Concrete Practice

Stage 1

Session 2a
Dr Ian Heritage
 Stage 1 – Concrete Practice
1.11.00 Proportioning, batching and mixing
 Copyright

• Please be aware that the following slides remain

the copyright of The Concrete Society and are
for the sole use of the seminar attendee. They
may not be used for onward training in whole or
part.
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.11.02 Recognise normal range of mix proportions in use,

expressed either as ratios or quantities per unit volume.
Describe normal mix proportions for concrete to be used
for a particular purpose
• 1.11.03 Distinguish between the terms ‘total water’,
‘added water’ and ‘free water’ and explain the
importance of water/cement ratio in mix design
• 1.11.04 List and define main properties of concrete to be
taken into account when selecting proportions or batch
quantities
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.11.05 Describe situations where weigh batching and

volume batching would be appropriate
• 1.11.06 State key characteristics of materials and their
proportioning that influence mix design
• 1.11.07 State major effects on properties of concrete of
changes in quantities of constituents
• 1.11.08 State the methods and procedures for storing
constituent materials
• 1.11.09 State effects on concrete due to changes in
aggregate grading and moisture content
• 1.11.10 Calculate free water content of concrete from
free water/cement ratio and cement content
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.11.11 Using a standard table for prescribed concretes,

determine the quantities of dry materials needed to
produce a cubic metre of concrete to meet a given
specification
• 1.11.12 Calculate adjustments to be made to batch
quantities due to changes in moisture content of
aggregate
• 1.11.13 Define bulking of sand and state adjustments to
be made to batch quantities to allow for bulking
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.11.14 Outline procedures for batching and mixing

concrete and list precautions to be taken to maintain
uniformity, for both site-mixed and ready-mixed concrete
• 1.11.15 Calculate volume of compacted concrete required
to fill a form of given dimensions
• 1.11.16 State the meaning of the terms
‘designated’,’designed’,’prescribed’,’standardised
prescribed’ and ‘proprietary’ concretes and describe the
differences between prescription and performance
specifications
 Proportioning

• Require fixed measurements or proportions

– Proportioning by mass is when the constituents are
measured by weighing
– Volume container is filled and that will be taken as the
quantity required for the mix
– Proportioning by volume in traditional site batched
mixes
• Volumes can be increased with moisture levels
e.g. fine aggregate
 Proportioning

• Moisture in aggregates taken into account when

batching by mass
– More accurate
– Standard method
– Are options for volume batching under certain
circumstances (typically non critical concrete)
 Mix specification examples – BS 8500
Application Designated Standardized Recommended
concrete prescribed consistence
concrete class
General Blinding and mass concrete fill GEN1 ST2 S3
applications Drainage works to give immediate support GEN1 ST2 S1
Other drainage works GEN1 ST2 S3
Oversite below suspended slabs GEN1 ST2 S3
Floors Permanent finish to be added, e.g. a screed GEN1 ST2 S2
or floating floor

No permanent finish to be added, e.g. GEN2 ST3 S2

carpeted

Garage floors with no embedded metal GEN3 ST4 S2

Wearing surface: light foot and trolley traffic RC25/30 ST4 S2
Wearing surface: general industrial RC32/40 N/A S2
Wearing surface: heavy industrial RC40/50 N/A S2
Paving House drives, domestic parking and PAV1 N/A S2
external parking

Heavy-duty external paving with rubber PAV2 N/A S3

tyred vehicles
 Normal mixes

• Best to look at designated mixes from BS 8500-1

– FND – Foundation
– Gen – General
– PAV – Paving
– RC – Reinforced Concrete

• See next slides

 Specification of Concrete

• Standardized prescribed concretes

– Standardized prescribed concretes (ST1 to ST5) are
selected from a restricted list in BS 8500
– Made with a restricted range of materials as detailed
in the Standard
– Compliance by mix proportions, not strength
– Appropriate where concrete is site-batched on a small
scale or obtained from a ready-mixed supplier who
does not have third-party accreditation
Strength class for Standardized Prescribed Concrete

