Basic Electrical Engineering

UNIT-1
DC Network Theory
LECTURE-1
 CONTENT
 Concept of Network and Circuit
 Classification of Electrical Network
 Active & Passive Network
 Unilateral & Bilateral Network
 Linear & Non-Linear Network
 Ohm’s Law
 Types of Sources
 Voltage Source
 Ideal Voltage Source
 Practical Voltage Source
 Current Source
 Ideal Current Source
 Practical Current Source
 Source Transformation
Electrical Elements
 Concept of Network and Circuit

Network Circuit

• A combination of various • A combination of various

electric elements like Resistor, electrical elements like
Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor,
source & Current source) etc. Voltage source & Current
in which there may or may not source) etc. in which there is
be close path is called an a close path is called an
electrical network. electrical circuit.
 Classification of Electrical
Network
Based on Based on Based on
Energy Direction Linearity

Active Unilateral Linear

Non
Passive Bilateral
Linear
 Based on Energy

Active Element Passive Element

• An element which can supply • An element which can

or delivered energy is called dissipate or absorbs energy
Active Element. is called Passive Element.

• For e.g.- Voltage Source, • For e.g.- Resistor, Capacitor,

Current Source, Battery, Inductor, Diode (General
Generator, Transistor etc. Purpose Diode)
 Based on Direction

Unilateral Element Bilateral Element

• An element which V-I • An element which V-I

characteristics changes with characteristics does not
change in direction of current changes with change in
is called Unilateral Element direction of current is called
Bilateral Element
• For e.g.- Diode.
• For e.g.- Resistor, Capacitor
and Inductor.
Unilateral Element:-
Bilateral Element:-
 Based on Linearity

Linear Element Non-Linear Element

• An Element which obey the • An Element which does not

principle of Ohm’s law is obey the principle of Ohm’s
called Linear Element or an law is called Non-Linear
element which obey the Element or an element which
principle of superposition and doesn’t obey the principle of
homogeneity is also called superposition and
Linear element. homogeneity is also called
Non-Linear element.
• For e.g.- Resistor, Inductor
and Capacitor. • For e.g.- Diode
 Ohm’s Law

 Statement:-Voltage drop across a

conductor is directly proportional to the
current passing through that elements if
atmospheric condition (temperature,
pressure and humidity etc.) kept constant.
 Ohm’s Law

 Explanation:-

𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐

𝑽𝑹 ∝ 𝑰
△𝑽𝑹
R=
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑹 ∗ 𝑰 △𝑰
 Types of Sources

Voltage Current
Source Source
Ideal Ideal
Voltage Current
Source Source

Practical Practical
Voltage Current
Source Source
 Voltage Source

 Ideal Voltage Source:- It gives constant voltage across its terminals

irrespective of current drawn through its terminals.

𝑽𝑳 𝒐𝒓 𝑽𝒕 (𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆) = 𝑽𝒔 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆)

 Note:- Internal resistance of Ideal Voltage Source is Zero. [𝑹𝑺 = 0]

 Practical Voltage Source:- It doesn’t gives constant voltage and

have some small internal resistances. That’s why It’s terminal voltage
dependent on load current.
𝑩𝒚 𝑲𝑽𝑳: − ↓ 𝑽𝒕 𝒐𝒓 ↓ 𝑽𝑳 = (𝑽𝑺 − ↑ 𝑰𝑳 𝑹𝑺 )
 Current source

 Ideal Current Source:- Source which gives constant Load current at

its terminal irrespective of the load voltage or terminal voltage is
called Ideal Current Source.

