Languages in Variation and

Languages in Contact

This chapter explores the unique speech

patterns of individuals, highlighting how each
person's way of speaking can vary even when
using the same language. It examines how
these individual speech patterns are influenced
by various factors, including regional dialects,
vocabulary choices, grammatical structures,
and pronunciation features. Although people
may speak the same language, differences in
their speech can arise due to personal, social,
and contextual factors.

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 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
Discussion: CULTURE, AND SOCIETY

An idiolect refers to the unique speech pattern of an individual, encompassing their

distinctive use of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and voice quality. This individual
speech variety is why we can often identify people by their voice alone, even without visual
cues. For instance, we might recognize a friend's voice over the phone or identify familiar
television newscasters solely through their voice.

Key Components of Idiolects:

1. Voice Quality (Timber): Voice quality, or timber, is influenced by the anatomy of the vocal tract,
including the vocal cords, larynx, and other parts. This aspect of speech is largely determined by
physical characteristics that are beyond an individual's control, though features such as tempo and
loudness can be adjusted to some extent.
2. Pronunciation: The way words are pronounced can vary greatly between individuals, contributing to
their unique speech patterns. Pronunciation may change over time due to factors like age and shifts in
linguistic habits.
3. Grammar and Vocabulary Usage: Each person has a distinctive way of using grammar and choosing
words. These elements of speech reflect personal preferences and can vary based on the context of
communication. For instance, someone might use formal language in a job interview while opting for
casual language in a conversation with friends.
4. Voice Features: Elements such as pitch range, tempo, and loudness can be controlled and modified to
some extent, but these features also contribute to an individual's idiolect.

42 Variability in Idiolects

Age-Related Changes Contextual Variations

As individuals age, changes People often adapt their

in vocal anatomy and shifts idiolects based on the
in linguistic preferences can context of communication.
alter voice quality and For example, the language
speech patterns. used in a professional
setting may differ
significantly from that used
in casual conversation.

Dialects

Dialects are variations of a language spoken by groups of people who share common
geographic, social, or economic characteristics. These variations can be observed in vocabulary,
pronunciation, and grammatical features. When a group of speakers has enough in common with
one another in these aspects, their collective speech pattern is referred to as a dialect. A dialect is a specific
form of a language spoken by members of a particular regional, ethnic, or social group. It represents a subset

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 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
of a language that is distinguishable from other dialects within the same language. Dialects are mutually
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
intelligible forms of a language, meaning speakers of different dialects can generally understand each other,
though the degree of mutual intelligibility can vary.

Mutual Intelligibility refers to the extent to which speakers of different dialects can understand one
another. For example, dialects of the same language are usually mutually intelligible to varying degrees. The
boundaries between what constitutes a dialect and what constitutes a separate language can sometimes be
ambiguous. Experiments have attempted to quantify mutual intelligibility, but defining clear-cut boundaries
between dialects and languages can be complex. For instance, in the Iroquoian language family, intelligibility
testing revealed different results depending on the threshold used to define distinct languages versus dialects.
For instance, how a Filipino from Luzon might interact with someone from Visayas or Mindanao, and the role
of dialects in preserving cultural identity.

English, due to its widespread use across various regions, exhibits significant dialectal diversity. For
instance, a native speaker of American English may find it difficult to understand a speaker of Cockney, a
dialect from London's East End, despite both being forms of English. This illustrates how dialects can vary
considerably even within a single language. Style in English, due to its widespread use across various regions,
exhibits significant dialectal diversity. For instance, a native speaker of American English may find it difficult
to understand a speaker of Cockney, a dialect from London's East End, despite both being forms of English.
This illustrates how dialects can vary considerably even within a single language.

Styles and Language Contact

Stylistic Variation refers to the different ways language is used depending on context, social setting, and
the relationship between speakers. This variation can be observed at multiple levels:

1. Lexical Variation: Differences in word choice can reflect stylistic variations. For example, using
"gumshoe" instead of "detective" or "auto" instead of "car" can signal different levels of formality or
familiarity.
2. Phonological Variation: Pronunciation can vary significantly based on style. For instance, the
casual pronunciation of "butter" as [ˈbʌɾər] with a flap [ɾ] versus the more formal pronunciation with
a dental [t] [ˈbʌtər] reflects stylistic differences.
3. Morphological Variation: Changes in word structure or form can indicate style. For example, in
casual speech, "Who are you taking to lunch?" might be used instead of the more formal "Whom are
you taking to lunch?"
4. Syntactic Variation: Sentence structure can also vary. Casual speech might use "Wanna eat now?"
whereas formal speech would use "Do you want to eat now?"