Standardized Assumed Characteristic

Prescribed strength class strength
Concrete
ST1 C6/8 8
ST2 C8/10 10
ST3 C12/15 15
ST4 C16/20 20
ST5 C20/25 25
 Water

• Cement and concrete require water

– Materials, especially aggregates absorb water
• Total amount of water is what is in the mix in
total including amount to pre-wet aggregates if
dry
• Added water is the water that is added to the
mix
• Free water is that amount of water that is
available for hydration of the cement
 Specifying Concrete – BS 8500

• BS 8500 is the way to specify concrete

– This is related to durabilty
– Structural strength from design
– Other factors may be important
• Early age thermal cracking – too much heat or
differential
• Shrinkage
 Specifying Concrete

• Concrete Standards
– Old - BS 5328 – withdrawn Dec2003
– New - BS EN 206 and BS 8500
• BS 8500 in two parts
– Part 1 – Methods of specifying and guidance for the
specifier
– Part 2 – Specification for constituent materials and
concrete
 Types of concrete

• Designated concretes
• Designed concretes
• Prescribed concretes
• Standardized Prescribed concretes
• Proprietary concretes
 Types of concrete

• Designed
– C28/35, 325 min cc, 0.5 max w/c, CIIIA cement
• Designated
– GEN, RC, PAV, FND
• Standardised Prescribed
– ST
• Prescribed
– 300 cc + fibres
• Proprietary
– Self-compacting concrete
• Nominally Proportioned
– 1-2-3 by volume
 Other Design Factors

• Cement type

• Intended working life

– at least 50 or 100 years

• Cover to reinforcement
– Nominal cover = minimum cover + fixing tolerance
 Current cement and combination types

CEM I Portland cement

SRPC Sulfate-resisting Portland cement

CEM IIA PC with 6 to 20% other material

CEM IIB PC with 21 to 35% fly ash or ggbs

CEM IIIA PC with 36 to 65% ggbs

CEM IIIB PC with 66 to 80% ggbs

CEM IVB-V PC with 36 to 55% fly ash

(not for XF3 or XF4)
 Intended working life, years

Intended working Examples

life, years
15 to 30 Agricultural and similar
(BS EN 1990 ) structures
(at least) 50 Building structures and other
(BS 8500) common structures
(at least) 100 Monumental buildings
(BS 8500) Bridges
Civil engineering structures
 Cover to reinforcement

Nominal cover =
minimum cover + tolerance to accommodate
fixing precision

Cover shown on drawings

Should equal spacer size used
 Exposure classes

• In BS 5328, simple system using relative terms,

e.g. mild, moderate, severe, very severe.

• Exposure classification in BS EN 206 is based

upon deterioration process, e.g. corrosion due to
carbonation or aggressive environment
 Exposure classes

Relevant exposure classes need to be

identified

There will always be one and frequently more

than one exposure class

Different element faces may have different

exposure classes
 Exposure classes
• X0: No risk of corrosion or attack
• XC: Corrosion induced by carbonation
• XD: Corrosion induced by chlorides other than
from sea water
• XS: Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea
water
• XA: Resistance to chemical attack
• XF: Resistance to freeze thaw
 BS 8500

• From these obtain for a particular cement type

– Min cement content
– Max w/c ratio
– Possibly cover
 Key Characteristics of Materials

• Cement type – CEMI, II, III etc

– Additions type and amount
• W/C ratio
– Water to BS 1008
• Admixtures – water reducer, air entrainer etc
• Aggregate – see next slide
 Key Characteristics of Materials

• Aggregate – BS 12620
• Course
– Texture – bond with paste
– Size – cement content, pumping, shrink less
– Density – for lightweight or heavyweight concrete
• Fine
– Fine fines – cohesive mix, less bleed, less segregation
– Grading – should be well graded
– Colour – fine fraction influences weathered concrete
colour
 Changes in Quantities of Constituents