𝑰𝑳 (𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕) = 𝑰𝒔 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕)

 Note:- Internal resistance of Ideal Current Source is Infinite. [𝑹𝒔𝒉 = ∞]

 Practical Current Source:- It doesn’t gives constant Load Current

and have very high internal resistances. That’s why It’s Load Current
dependent on Load Voltage or its terminal Voltage.
 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑺

𝑩𝒚 𝑲𝑪𝑳: − 𝑰𝑺 = 𝑰𝒔𝒉 + 𝑰𝑳

𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑺 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉

↑ 𝑽𝑳
↓ 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑺 −
𝑹𝒔𝒉
 Source Transformation

 Voltage Source → Current Source

 For e.g.-
 Source Transformation

 Current Source → Voltage Source

 For e.g.-
LECTURE-2
 CONTENT

 Kirchhoff’s Law
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
 Current Division Rule
 Voltage Division Rule
 Basic Concept Related to Node, Junction, Branch,
Mesh and Loop
Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s
Law

First Law
(Kirchhoff’s
Current Law)

Second Law
(Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law)
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

 Statement:- It is based on “Law of Conservation of Charge.”

It states that the algebraic sum of currents at the junction at any
instant is equal to zero.
𝒌

෍ 𝑰𝒋 = 𝟎
𝒋=𝟏
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 Concept:- It is based on “Law of Conservation of Charge.”

𝒅𝒒𝟏 𝒅𝒒𝟐 𝒅𝒒𝟑 𝒅𝒒𝟒 𝒅𝒒𝟓

+ − − − =0
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒒𝟏 + 𝒅𝒒𝟐 − 𝒅𝒒𝟑 − 𝒅𝒒𝟒 − 𝒅𝒒𝟓 = 𝟎

 i.e. number of electron per second enter the node is equal to

the number of electron leave the node.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

 Application:- In Nodal Analysis and to determine a branch

current.

 Limitations:- 1. Only apply at a node where more than two

branches are connect.

2. Only applicable in a Lumped Network.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

 Statement:- It is based on “Law of Conservation of Energy.” It

states that the algebraic sum of voltage in a close path (Mesh or
Loop) is equal to zero. 𝒌

෍ 𝑽𝒋 = 𝟎
𝒋=𝟏

Where:- 𝑉𝑗 is the voltage drop or voltage rise across the 𝑗𝑡ℎ element
in a close path and there are K elements.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

H= 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟑

Where:- 𝐻 → Energy supplied from E

𝐻1, 𝐻2 & 𝐻3 → Energy dissipate from R1, R2 & R3 respectively

In electrical circuit work done is equivalent to energy and work

done per unit charge is known as voltage. So:-

𝑾 𝑾𝟏 𝑾𝟐 𝑾𝟑
= + +
𝑸 𝑸 𝑸 𝑸

E = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑

𝑬 − 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎
 The above equation is the direct mathematical statement of Kirchhoff’s
voltage law.

 Note:- All voltage drop are treated as a negative sign and voltage rise
are treated as a positive sign or vice-versa.

 Application:-

1. In Mesh Analysis (to determine a mesh or branch current).

2. To determine a voltage across an electrical element.

 Limitations:-

1. Only applicable in a Lumped Network.

2. There should be a close path.

 Current Division Rule

 Current division always takes place in parallel path.

𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 ∗ [ ]
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

𝑹𝟏
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰 ∗ [ ]
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Current Division Rule

(𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝟑 )
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 ∗ [ ]
(𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝟑 )+𝑹𝟏

(𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝟑 )
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰 ∗ [ ]
(𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝟑 )+𝑹𝟐

(𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝟐 )
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰 ∗ [ ]
(𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝟐 )+𝑹𝟑
 Voltage Division Rule

 Voltage division always takes place in series.

𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽 ∗ [ ]
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽 ∗ [ ]
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

𝑹𝟑
𝑽𝟑 = 𝑽 ∗ [ ]
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
 Basic Concept Related to Node,
Junction, Branch, Mesh and Loop

Node:- The point at which two or more than two circuit elements are
connected is known as Node. It is also called “Simple Node”. In the
above figure a, b, c, d & g are Nodes.