Standard
44 vs. Non-Standard Varieties:

• Standard Language: Varieties of language that are used in formal contexts, carry social prestige,
and are considered correct according to grammatical norms. For instance, Standard British English,
often known as Received Pronunciation, is used in public schools, formal broadcasts, and serious
public occasions.
• Non-Standard or Substandard Varieties: These are varieties that do not adhere strictly to formal
norms and may be used in more relaxed or informal situations. Despite their status, these varieties
are valid forms of communication within their respective contexts.

Martin Joos' Five Speech Styles: Martin Joos (1907-1978) identified five distinct speech styles in his
dialect of American English:

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 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
1. Frozen: Highly formal and often used in ritualistic or ceremonial contexts. It’s rarely used in
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
everyday conversation.
2. Formal: Used in professional or formal settings, with a clear structure and adherence to grammatical
norms.
3. Consultative: A style used in more interactive settings, such as business or academic environments,
where some level of formality is maintained but interaction is more personal.
4. Casual: Common in everyday conversations with friends and family, characterized by relaxed
grammar and informal vocabulary.
5. Intimate: Used among close family and friends, with a high degree of personal and private
communication.

Language Contact and Its Consequences:

Languages have been in contact throughout human history due to trade, migration, war, and other factors.
This contact can result in:

1. Language Death: When a language ceases to be spoken, often due to speakers adopting another
language.
2. Language Development: New languages or dialects can emerge from the blending of different
linguistic influences.
3. Language Mixing: Contact between languages can lead to the creation of mixed languages or hybrid
forms.

Loanwords and Lexical Borrowing:

• Direct Borrowing: When a new item or concept is introduced into a culture, its name may be
borrowed directly from the language of the source culture. Examples include "ukulele" from
Hawaiian, "gumbo" from Bantu, and "algebra" from Arabic.
• Bidirectional Exchange: Language contact often results in mutual borrowing. For instance, English
has borrowed many words from French, such as "rendezvous" and "lingerie," especially following
the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, which led to a significant French influence on English
vocabulary.

Pidgins

Pidgins are simplified languages that develop when speakers of mutually unintelligible languages
45 come into
contact and need a means of communication for specific, often limited, purposes, such as trade. They
typically emerge in multilingual settings where individuals must quickly find a common ground for
communication.

Characteristics of Pidgins:

1. Limited Vocabulary: Pidgins have a restricted range of words because they are created for specific,
practical functions rather than for everyday, complex communication.
2. Reduced Grammar: The grammatical structures of pidgins are simplified compared to the
languages from which they are derived. This makes them easier to learn and use rapidly. Features
such as inflections, case markers, and tenses are often minimized or absent.
3. Functional Purpose: Pidgins generally serve specific purposes, such as trade or basic
communication, and are not used as native or first languages. They are often created to fulfill
immediate communication needs and may disappear when those needs no longer exist.

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4. Short-lived Existence: Pidgins often emerge suddenly in response to a communication need and
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
may vanish just as quickly when their purpose is no longer relevant. Their existence might last from
a few years to a few decades, rarely extending beyond a century.
5. Lexical Influence: The vocabulary of a pidgin is typically derived from one of the contact
languages. For example, English-based pidgins are common due to historical British colonialism and
trade interactions.

Example of Pidgin Use:

A notable example is Melanesian Tok Pisin, which is based on English and used in Papua New Guinea.
Here’s a comparison of the opening lines of Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar in English and Tok Pisin:

• English: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise
him."
• Tok Pisin: "Pren, man bolong Rom, Wantok, harim nau. Mi kam tasol long plantim Kaesar. Mi
noken beiten longen."

In Tok Pisin:

• "Pren" and "mi" are simplified forms of "friends" and "me."

• "Harim nau" translates to "hear now," reflecting a more direct expression.
• "Plantim" is derived from "plant," used metaphorically for "bury."
• "Noken" means "cannot," simplifying the verbal negation.

Pidgin Structure and Adaptability:

Pidgins feature structural simplicity, which aids in cross-cultural communication with minimal effort. They
often use repeated morphemes for emphasis and simplified syntactic constructions. Despite their simplicity,
pidgins have their own rules and structures and adapt to new contexts as needed.

Historical Context: Historically, pidgins like Sabir, a medieval lingua franca based on Romance languages,
illustrate
46 how pidgins serve as fundamental tools for communication across diverse linguistic backgrounds.
Although pidgins may appear similar in their basic structures, they vary according to the lexifying languages
that contribute their vocabulary.

Pidgins vs. Broken Languages: It is essential to recognize that pidgins are not "broken" languages or
primitive forms of speech. Rather, they are creative linguistic adaptations developed to meet specific social
and communicative needs. Along with creoles, pidgins demonstrate how languages evolve and adapt through
societal interactions and historical circumstances.