• More cement – generally stronger and durable

• Lower w/c – generally stronger and durable
• More aggregate – generally more shrinkage
resistant
 Storage of Materials

• Cement
– Dry
• Aggregates
– No contamination
– No cross grading
– Freezing
• Admixtures
– Within manufacturers requirements
 Material Storage – Readymix Plants

• CEMENT
– Stored in water-tight silos typically of 40 tonnes capacity. Plants
can hold on average between 100-160 tonnes of cement
• AGGREGATE
– Can be stored in overhead bins typically 50 tonnes capacity with
on average 4 bins (200 tonnes), most plants have ground bays for
storage of up to 500 tonnes
• ADMIXTURES
– Liquid type stored either in bunded tanks usually 2000 litres
capacity, drums of 205 litres, or smaller 25 litre containers. All
liquid admixtures should be protected from frost
• WATER
– Recycled or reclaimed water stored in tanks of up to 40000 litres
 Stage 1– Concrete Practice
1.12.00 Transporting, handling and placing
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.12.01 List properties of concrete which could be

affected during transporting, handling and placing
• 1.12.02 State precautions to be taken to avoid adverse
effects during transporting, handling and placing
• 1.12.03 Evaluate courses of action in the event of a delay
in the discharge of delivery of concrete
 Changes due to Transport and Handling

• Segregation
• Loss in workability
• Stiffening
• Contamination
• Loss of fines
• Temperature
 General Precautions

• Minimise time of delivery and placement

– Prevent cold joints
• Control rate of placement
– Keep delivery rate appropriate
• Once placed do not move too far
– Segregation
 Placement

• Do not drop from too high (3m)

– Segregation
– Use Tremie
– Pump from bottom upwards
– Place concrete in layers (400mm)
• Do not place directly against formwork
– Displaces formwork/spacers/reinforcement
• Do not bounce off reinforcement
– Segregation
 Delays

• If predicted
– Can retard first concrete
– Vibrate longer
– If hot, keep cool by shading or damping
– Smaller sections
• If unforeseen
– Create construction joint

• Do not just leave – cold joint formation

– May be problematic
Stage 1 – Concrete Practice
1.13.00 Compaction
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.13.01 State reasons for compacting concrete

• 1.13.02 Describe the effects on concrete of vibration
• 1.13.03 State conditions necessary to enable concrete to
be compacted satisfactorily
• 1.13.04 Distinguish when compaction of concrete is
complete
• 1.13.05 Describe effects of incomplete compaction
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.13.06 Describe the principal types of compacting

equipment and their application
• 1.13.07 Explain the difference between internal and
external vibration and give reasons for the use of each
method
• 1.13.08 Describe self-compacting concrete and give
reasons for its use
 Compaction

• Want a dense, strong, impermeable and durable mix

• After placement concrete contains large air voids
(different to air entrained voids)
• Can be up to 20% for low consistence mixes
• Large air voids
– Reduce strength (5% per 1% air)
– Increases permeability
– Reduce bond with reinforcement
– Blowholes
– Honeycombing
The Effect of Trapped Air

1% air =
approx 5%
strength loss
 Concrete Properties

• Needs to be plastic – not set!

– Once poker is removed slowly (after vibration), and
still leaves a hole concrete is too stiff
– Should be appropriately workable and cohesive
– Prevent segregation
• Should not be self compacting concrete!
Before and after compaction
The Vibrating Poker
 Use of the Poker

• Concrete should be pokered in layers

– Overlap should be at least 100mm
• Whole length of poker should be in the concrete
– Keeps the bearings cool
• Leave inserted for the correct length of time
– Until air bubbles stop appearing
– Over compaction better than under compaction
• Ensure that poker does not touch formwork or
reinforcement
• Do not use the poker to make the concrete flow
Use of the Poker
Use of the Poker
Use of the Poker
 Use of the Poker

The wrong way!