Total number of Nodes (N) = 5

 Junction:- It is the point in a network where three or more than
three circuit elements are connected. It is also called a
“Principal Node”.

In the given figure a , b & g are Junctions.

Number of Junction (J) = 3

 Reference Node:- The Node which is at zero potential or ground

potential is known as “Reference Node” or “Datum Node”.

In the given figure h , g , f & e are combine a single node

which is “Reference Node” or “Datum Node” i.e. number of
reference node is always one.
 Branch:- It contains elements. It is that part of a network which
lies between nodes.

In the given figure:-

Number of Branch (B) = 7

 Mesh:- It is the shortest close path which is a part of loop. It can’t

be further divided into other close path. “Every Mesh is a Loop
but every Loop is not a Mesh”. For e.g.- caghc , abfga &
bdefb

Number of Mesh (M) = 3

 Loop:- It is an any close path of the Network. For e.g.- caghc ,
abfga , bdefb , cabfghc , abdefga & cabdefghc.

Number of Loop (L) = 6

 Note:-
M=B–N+1

Where:-
M :- Number of Mesh
B:- Number of Branch
N:- Number of Node
LECTURE-3
Mesh Analysis
 Mesh Analysis

 Step 1:- Identify the number of Mesh in the circuit.

 Step 2:- Assume current in each Mesh (any direction).

 Step 3:- Apply KVL in each Mesh and write Mesh equation for each Mesh.

 Step 4:- Solve the Mesh equation and find Mesh current.

 Note:-

Number of Mesh Equation = Number of Mesh

Problem:- Find out the current in 2Ω resistance in
the given figure using Loop analysis.
Solution:-

Apply KVL in each mesh:-

Mesh (1):-
40 - 4𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎 = 0

6𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 … … … … … … … (𝒊)

Mesh (2):-
30 −𝟐 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟑𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎

-2𝑰𝟏 + 𝟓𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 … … … … … … . 𝒊𝒊
By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-
Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟖 𝑨

↓ 𝑰𝟐Ω = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = − 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 𝑨
Answer
Problem:-To find out the Mesh Current in the
given circuit.
Solution:-

Apply KVL in each mesh:-

Mesh (1):-
60 - 7𝑰𝟏 − 𝟖 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 0

15𝑰𝟏 − 𝟖𝑰𝟐 + 𝟎𝑰𝟑 = 𝟔𝟎 … … … … … … … (𝒊)

Mesh (2):-
-12𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 − 𝟖 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎

8𝑰𝟏 − 𝟑𝟎𝑰𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 … … … … . 𝒊𝒊

Solution:-

Mesh (3):-

-15 - 𝟏𝟎 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟓𝑰𝟑 − 𝟔𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝟎 𝑰𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐𝟏𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏𝟓 … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

By solving equation (i), (ii) & (iii) we get:-

 Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑨

 Answer

 Branch Currents:-

𝑰𝟕𝜴 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 𝑨
𝑰𝟖𝜴 = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑨 ↓
𝑰𝟏𝟐𝜴 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝑨
𝑰𝟏𝟎𝜴 = (𝑰𝟐 −𝑰𝟑 ) = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝐀
𝑰𝟓𝜴 = 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑨
𝑰𝟔𝜴 = 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑨

Answer
 Voltage Drop:-

𝑽𝟓Ω = 𝑰𝟓Ω ∗ 𝟓 = 𝑰𝟑 ∗ 𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟓

𝑽𝟓Ω = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝑽
 Answer

 Power Loss:-

𝑷𝟓𝜴 = 𝑰𝟓𝜴 𝟐 ∗ 𝟓 = (−𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)𝟐 ∗ 𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝑾

Answer
Problem:- Apply Mesh analysis and obtain the
current through 5 Ω resistor in the given circuit.
Solution:-

Apply KVL in each mesh:-

Mesh (1):-
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑨 … … … … … … … (𝒊)
Mesh (2):-
-5𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎

9𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟒 … … … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊
Mesh (3):-
-100 - 𝟐 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟒𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

2𝑰𝟐 − 𝟔𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

By solving equation (ii) & (iii) we get:-
Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟐 = −𝟑. 𝟓𝟐 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟒 𝑨

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟓𝜴 = 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟑. 𝟓𝟐 𝑨

Answer
Problem:- Determine current in 4Ω resistor by
using Mesh analysis in the circuit shown in figure
below.
Solution:-
Apply KVL in each mesh:-
Mesh (3):-
𝑰𝟑 = −𝟐 𝑨 … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊)
Mesh (1):-
8 - 5𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 0

9𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒𝑰𝟐 = 𝟖 … … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)

Mesh (2):-
-6𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎

4𝑰𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟒 … … … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊𝒊

By solving equation (ii) & (iii) we get:-
Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟗 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑 𝑨

↓ 𝑰𝟒𝜴 = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟗 𝑨

Answer
Problem:- Using Mesh analysis find out the current
in 20Ω, 40Ω and 15Ω resistor in the given circuit.
Solution:-

Apply KVL in each mesh:-

Mesh (1):-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑨 … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊)

Mesh (2):-

- 10 – 𝟔𝟎 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 - 20𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟓 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 0

- 95𝑰𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓𝑰𝟑 = −𝟐𝟎 … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)

Mesh (4):-

𝑰𝟒 = −𝟎. 𝟔 𝑨 … … … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

Mesh (3):-

10− 𝟏𝟓 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 − 40𝑰𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟒 = 𝟎

15𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝑰𝟑 = 𝟓𝟎 … … … … … … … 𝒊𝒗
By solving equation (ii) & (iv) we get:-
Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟐 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟔 𝑨

Branch Currents:-

𝑰𝟐𝟎Ω = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟐 𝑨 Answer

𝑰𝟒𝟎𝜴 = 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟔 𝑨 Answer

𝑰𝟏𝟓𝜴 = (𝑰𝟐 −𝑰𝟑 ) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖𝑨

Answer
Problem:- Calculate 𝑰𝟏 & 𝑰𝟐 by using Mesh analysis.
Solution:-

Apply KVL in each mesh:-

Mesh (3):-
𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
Mesh (1):-
−𝟐𝟎 − 𝟖𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟔𝑰𝟏 + 𝟒𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 … … … … . 𝒊

Mesh (2):-
−𝟐𝟎 − 𝟖𝑰𝟐 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

𝟒𝑰𝟏 + 𝟏𝟔𝑰𝟐 = −𝟔𝟎 … … … . . (𝒊𝒊)

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-
Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟒. 𝟑𝟑𝑨
Answer
 Super-Mesh

 If a current source is common between two Mesh

then it is called a Super-Mesh. In this case don’t

directly apply KVL in both Mesh. Apply KVL to the
Super-Mesh (Combined Mesh) and apply KCL at
common Node to establish the relation between
Mesh Current and Current Source.
Problem:- Find out the Mesh Current in the given
figure using Mesh analysis.
 Branch h-e consists current source between Mesh-1 and Mesh-
2. That’s why it is a Super-Mesh:-

Now apply KVL to Super-Mesh (g-h-a-d-e-f-g):-

Apply KVL in Mesh-3 :-

5𝑰𝟏 − 2𝑰𝟐 − 𝟔 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 + 𝟔𝟎 = 0
5𝑰𝟏 + 𝟖𝑰𝟐 − 𝟔𝑰𝟑 = 𝟔𝟎 … … … … … … … (𝒊)

Apply KCL at Node h:-

𝑰𝟏 + 𝟓 = 𝑰𝟐
− 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟓 … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
Apply KVL in Mesh-3 :-

- 50 − 𝟔 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟑𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
6𝑰𝟐 − 𝟗𝑰𝟑 = 𝟓𝟎 … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

By solving equation (i),(ii) & (iii) we get:-

Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟒 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 𝑨 Answer
LECTURE-4
Nodal Analysis
 Nodal Analysis

 Step 1:- Take a reference Node at generally ground (V=0).

