connectives have a predictable effect on the truth value of a


compound statement. The truth value of a compound formed by using
‘and’ to join two statements is predictable from the truth of the constituent
statement.
a. The house is on fire
b. The fire brigade are on the way
c. The house is on fire and the fire brigade are on the way
• The study of truth effects of connectives is called pro-positional logic.

• There are a number of other connectives like if, then and or which can
effect the truth value of sentences.
• The logical connectives corresponding to English ‘or’ has two main
types: Inclusive and Exclusive

• In inclusive ‘or’, the compound is created when one or both the


constituents of a sentence are true.

• Example:
• I will see you today or tomorrow
• The exclusive or is possible only when one disjunct of the compound
sentence is true and the other is false

• Example:
You will pay the fine or you will go to jail
• The next connective we will look at here is the material implication,
symbolized as →
• the expression p → q is only false when p (the antecedent) is true
and q (the consequent) is false. This connective is something like my
use of English if . . . then if I utter a sentence

If it rains, then I’ll go to the movies

• We can identify the if-clause in as the antecedent and the then-clause


as the consequent.
• This conditional sentence can only be false
if it rains and I don’t go to the movies

➢that is p = T, q = F

➢If it doesn’t rain (p = F)

➢my conditional claim cannot be invalidated by whatever I do:

whether I go to the movies (q = T) or not (q = F).


• We can describe this relation by saying that p is a sufficient condition
for q (rain will cause me to go) but not a necessary condition (other
things might make me go; it might snow.
CONCLUSION

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