 Use of the Poker

The correct way

External Vibrator

For congested
rebar
Difficult access
for pokers
Vibrating Screed
Razorback

• Slabs up to 300mm
• Can be 30m wide
• Not often seen now
• Now flood pour and laser
screed
– Vibrates at depth
Counter Rotating Beam

• Bunyon tube
• Slab thickness
150mm?
• Surface finisher
only?
• Combine with
poker
 Self-Compacting Concrete

• SCC is still concrete

– Just heavily modified
• Admixtures
• High cement content
– Flows by itself without segregation
– Does not require energy input (compaction) to reduce
entrapped air
– Ideal for congested reinforcement areas
– More expensive but less labour to place
Stage 1 – Concrete Practice
1.14.00 Curing
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.14.01 Define curing and state effects of curing on

properties of concrete
• 1.14.02 List factors affecting curing and state effects of
each
• 1.14.03 List and compare curing methods available,
including special measures for extreme conditions
• 1.14.04 Select suitable curing methods for given situations
 Curing

•Curing is
absolutely
critical!
 Curing

• Protection from moisture loss - Summer

– Maximise cement hydration
– Development of strength and durability
– Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture
• Plastic – cracking
• Hardened - dusting
• Maintaining temperature - Winter
– Temperature gradient – thermal cracking
– Resisting frost damage
Curing concrete with Polythene
Curing Concrete Cubes with Hessian
Spray on Curing Compound
 Duration of Curing

• Mass concrete can continue to cure internally for long

periods of time, one of the best examples of this is the
Hoover Dam
 Duration of Curing
The last concrete was placed in 1935, in total almost 3.5million m3
of concrete was placed,
- Internally, the concrete in the main defence wall is still curing
TODAY!
 General Curing Methods

• Wetting – spray, ponding

• Covering – retain water, keep warm
• Formwork (temporary) – insulation, prevent
evaporation
• Formwork (permanent) – such as insulated
concrete formwork, crinkly tin etc
 Concluding Summary
• Failure to adequately cure concrete will result in concrete
that has a weak friable surface layer, prone to dusting and
de-lamination
– Concrete will also be more susceptible to early age / thermal
cracking and reinforcement corrosion
• Other important aspects of durability and service life will
be compromised and the concrete may no longer be fit for
purpose
• Incorrectly cured test specimens yield invalid depressed
results
• Curing of “GOOD” concrete is essential to maximise its
performance
 Stage 1 – Concrete Practice
1.15.00 Formwork and falsework
 Stage 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.15.01 Define the terms ‘formwork’ and ‘falsework’ as

applied to concrete construction
• 1.15.02 Identify safe and unsafe conditions of formwork
and propping from visual inspection or description
• 1.15.03 State the checks of formwork and falsework
necessary before concreting
• 1.15.04 Identify stability and instability of formwork
during concreting
• 1.15.05 State the factors affecting formwork striking times
 Formwork and Falsework

• Formwork - mould that shapes and supports the

fresh concrete
• Falsework is the structural support for the
formwork
 Planning and Safety

• Planning key aspect, whether visual concrete or

not and should enable
– High productivity
– Good quality
– High safety levels
• Safety should be fully integrated into planning
process
 Planning and Safety

• Structural safety of falsework & formwork

– Erection process
– During construction loading
– Dismantling process
• Horizontal formwork
– Must carry considerable weight of fresh concrete
– Dynamic loads from surcharges
– Shock loading
• Vertical
– Potential considerable pressure from fresh concrete
 Safety

• Existing damage
– Deformed formwork
– Bent props
– Damaged pins
• Missing or incorrect elements
– Including early removal
• Ground support
– Soft or inadequate baseplates
– Nearby excavations
– Nearby plant vibration
 Safety

• Formwork and falsework must be correctly

designed by a suitable professional
– Many loads involved
• Concrete pressure in-situ
• Placement pressure
• Wind load
• Self weight
– Adequate safety measures for workers
• Guard rails/sheeting
• Toe boards
• Hatch covers
 Safety

• Regular inspections
– Before and
– During
• Appropriate person
– Signed off
 Safety Checks