 Step 2:- Identify number of Nodes.

 Step 3:- Assume current in each branch (Any direction).

 Step 4:- Apply KCL at each Node and make equations.

 Note:-
Number of Node Equations = (N – 1)

Where N is a Principal Node

 Step 5:- Solve equations to find Node voltages.

 Step 6:- Put Node voltages in equations to find out Branch Currents.
Problem:- Using Nodal analysis find out current in
10Ω resistance.

Solution:-
Node (N) = 3
So number of Nodal Equation = (N-1) = 2
Apply KCL at Node-1:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝟐𝟓 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
− − =𝟎
𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟎

−𝟖𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 = −𝟓𝟎 …………….. (i)

Apply KCL at Node-2:-

𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰𝟒 + 𝑰𝟓

𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟒 − 𝑰𝟓 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝟓𝟎
− − =𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝟐

𝟐𝑽𝟏 − 𝟏𝟕𝑽𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 …………….. (ii)

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟏 𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟐 = −𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟑 = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟕𝟏 𝑨
𝟏𝟎 Answer
Problem:- Determine Current through 15Ω
resistance by Node analysis.

Solution:-
Node (N) = 3
Number of Nodal Equation = (N-1) = 2
Apply KCL at Node-1:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟎 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
− − =𝟎
𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟓

𝟖𝑽𝟏 − 𝟐𝑽𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎 …………….. (i)

Apply KCL at Node-2:-

𝟏
𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟓 = 𝑰𝟒 +
𝟑

𝟏
𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟒 − + 𝑰𝟓 = 𝟎
𝟑

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝟖 − 𝑽𝟐
− − + =𝟎
𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝟑 𝟑

𝟑𝑽𝟏 − 𝟗𝑽𝟐 = −𝟖𝟓 …………….. (ii)

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟗 𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟕 𝑽

𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟒 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟖 𝑨 Answer
𝟏𝟓
LECTURE-5
Nodal Analysis
Problem:- Determine Current through 8Ω
resistance by Node analysis.

Solution:-

Node (N) = 3
Number of Nodal Equation = (N-1) = 2
Apply KCL at Node-1:-
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
− − =𝟎
𝟓 𝟐 𝟖

𝟑𝟑𝑽𝟏 − 𝟓𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 …………….. (i)

Apply KCL at Node-2:-
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰𝟒 + 𝑰𝟓

𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟒 − 𝑰𝟓 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝟐𝟓
− − =𝟎
𝟖 𝟑 𝟓

𝟏𝟓𝑽𝟏 − 𝟕𝟗𝑽𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎……….. (ii)

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-

𝑽𝟏 = −𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟒 𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟐 = −𝟕. 𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝑽

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟖Ω = 𝑰𝟑 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟗 𝑨 Answer
𝟖
Problem:- Using Nodal analysis find the current
through 1Ω resistance.

Solution:-

Node (N) = 3
Number of Nodal Equation = (N-1) = 2
Apply KCL at Node-1:-
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
− − =𝟎
𝟐 𝟑 𝟏

𝟏𝟏𝑽𝟏 − 𝟔𝑽𝟐 = 𝟔 …………….. (i)

Apply KCL at Node-2:-
𝑰𝟑 + 𝟐 = 𝑰𝟒

𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
− +𝟐 =𝟎
𝟏 𝟓

−𝟓𝑽𝟏 + 𝟔𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎……….. (ii)

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟔𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟖 𝑽

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟏Ω = 𝑰𝟑 = = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝑨 Answer
𝟏
Problem:- Find the current in all resistances using
Nodal analysis.