From Pidgins to Creoles

Pidginization and Creolization

Pidginization: This process refers to the reduction of a language's grammatical and lexical complexity to
create a pidgin. Pidgins typically arise in multilingual contact situations where speakers of different languages
need a simplified means of communication for specific purposes, such as trade. Pidginization involves a
limitation in function, vocabulary, and grammar compared to the original languages.

Creolization: As a pidgin becomes more widely used and its role expands beyond its original purpose, it
undergoes creolization. This process involves the pidgin evolving into a creole—a fully developed language

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 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
that becomes the first language of a community. During creolization, the pidgin's vocabulary and syntax are
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
expanded, often incorporating elements from various languages, and it gains greater complexity and depth.

Example: Tok Pisin

In Papua New Guinea, Tok Pisin exemplifies this transition from pidgin to creole. Originally an English-based
pidgin with limited use, Tok Pisin has grown to become one of the country's official languages and a lingua
franca for approximately 1 million people. It has evolved into a creole spoken natively by about 20,000
households.

Vocabulary and Grammar in Tok Pisin:

• Vocabulary: Approximately three-fourths of Tok Pisin vocabulary is derived from English, with the
remainder coming from indigenous languages and other sources like German.
• Grammar: Tok Pisin features simplified grammar compared to English. For example:
o Personal pronouns like "mi" (I/me), "yu" (you), and "em" (he/she) serve multiple functions.
o Possession is indicated by the particle "bilong," and transitive verbs often end in "-im,"
converting adjectives into causative verbs.
o Example translations: "Mi kukim kaikai bilong mi" (I cook food), "Wanpela lek bilong mi i
bruk" (One of my legs is broken), "Ol i kapsaitim bensin" (They spilled the gasoline).

Tok Pisin in Use:

• Road Safety Handbook: An English paragraph and its Tok Pisin translation demonstrate
47 the
pidgin's effectiveness and its growing role in official and everyday contexts.

Decreolization

Creoles can undergo a process called decreolization, where they shift towards the standard language from
which they were derived. This often occurs among speakers in urban settings or those striving for social
mobility. For instance, Jamaican Creole has a spectrum of usage from the basilect (most divergent from
standard English) to the acrolect (approaching standard English).

Global Examples and Trends

Contact Languages: Besides pidgins and creoles, other methods of linguistic contact include:

• Lingua Francas: Languages adopted for communication among speakers of different native
languages. For instance, English served as a lingua franca in British India and is used among Native
American tribes in the United States.
• Artificial Languages: Languages created for international communication, such as Esperanto.
Despite its efforts, English remains the dominant global language due to its widespread use and
acceptance.

Japanese English: In Japan, English has significantly influenced the language, with a large number of
loanwords and created terms (wa-sei-eigo). Examples include "furaido poteto" (French fries) and "famicon"
(family computer). These loanwords reflect evolving cultural norms and attitudes toward individualism in
Japan.

The World of Languages

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 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
Estimating Linguistic Diversity
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
The exact number of languages spoken worldwide is uncertain, with estimates typically around 6,900
(Gordon 2005). This figure includes Creole languages but not pidgins or languages that have disappeared
over time. Several factors contribute to the difficulty in providing an accurate count:

1. Unexplored Regions: Some languages are yet to be documented, especially in remote areas like the
equatorial rainforests of South America, Africa, and New Guinea.
2. Endangered Languages: Many languages are spoken by only a few individuals and may soon
vanish without a trace.
3. Dialect vs. Language: Determining whether dialects are sufficiently distinct to be considered
separate languages involves both linguistic and sociocultural factors. For example, Czechs and
Slovaks can understand each other's languages easily, yet Czech and Slovak are considered separate
languages due to their distinct standards and literary traditions. Conversely, dialects spoken in more
isolated regions might be classified as separate languages based on their mutual intelligibility.
4. Dialect Count: If one were to count all the dialects of the world's languages, the number would
48 likely reach into the tens of thousands.

Linguistic Diversity and Population

While 6,900 languages is a significant number, the distribution of speakers is highly uneven:

• Few Dominant Languages: A small number of languages are spoken by most of the global
population. These languages have historically been more successful, often due to conquest, historical
events, or other circumstances.
• Linguistic Structures and Cultures: Each language represents a unique system of communication
with its own complex structure, reflecting the cultural worldview of its speakers.

Discussion:

Language, Social Class, and Identity

One of the most obvious manifestations of social class is language – perhaps more than
personal possessions, style, or place of residence. For our purposes, we will reduce class
distinctions to differences in economics, education, familial prestige, and some other
ways people might rank themselves in society. Speech differences can characterize
different economic or social statuses. In the most extreme situations, such as castes in
India, hereditary social classes restrict the association of their members with members of other
classes, and this is often reflected in language. In addition, similar linguistic stratification can be found
even in places where class differences are less pronounced. In the US, William Labov conducted a well-
known study of sociolinguistic–linguistic change understood in the context of the society in which it
occurs.