• Erected according to the drawing/all members

are aligned and levelled
• Restrained against movement in all directions
• Bolts and wedges are secured against loosening
• The correct number of ties is used, in the correct
position and tight
 Safety Checks

• All cast-in fixings and inserts securely fixed and

in the correct position
• Stop ends must be fitted properly
• Joints sealed to prevent grout loss
– Prevent honeycombing
• Appropriate and correct dosage of release agent
is applied
 Stability

• Concrete is a heavy liquid

– Density approx 2300-2400kg/m3
• Significant pressures during placement and in-
situ
– Dependent on height
– Dependent on concrete type – SCC higher pressures
• Need to maintain stability
– Deflection - bracing
– Spread – tie bolts (number/placement)
– Complete failure - props
 Striking Times

• Many factors affect striking times

– Generally need 5MPa to prevent concrete plucking and
susceptibility to frost
– Element type – beams/slabs later than columns/walls
– Cement type – additions
– Temperature – colder = slower
• Accelerated curing
• Early age thermal cracking
– Mix proportions – rate of early strength gain
• Particularly admixtures
– Requirement to maintain consistent striking – colour
variation
Stage 1 – Concrete Practice
1.16.00 Surface finish
 Stage 1 1 Learning Objectives

• 1.16.01 Describe methods for finishing the top surface of

concrete
• 1.16.02 Name common types of release agent, describe
their properties and outline methods of storage and
application
• 1.16.03 List the factors affecting the appearance of
formed concrete surfaces
Bull/Skip Float
Brush Finish
Brush Finish
Brush Finish
Brush Finishes
Hand Tamped
Hand Tamped
 Dragged Finishes

• Artificial turf - 1.5-3mm deep

• Tined metal rake – 3-6mm depth
• Hessian/Burlap – 0.5-1mm deep
 Unformed Finishes

• Power floated
– After the surface has been levelled, the surface is
power-floated to smooth and close the previously
levelled concrete surface after it has stiffened
sufficiently - about three hours after laying
– Rotating circular disc attachment or large flat
individual blades
– Not highly polished and gives characteristic swirl marks
with a sandpaper/gritty texture to the surface
 Unformed Finishes

• Power trowelled
– First power float
– Delay to allow excess surface moisture to evaporate,
the slab surface is further smoothed and made dense
with a power trowel
– Smooth, polished appearance
– Power trowel has tilted individual blades that are
smaller than the power float
– For extra hardness (industrial) use dry shake
 Power Finishes

Trowelled

Floated
Dry Shake
 Grinding

Grinding for
Terrazzo finish
 Exposed Aggregate

• Exposure by washing and brushing

• Use of surface retarders
• Abrasive blasting of concrete
• Specialised
– Acid etching
– Grinding and polishing
Exposed Aggregate
 Abrasive Blasting

• Brush blast finish – immediate surface of concrete abraded

– Concrete fully hardened
• Light abrasive-blast finish - sufficient just to reveal the edges
of some of the coarse aggregate particles
– 3-7 days
• Medium abrasive-blast finish - more of the coarse aggregate
is exposed but it is still basically a flat surface
– 2-4 days
• Heavy abrasive-blast finish - matrix is cut away to about a
third of the depth of the coarse aggregate
– 1-2 days
 Abrasive Blasting

• Range of different abrasive grits

– Fine - 0.2–0.7mm for cleaning
– Medium - 0.2–1.5mm for light blasting
– Coarse - 1.5–2.5mm for heavy blasting
• Should be sharp, hard, dense and tough
• Should not stain the concrete
• Safety precautions
– Noise, vibration, ppe
Abrasive Blasting
 Etching

Shallow acid etch

Normal acid etch

Deep acid etch

 Imprinted Finishes

• Typically driveways, paths and patios

– Not suitable for medium-high speed traffic as uneven finish
• Patterns
– Most popular stone, cobbles, brick
• Lay concrete and apply colour surface hardener (liquid or
powder)
• Imprint pattern with textured mat or roller
• Seal surface after hardening
• May be used with stencils or other techniques
Imprinted Finishes
 Release Agents