Solution:-
Node (N) = 3
So number of Nodal Equation = (N-1) = 2
Apply KCL at Node-1:-
𝟏𝟎 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

𝟏𝟎 −𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟑
𝟏𝟎 − − − =𝟎
𝟐 𝟑 𝟓

𝟑𝟏𝑽𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝑽𝟐 − 𝟔𝑽𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 …………….. (i)

Apply KCL at Node-2:-
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟒 + 𝑰𝟓

𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟒 − 𝑰𝟓 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑
− − =𝟎
𝟑 𝟓 𝟏

−𝟓𝑽𝟏 + 𝟐𝟑𝑽𝟐 − 𝟏𝟓𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎 …………….. (ii)

Apply KCL at Node-3:-

𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟓 = 𝑰𝟔 + 𝟐

𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟓 − 𝑰𝟔 − 𝟐 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑
+ − −𝟐=𝟎
𝟓 𝟏 𝟐

2𝑽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝑽𝟐 − 𝟏𝟕𝑽𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎……………(iii)

By solving equation (i) , (ii) & (iii) we get:-

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟖 𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟎 𝑽

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟑 = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 𝑨 𝑰𝟒 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟔 𝑨
𝟓 𝟓

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑
𝑰𝟐 = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑 𝑨 𝑰𝟓 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖 𝑨
𝟑 𝟏

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟑
𝑰𝟏 = = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟗 𝑨 𝑰𝟔 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 𝑨
𝟐 𝟐

Answer Answer
LECTURE-6
Star-Delta
Transformation
Star-Delta Transformation

Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
 Delta to Star Transformation:-
From Fig.(a):-
𝑹𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩
𝑹𝑩𝑪 = 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝑪𝑨 = 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑨
…………..(1)

Similarly from Fig.(b):-

𝑹𝑨𝑩 (𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝑰𝑰 (𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 ) =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 +𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑩𝑪 (𝑹𝑪𝑨 + 𝑹𝑨𝑩 )

𝑹𝑩𝑪 = 𝑹𝑩𝑪 𝑰𝑰 (𝑹𝑪𝑨 + 𝑹𝑨𝑩 ) =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 +𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑪𝑨 (𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 )

𝑹𝑪𝑨 = 𝑹𝑪𝑨 𝑰𝑰 (𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ) =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 +𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )
……………(2)
 Now Equate the resistance of Star and Delta:-

𝑹𝑨𝑩 (𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹 𝑩 =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 +𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 ) ………….(3)

𝑹𝑩𝑪 (𝑹𝑪𝑨 + 𝑹𝑨𝑩 )

𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹 𝑪 =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 +𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )
…………(4)

𝑹𝑪𝑨 (𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 )

𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹 𝑨 =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 +𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )
…………(5)
 Add equation (3), (4) & (5) we get:-

𝟐(𝑹𝑨𝑩∗ 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨∗ 𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝟐(𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪 ) =
𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

(𝑹𝑨𝑩∗ 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨∗ 𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

(𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪 ) =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )
……………….(6)

Subtract equation (4), (5) and (3) from equation (6), we get
respectively:-
𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨
𝑹𝑨 = …………..…..(7)
𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨

𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑩𝑪
𝑹𝑩 =
𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 ……….……...(8)

𝑹𝑩𝑪 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨
𝑹𝑪 =
𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 ……………….(9)
 Star to Delta Transformation:-
Multiply equation (7)&(8) ; (8)&(9) and (9)&(7) we get:-

( 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝟐 ∗ 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑩 =
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )𝟐 …….(10)

( 𝑹𝑩𝑪 𝟐 ∗ 𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑪 = …….(11)
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )𝟐

( 𝑹𝑪𝑨 𝟐 ∗ 𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑩𝑪 )

𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑩 = …….(12)
(𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )𝟐

Add equation (10), (11) & (12) we get:-

( 𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ∗ 𝑹𝑪𝑨 )

𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑨 =
𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨……...(13)
 Divide equation (13) by equation (9) , (7) & (8) we get
respectively:-

(𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑩 ) + (𝑹𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑪 ) + (𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑪)

𝑹𝑨𝑩 =
𝑹𝑪

(𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑩 ) + (𝑹𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑪 ) + (𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑪)

𝑹𝑩𝑪 =
𝑹𝑨

(𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑩 ) + (𝑹𝑩 ∗ 𝑹𝑪 ) + (𝑹𝑨 ∗ 𝑹𝑪)

𝑹𝑪𝑨 =
𝑹𝑩
Problem:- Three resistances each of 20Ω, 30Ω & 50Ω are
connected in Delta. Calculate corresponding resistances in
equivalent Star connection.