Language and Gender

J.K. Chambers, in this textbook on sociolinguistic theory (1995:102), states categorically that ―in
virtually all sociolinguistic studies that include a sample of males and females, there is unequivocal
evidence that women use fewer stigmatized and non-standard variants than do men of the same social
group in the same circumstances‖. Although admitting specific cultural differences, he claims this finding
also holds true cross-culturally.

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Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to
Linguistic Anthropology
 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
CULTURE,
First, a few general remarks AND
about the term SOCIETY
―GENDER as it is used here. Among the several
senses of this term is SEX – one of the two forms of most organisms that are characterized by
differences in reproductive organs and related structures. The use of the term GENDER rather than
SEX avoids the misleading association with sexuality. However, it is mainly acknowledged that gender
is a social construct likely to vary from one society to the next or even from one social group to
another within an embracing society or culture.

The choice of words by men and women varies according to the occasion, the type of
audience present, and various other circumstances. Profane or coarse speech is less likely to be
heard when children or people held in respect are within earshot, and a job interview calls for a
more considered vocabulary than a casual conversation between two close friends. Nevertheless,
some lexical differences between men's and women's speech are relatively common and can be
illustrated in American English. Certain words are used by women much more frequently 67 than by
men. Among such words are expressive adjectives that convey approval or admiration – for example,
delightful, spectacular, charming, divine, lovely, fascinating, and sweet – and fashionable color names
– for example, beige, chartreuse, fuchsia, magenta, and mauve.

Men are much more likely to phrase their approval or liking for something by using a neutral
adjective such as fine, good, or great, and reinforcing it, if necessary, with such an adverb as damn.
As a rule, men's color vocabulary is much less discriminating and, hence, somewhat poorer than
women's.

Other differences between the speech behavior of men and women were suggested.

For example:

1. When women talk to other women on a social basis, topics are about relationships, social
issues, house and family, workplace, and personal and family finances.
2. When men talk with other men, topics are work, recreational sports, and WOMEN.

In other research, women interviewees were more cooperative and polite, and offered more
information than men.
SOCIAL POWER THEORY goes back to the 1980s when William M. O'Barr and Bowman
K. Atkins (1998) studied how witnesses speak in court. They studied courtroom witness testimony
for two and a half years, examining ten speech differences between men and women. They
concluded that speech patterns were ―neither characteristic of all women nor limited only to women.
Instead, they found the women who used the lowest frequency of women‘s language traits had
unusually high social or economic status – well-educated professionals with middle-class
backgrounds. A similar pattern was found for men – men with high social or economic status
spoke with few women‘s language traits. O‘Barr and Atkins argued that it was power and status,
rather than gender that accounted for these differences. A powerful position that ―may derive
from either social standing in the larger society and/or status accorded by the court‖ allowed speakers
– both male and female – certain linguistic advantages.
Some scholars argue that women‘s language is also significantly shaped by the style of
COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY. For example, Jane Hill (1987) studied the social expectations,
gender roles, power differences, and language in Malinche Volcano Communities near Mexico City.
She found that local women changed their native language, Nahuatl to be ―more Spanish. By the
mid-1970s, many Nahuatl-speaking men were earning relatively good wages in Mexico City, where
Spanish was the elite language. The men saw Spanish as the language of capitalism and hegemonic

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Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to
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 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
power, but they used Nahuatl to maintain local social solidarity. The women remained behind to
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
take care of the fap7aw8-qqqqrm field. They had the responsibility of passing the Nahautl language
on to the children. Understanding the importance of maintaining the language of their ethnic group
but also wishing to show their appreciation of modern things and education, the women began to
speak a form of Nahuatl highly influenced by Spanish pronunciation.

Language and Nationality

In the last decades of the 21st century, many scholars argued that “ethnicity is not always the survival
of cultural diversity born of geographical and social isolation, but maybe the outcome of intensive interaction, a
constellation of practices that evolve to channel complex social relations”. 68
As part of contemplating, we ask, "Is speaking the same language sufficient grounds for people
to establish a nation? Should all people in the same nation speak the same language?” if the answer to
these questions is NO – and probably most people in the 21st century would agree – what should be
the status of ―minority‖ languages in multilingual societies? Because of the symbolic value of
language, language choice, maintenance, and shift are some of any community's most important
personal and political social issues.
In this discussion, we will focus on language and the nation-state. We will look at how the
people use the symbolic value of languages to pursue political power and ends, and foster
consciousness among members of the group. We will look at two of four case studies: INDIA,
SPAIN, Czech Republic, and Canada.