• Release agent influence on the appearance of concrete is

significant
• Not all are appropriate for visual concrete
• Release agent should:
– Ensure a clean and easy release, with no damage to the concrete or
formwork
– Maximise the number of uses of the form
– Reduce blow-holes and imperfections
– Be suitable for the expected weather and site conditions
– Have no adverse chemical or physical effect on; the form face,
concrete surface, subsequent treatments (e.g. curing compounds),
the environment or the workforce
 Release Agents

• Objective in applying a release agent is to achieve a thin,

uniform and complete coating
• Excess can cause blow-holes, retardation, dusting and
staining
• If release agent is applied too soon before concreting, film
may accumulate dust from the site
• Important for the formwork to be as clean as possible
– Free from splashes of extraneous oils or greases and tying wire
• Equipment used must also be clean and not be used for any
other kind of work
 Release Agents

Description Remarks Method of

application
Neat oils – barrier Not recommended for visual Spray or soft brush
concrete. Encourages the formation
of blow-holes
Oils with surfactants – General-purpose release agents for Spray or soft brush
barrier all types of formwork including
steel.
Mould cream Rarely used. Mix thoroughly before
emulsions (water in oil use; do not dilute.
with a surfactant) – Brush or squeegee.
barrier Avoid using when
there is a risk of
freezing
Water-soluble Not recommended for visual Spray or soft brush
emulsions (oil in concrete.
water) – barrier
 Release Agents
Description Remarks Method of
application
Chemical release The most popular release agent at Spray or swab (not
agents (chemical present brush)
compounds in a thin
oil) – reactive
Barrier paints (paints, For preparatory treatment only. Not In accordance with
varnishes and other recommended for use without a manufacturers’
impermeable release agent. recommendations,
coatings) - other ideally in factory.
Other specialist These include silicones and waxes In accordance with
release agents – other for special applications. Release manufacturers’
agents based on vegetable oil recommendations.
(VERA) have been developed.
Surface retarder – Applied to produce exposed Spray, brush etc
other aggregate finishes
 Appearance of Formed Finishes

• Factors affecting
– Formwork material (porosity)/pattern
– Release agent type/amount
– Striking time of formwork – later = darker
– Materials used in the concrete – cement type/fine
aggregate
– Placing of concrete – cold joints/sand runs etc
– Compaction of concrete - honeycombing
– Curing and protection – major influence
• Further finish procedures – acid wash etc
 Appearance of Formed Finishes

• Inherent blemishes
– Blowholes
– Colour variation
• Avoidable blemishes
– Honeycombing
– Aggregate bridging
– Deflections etc etc
 Viewing Distance

• Colour differences may be seen from a long way away

• Surface texture and characteristics seen from closer
• Assess the quality from the distance normally seen
– Take account of lighting conditions in service
• Most external surfaces viewing distance typically 3m
• External surfaces where people close to structure viewing
distance typically 1m
• Internal and entrance surfaces viewing distance typically
1m
• Upper floors etc where people can not approach may well
be much higher
 Managing Perceptions

• Visual concrete is not painted plasterboard!

• Some departure from perfection is inevitable (inherent in
the material)!
– Vertical surfaces will have some blow-holes
– Colour will not be absolutely uniform
• What is the attainable standard that is ‘reasonably’
possible?
• Is the final result ‘reasonable’ to all parties?
• What do parties define as ‘reasonable’ ?
– Causes disagreement between designer and contractor
 Managing Perceptions

• Biggest problem is the subjective interpretation of a written

specification
– Eg. ‘The surface shall be smooth and blemish free’…….
– Exacerbated by differing specifications in common use
• Blemishes
– Inherent blemish – likely occurrence even when all expected good
practice has been carried out
– Avoidable blemish – a blemish that could reasonably have been
prevented with appropriate practice

• The appearance will change over time

– Differing times of year
– Weathering – reducing impact of variation