Solution:-

𝟐𝟎 ∗ 𝟑𝟎
𝑹𝟏 = = 𝟔𝜴
𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎

𝟐𝟎 ∗ 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟐 = = 𝟏𝟎𝜴
𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎

𝟓𝟎 ∗ 𝟑𝟎
𝑹𝟑 = = 𝟏𝟓𝜴 Answer
𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎
Problem:- Find the power supplied by the battery by star-
delta transformation.
Solution:- Covert upper Delta into Star.
𝟓∗𝟓
𝑹𝒂 = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕Ω
𝟓+𝟓+𝟓

𝟓∗𝟓
𝑹𝒃 = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕Ω
𝟓+𝟓+𝟓

𝟓∗𝟓
𝑹𝒄 = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕Ω
𝟓+𝟓+𝟓
 𝑽 𝟐
𝑰= = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟔𝑨
𝑹 𝟑. 𝟕𝟐

P = V*I = 2*0.536 = 1.073 Watt. Answer

Problem:- Find 𝑹𝑨𝑩 , 𝑹𝑩𝑪 & 𝑹𝑪𝑨 .
Solution:- Converting the parallel resistances.

𝟔∗𝟐
𝑹𝑨𝑩 = = 𝟏. 𝟓Ω
𝟔+𝟐

𝟒∗𝟔
𝑹𝑩𝑪 = = 𝟐. 𝟒Ω
𝟒+𝟔

𝟐∗𝟒
𝑹𝑪𝑨 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑Ω
𝟐+𝟒

𝑹𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∥ (𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 ) = 𝟏. 𝟓∥( 2.4+1.33) = 1.069Ω

𝑹𝑩𝑪 = 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ∥ 𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪𝑨 = 2.4 ∥( 1.5+1.33) = 1.𝟐𝟗𝟖Ω

Answer
𝑹𝑪𝑨 = 𝑹𝑪𝑨 ∥ (𝑹𝑩𝑪 + 𝑹𝑨𝑩 ) = 𝟏. 33∥( 2.4+1.5) = 0.9917Ω
Problem:- By Star-Delta transformation determine 𝑹𝒂𝒃 and
power drawn from supply.
Solution:- Convert Delta formed by 8Ω, 3Ω & 7Ω into star.

𝟑∗𝟖
𝑹𝑨 = = 𝟒/𝟑Ω
𝟖+𝟑+𝟕

𝟖∗𝟕
𝑹𝑩 = = 𝟐𝟖/𝟗Ω
𝟖+𝟑+𝟕

𝟕∗𝟑
𝑹𝑪 = = 𝟒/𝟑Ω
𝟖+𝟑+𝟕

𝟒 𝟕 𝟐𝟖
𝑹𝒂𝒃 = + ( + 𝟒 ∥( + 𝟏𝟎)] = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟒Ω Answer
𝟑 𝟔 𝟗

𝑽𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝑷= = = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟒 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 Answer
𝑹 𝟓. 𝟎𝟒
Problem:- Find the equivalent resistance of the
given circuit and calculate the current supplied by
source.
Solution:- 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = [ 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐 ∥𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐 ∥𝟖 ∥𝟒}∥𝟐] + 𝟒

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = [ (𝟏𝟐∥𝟏𝟐) + 𝟐 ∥𝟖 ∥𝟒}∥𝟐] + 𝟒