INDIA. Occupying an area only one-third as large as the US but with the second largest
population in the world, India is one of the most multilingual countries in the world. What makes
India one of the world's most linguistically diversified nations is that more than 400 languages are
spoken there; they span at least four language families – Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic,
and Tibeto-Burman), as well as some isolates. There are 22 official
―scheduled‖ languages recognized in the constitution.

How does India, a federal republic, deal administratively with such a vast collection of languages?
On a regional basis, eastern India is dominated by three Indo-European languages – Bengali, Oriya,
and Assamese -, western India by two – Maratji and Gujarati – northern India by four – Hindi and Urdu,
Panjabi and Kashmiri, and southern India by four languages of the Dravidian language family – Telugu,
Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. The principal official language in six of the 25 states of the republic
as well as of the country at the federal level is Hindi. However, as long as many non-Hindi-speaking
citizens are reluctant to accept Hindi, English serves as the associate national language and as a lingua
franca acceptable in both Hindi-speaking north and the south.
In a country where many languages are spoken but do not all enjoy the same degree of
prestige, bilingualism, multilingualism, and diglossia are of common of common occurrence. For
interethnic communication of an informal nature, Hindi or Urdu is used to a varying degree
throughout the country. For cultural prestige, there has been some resistance to using Hindi as a
contact language in the Dravidian-speaking part of the country and in Bengal. For formal or written
communication, English-language newspapers and periodicals accounted for 26 and 20 percent of
the total published, and those in English had the highest circulation.

Today, more than a half-century after India gained independence, knowledge of English is
still considered indispensable for high government positions, and although only a very small
percentage of the population speaks and reads English, Indians with knowledge of English tend to
be the cultural, economic, and political leaders. 69

Throughout much of the world, dialectal differences have tended to diminish rapidly in

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Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to
Linguistic Anthropology
 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
recent decades as a result of the mass media, education, and mobility. This has not happened in
CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
India, where caste differences are effectively symbolized by speech differences. As long as the old
and well-established social hierarchy persists, linguistic differences serve a useful function and are
likely to be retained.

SPAIN. Although the official language of Spain is Castilian Spanish, some dozen other
languages are spoken in the county. Catalan and Basque are two of the most important minority
languages, and they are spoken by 15% and 1.4% of the population respectively. Both are important
because of the issues of nationalism and ethnic pride associated with each.

Euskara or Basque, is the language of the Basque people who inhabitant northeast Spain and
southwest France. There are about 650,000 Basque speakers in Spain and some 100,000 in France.
The language is an isolate, with only disputed affiliations with other languages. It has five major
dialects. Under the language policy of the Franco Regime (1939- 1975), from 1937 until the mid-
1950s, it was prohibited to use the Basque language in public. After the Basques regained some
political sovereignty, they were once again allowed to use their language in public. The Royal
Academy of the Basque Language created a standard orthography. Although many Basque speakers
were reluctant to accept such standards at first, Euskara Batua gradually became accepted and is
now used by the Basques at all levels of education.

Unlike Basque, Catalan is a Romance language of the Indo-European family, and shares
85% lexical similarity with Spanish. Its history goes back to the 3rd Century BCE when the Catalonia
area was ruled by Rome. Because of close contact with Rome Catalan developed from a more
modern and more popular form of Latin than did Castilian. Currently about 7 million people in Spain
speak catalan as their first language. It is also spoken in small areas in southwest France, and Sardinia
in Italy.

Right after World War II, the Franco government took severe repressive measures against
Catalan language and culture, partly because of the resistance put up be Catalonia during the
Spanish Civil War. Barcelona, its capital, was then a center of revolutionary leftist activity. Much
of Catalonia‘s prewar autonomy was lost and the public use of the Catalan language was prohibited.
During the latter days of the Franco regime, some folk celebrations and religious observances in
Catalan came to be tolerated. But because of the institutionalized language discrimination, and its
similarity to Spanish, today there are few, if any, monolingual Catalan speakers.

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Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to
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 Code-switching, Code-Mixing,
and Diglossia

This chapter explores the phenomena of

code-switching, code-mixing, and diglossia,
which are prevalent in communities where
multiple dialects and languages coexist.
Speakers in such multilingual settings often
demonstrate varying degrees of proficiency in
these languages, leading to the blending of
linguistic codes. Linguists have developed
specialized terms to describe these
phenomena: code-switching refers to the
practice of alternating between languages or
dialects within a conversation or discourse,
while code-mixing involves the integration of
linguistic elements from multiple languages in
a single utterance or sentence.

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Introduction to Language, Society, & Culture
 Code-Switching, Code-Mixing, and Diglossia
Lessons Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

✓ Define and differentiate between code-switching, code-mixing, and
diglossia;
✓ Identify and analyze examples of code-switching, code-mixing, and
diglossia in various contexts, particularly in the Philippine setting;
and
✓ Understand the implications of these phenomena on communication,
education, and social interactions.

Getting Started: Before diving into the lesson, engage students with a quick
trivia game to assess their pre-existing beliefs about languages. Ask them to
classify the following statements as either "True" or "False":
_________1. Code-switching refers to the insertion of a completely unassimilated word
from another language into one's speech.
_________2. Diglossia involves the use of two distinct varieties of a language for
different functions within the same community.
_________3. Code-mixing is when a speaker switches between languages at the
sentence boundaries.

Discussion:

The terminology concerning code-switching, code-mixing, and

diglossia has a rich history within linguistics. Einar Haugen (1956:40), often
credited with coining the term "code-switching," initially defined it as the
incorporation of an unassimilated word from another language into bilingual
speech. Carol Myers-Scotton (1993:3) expanded this definition to encompass
the selection of linguistic forms from different varieties within the same
conversation. Eyamba Bokamba (1989:3) further differentiated between code-switching and
code-mixing: code-switching involves mixing words, phrases, and sentences from distinct
grammatical systems across sentence boundaries, while code-mixing involves embedding
various linguistic units such as affixes, words, phrases, and clauses within a single utterance,
often in a cooperative communicative context where participants must reconcile different
linguistic inputs.

However, scholars do not always rigidly adhere to these distinctions, with some using
"code-switching" broadly to encompass all forms of language blending. In bilingual contexts,
individuals proficient in two languages, A and B, typically have access to three systems: their
separate languages and the blended language arising from mixing and switching during
conversation. These practices serve various communicative functions, such as building
solidarity among speakers who share these linguistic codes.

36 Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to

Linguistic Anthropology
 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
Example, In FilipinoCULTURE, AND
conversations, speakers mightSOCIETY
switch between Filipino and
English, for instance, "Kumusta na? I heard you got a new job!" This can be analyzed as code-
switching because both languages are used in the same conversation.

Diglossia, another linguistic phenomenon, involves the use of two distinct varieties of
a language for different functions. It refers to the use of two distinct varieties of a language
within the same community. The colloquial or low variety is used in everyday conversation,
while the high variety is reserved for formal contexts like education, law, and literature.
Typically, a colloquial or low variety is used in everyday informal settings, while a formal or
high variety is employed in formal contexts such as education, administration, law, religion,
and literature. The colloquial variety is often acquired first and used for casual interactions with
family, friends, and in popular media, while the formal variety carries prestige and is taught in
educational settings. Diglossia, another linguistic phenomenon, involves the use of two distinct
varieties of a language for different functions. Typically, a colloquial or low variety is used in
everyday informal settings, while a formal or high variety is employed in formal contexts such
as education, administration, law, religion, and literature. The colloquial variety is often
acquired first and used for casual interactions with family, friends, and in popular media, while
the formal variety carries prestige and is taught in educational settings. In the Philippines for
example, the use of Filipino (colloquial) in informal settings and formal English in academic
or governmental contexts can be considered a form of diglossia. For example, everyday
conversations with family might be in Filipino, while official documents and academic papers
are in English.

Application:

Read and analyze the given examples below.

1. Given the sentence "Naku, I forgot to bring my wallet again!" identify if this is an
example of code-switching or code-mixing.
2. Describe a situation in the Philippines where diglossia is evident. What are the high and
low varieties used?
3. Compare the functions of code-switching and diglossia in the context of Filipino
language use.
4. Analyze the following conversation: "Hindi ko alam ang sagot, but I’ll try my best." Is
this an example of code-switching or code-mixing? Explain your answer.
5. How might understanding code-switching, code-mixing, and diglossia be beneficial for
educators in a multilingual classroom in the Philippines?

28

Module in ELS 109 – Introduction to Language, Society, & Culture

Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to
Linguistic Anthropology
37
 Assessment: Answer the following.
True or False: Identify if the statement is TRUE or FALSE. Write your answer
on the space provided before the number.
_________1 Code-switching refers to the insertion of a completely unassimilated word from
another language into one's speech.
_________2. Diglossia involves the use of two distinct varieties of a language for different
functions within the same community.
_________3. Code-mixing is when a speaker switches between languages at the sentence
boundaries.
_________4. In diglossia, the colloquial variety is often used in formal settings.
_________5. Code-mixing often occurs in informal conversations where participants blend
linguistic units from different languages.
_________6. Code-switching and code-mixing are essentially the same phenomena.
_________7. A person practicing diglossia may use different languages for different domains
of life, such as work and home.
_________8. Code-switching can be used to express different social identities within a
conversation.
_________9. Code-mixing involves the use of different grammatical systems within the same
sentence or conversation.
_________10. Understanding code-switching, code-mixing, and diglossia can help educators
create more effective teaching strategies in multilingual classrooms.

Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is code-switching?
a) Embedding linguistic units from two different grammatical systems within
the same conversation.
b) Using two distinct varieties of a language for different contexts.
c) Alternating between two or more languages during a conversation.
d) Mixing affixes and words from different languages within a single sentence.

2. Code-mixing involves:
a) Switching languages at the boundary of sentences.
b) Using different varieties of the same language for formal and informal
contexts.
c) Combining elements from two languages within a single sentence.
d) Switching between languages depending on the social context.

3. In diglossia, which variety is typically used in formal contexts?

a) Low variety
b) Colloquial variety
c) High variety
d) Informal variety

4. Which of the following is an example of code-switching?

a) "Magandang umaga! I hope you’re doing well."
b) "She has a beautiful voice; I really like her singing."
c) "Naku, I forgot to buy groceries again!"

38 Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to

Linguistic Anthropology
 Introduction to LANGUAGE,
d) CULTURE,
"Je suis fatigué mais je vais bien."AND SOCIETY

5. What is a key characteristic of code-mixing?

a) Using a language exclusively for formal occasions.
b) Alternating between languages in different conversations.
c) Mixing grammatical elements from different languages within a single
conversation.
d) Switching languages based on the interlocutor’s preference.

6. Which scenario best illustrates diglossia?

a) Using Filipino at home and English in school.
b) Switching between English and Filipino in a single conversation.
c) Mixing Spanish words into a Filipino conversation.
d) Using various dialects within the same community.

7. In the context of the Philippines, which example is an instance of code-mixing?

a) "Kumusta, I am so happy to see you!"
b) "We will have a meeting at 2 PM."
c) "Saan ka pupunta?"
d) "I love watching teleseryes sa gabi."

8. Which term refers to the practice of using different language varieties for different
social functions?
a) Code-switching
b) Code-mixing
c) Diglossia
d) Language transfer

9. Code-switching can serve to:

a) Reinforce social identities and relationships.
b) Maintain strict language boundaries.
c) Only occur in formal written texts.
d) Avoid using slang or colloquial expressions.

10. Which example demonstrates diglossia?

a) Using English with friends and Filipino with family.
b) Alternating between English and Filipino in a single sentence.
c) Using different dialects of a language in different regions.
d) Switching between languages based on the context of conversation.

Module in ELS 109 – Introduction to Language, Society, & Culture

Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to
39
Linguistic Anthropology
 Reflection

Direction: Indicate the things you have learned in this chapter (knowledge), the things you
have realized and appreciated (values), and the things you have discovered and wanted to do
more (skills). Place these things inside the circular, rectangular, and triangular boxes which
look like a human figure.

Thinks I have learned

(Knowledge)

Thinks I have realized

and discovered
(Values) 14

Thinks I have discovered

and wanted more
(Skills)

40 Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to

Linguistic Anthropology
 Nonverbal
Communication
 Nonverbal Communication
Spoken language – speech – is by far the most
common and important means by which humans
communicate with one another, but it is not the only
one. The many different writing systems used
throughout the world are of tremendous importance
for communication, having in some respects an
advantage over spoken language, especially their
relative permanence.
 Nonverbal Communication
The term ―nonverbal communication, taken
literally refers to the transmission of signals
accomplished by means other than spoken or
written words. Not everyone agrees on what the
term encompasses, and some even question
whether nonverbal communication is definable.
 Nonverbal Communication
This term includes bodily gestures, facial
expressions, spacing, and touch, and smell, as
well as whistle, smoke-signal, and drum
languages, and such optional vocal effects as
those that accompany spoken utterances and can
be considered apart from actual words.
 Nonverbal Communication
This term includes bodily gestures, facial
expressions, spacing, and touch, and smell, as
well as whistle, smoke-signal, and drum
languages, and such optional vocal effects as
those that accompany spoken utterances and can
be considered apart from actual words.
 Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal systems of communication may be divided
into those that are derived from spoken language and
those that are independent of it. Other systems of
communication that are based on speech are drum and
whistle languages which imitate some of the reproducible
distinctive features of the spoken languages along with
which they are used.
 Nonverbal Communication

Another way of classifying nonverbal

communicative systems is according to channel
or the medium by which signals are conveyed.
The channel employed in drum language is
acoustic, whereas sign language or smoke signals
use optical channel.
 Nonverbal Communication
Blind people make use of touch when they feel
the raised dots of the braille system, and those
who are deaf as well as blind may learn to
monitor articulatory movements by placing a
hand on the
speaker‘s face and neck or also known as
TADOMA METHOD.
 Lesson 2
Utilizing
Paralanguage in
Language, Society,
and Culture
 Defining Paralanguage
Paralanguage is a non-verbal elements
of communication used to modify
meaning and convey emotion, such as
tone, pitch, volume, and rate of speech.
Paralanguage includes vocal qualities
(e.g., whispering, shouting), vocalizations
(e.g., sighs, laughter), and silence.
 Components of Paralanguage
Tone: The quality or character of sound.
Example: A warm tone in greetings shows
friendliness.
Pitch: The highness or lowness of the voice.
Example: A high pitch might indicate
excitement, while a low pitch might indicate
seriousness.
 Components of Paralanguage
Volume: The loudness or softness of the
voice. Example: Speaking softly in a church
shows respect.
Rate: The speed at which someone speaks.
Example: Speaking quickly might indicate
urgency or nervousness.
 Components of Paralanguage
Tone: The quality or character of sound. Example: A warm tone
in greetings shows friendliness.
Pitch: The highness or lowness of the voice. Example: A high
pitch might indicate excitement, while a low pitch might indicate
seriousness.
Volume: The loudness or softness of the voice. Example:
Speaking softly in a church shows respect.
Rate: The speed at which someone speaks. Example: Speaking
quickly might indicate urgency or nervousness.
Paralanguage in Filipino
Society and Culture
 Respect and Politeness

In Filipino culture, respectful language is

often accompanied by respectful
paralanguage. For instance, using a soft
and gentle tone when speaking to elders or
authority figures.
When asking for a favor, Filipinos often use a polite tone and volume, saying,
"Puwede po bang humingi ng tulong?"
 Emotion and Intensity

Paralanguage is used to express emotions

and intensity in communication. During
festivals or celebrations, people often speak
loudly and with excitement.

During the Sinulog festival, participants chant and shout with high energy,
reflecting joy and enthusiasm.
 Contextual Use

The context in which communication occurs

influences paralanguage. In formal settings,
such as meetings or presentations, a more
controlled and moderate tone is used.

In a formal meeting, a Filipino speaker might use a steady, calm tone to convey
professionalism and reliability.
 Kinesics

Kinesics is the study of body language. There is no

question that bodily gestures serve as an important
means of communication. Comedians are notably
adept at slanting, canceling, or completely turning
around the meaning of their spoken lines with a well
chosen grimace or gestures of different
communicative content, and professional mimes know
how to move their audiences to tears or laughter
without uttering a single word.
 Proxemics

In the early 1960s, the interdependence between

communication and culture stimulated Edward T. Hall to
develop proxemics, the study of the cultural patterning of
the spatial separation individuals maintain in face-to-face
encounters. The term has subsequently come to embrace
studies concerned with privacy, crowding, territoriality, and
the designing of buildings, private and public, with the view
of meeting the different cultural expectations of their
prospective users.
 Proxemics
According to Hall, the distances individuals maintain from
another depend on the nature of their mutual involvement
and are culture-specific. In the close phase of the intimate
distance, the individuals are close enough to be encircled
by each other‘s arms. All senses are engaged: Each
individual receives the body heat as well as any odor or
scent emanating from the other individual, and the other
person‘s breath is felt; because of the closeness, vision may
be blurred or distorted and speaking is at a minimum. As is
obvious, this narrowest of all interpersonal distance is suited
to love-making, protecting, or comforting.
 Proxemics
Some differences in proxemics and haptic behavior (haptic
behavior relates to the sense of touch) may be noticeable
even among members of the societies who live in close
proximity. Without being acquainted with Hall‘s proxemics
matrix, people are aware when someone encroaches into
their personal zone, or into the zone of someone for whom they
think they have a special claim. Finally, it should be mentioned
that personal space is occasionally modified by the conditions
imposed by the physical situation in which people find
themselves.
 Sign Languages
Signing, that is, communicating manually by sign language of
some kind is undoubtedly at least as old as speech. From the
writings of ancient Greeks and Romans, we know that their deaf
made use of signs. It is, however, reasonable to assume that even
among the earliest humans those who were not able to
communicate orally would have used their hands to make
themselves understood. Sign languages used to the exclusion of
spoken language – for example, by people born deaf – are
referred to as primary. Sign languages found in communities of
speaker-hearers as regular or occasional substitutes for speech
are termed alternate sign languages.
 Sign Languages
If primary sign languages function much like spoken
languages, do they also have duality of patterning, that is,
are they analyzable at two levels of structural units
comparable to phonemes and morphemes? According to
William C. Stokoe Jr. (1960), Ameslan grammar has the same
general form as the grammars of spoken languages. It is
characterized by a small set of contrastive units meaningless
in themselves that combine to form meaningful sign of units,
the morphemes.
 Sign Languages
Chereme refers to a set of positions, configurations, or
motions that function identically in a given sign language.
And each morpheme of a sign language may be defined
according to hand shape, orientation of the palm and
fingers, place of formation, movement and its directions,
point of contact, and other spatial and dynamic features.
Users of Ameslan and other natural sign languages are no
more aware of cheremes than users of spoken English are of
phonemes.