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = [ (6+2)∥𝟖 ∥𝟒}∥𝟐] + 𝟒

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = [{(8∥8 )∥𝟒}∥𝟐] + 𝟒

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = [(4∥𝟒)∥𝟐] + 𝟒

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = [2∥𝟐] + 𝟒

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏 + 𝟒 = 𝟓Ω

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 5 Ω
 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑰= = 𝟐𝟒 𝑨 Answer
𝟓
LECTURE-7
Superposition
Theorem
 Superposition Theorem
 Statement:- In an any Linear, Active & Bilateral resistive network
having two or more than two voltage/current sources, the net
response (current/voltage) in any branch is the algebraic sum of
responses by individual sources taking one source at a time and
replacing other source by its internal resistance.

 Note:-

 (1) If the other source is voltage source then it is to be replaced by

their internal resistance by assuming voltage source is short circuit,
i.e. 𝑅𝑆 = 0 for Ideal voltage source.

 (2) If the other source is current source then it is to be replaced by

their internal resistance by assuming current source is open circuit,
i.e. 𝑅𝑆ℎ =∞ for Ideal current source.
 Limitations:-

(1) This theorem can’t be apply for power calculation (because

power gives Non-Linear characteristics).

(2) This theorem is applicable only when there is at least two

independent energy sources (current or voltage sources).
Problem:- Using Superposition theorem, find the
current flowing through 2Ω resistance in the given
circuit.
Solution:-
Step-1:-

Apply KVL in each Mesh:-

Mesh(1):-
𝟐𝟖 − 𝟒𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟔 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟖 … … … … … … … … … 𝒊
Mesh(2):-
−𝟐 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟏𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟑𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟔 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟒 𝑨
𝑰′ = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝑨
Step-2:-

Apply KVL in each Mesh:-

Mesh(1):-
− 𝟒𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
−𝟔 𝑰𝟏 + 𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … 𝒊
Mesh(2):-
−𝟕 − 𝟐 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟏𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟑𝑰𝟐 = 𝟕 … … … … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊

By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-

𝑰𝟏 = −𝟏 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟑 𝑨
𝑰′′ = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝑨

I = 𝑰′ − 𝑰′′ = 𝟒𝑨 Answer
Problem:- Determine current through 8Ω resistor
and power in the 4Ω resistor in the network shown
in figure using Superposition theorem.

Solution:-
Step-1:- 20V voltage source is Active & 2A current source is
dead (Inactive).
 ′ ′
𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝒂 =𝟎𝑨 & 𝑰 = =𝟐𝑨
𝟐+𝟖

Step-2:- 2A current source is Active & 20V voltage source is

dead (Inactive)
 Apply KCL at Node-1:-
𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰′′ + 𝑰′′ 𝒂 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
+ +𝟐=𝟎
𝟐 𝟖
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐 𝑽

𝑽𝟏
𝑰′′ = = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝑨 & 𝑰′′ 𝒂 = 𝟐𝑨
𝟖

So;
𝐈 = 𝑰𝟖𝜴 = 𝑰′ + 𝑰′′ = 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝑨 Answer

𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰′ 𝒂 + 𝑰′′ 𝒂 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 = 𝟐𝑨

𝑷𝟒𝜴 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒂 ∗ 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 Answer

Problem:- Find current through 2Ω resistance using
Superposition theorem.

Solution:-
Step-1:- 7A current source is Active & 12V voltage source is
Inactive.
By current division:-
′
𝟓
𝑰 =𝟕∗
𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎𝑰𝑰𝟔 + 𝟐
′
𝟓
𝑰 =𝟕∗
𝟓 + 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓

𝑰′ = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝑨
Apply KCL at Node-1:-
𝑰′′ + 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐
+ + =𝟎
𝟕 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝑽

𝑽𝟏
𝑰′′ = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟗𝑨
𝟕

𝑰𝟐𝜴 = 𝑰′ − 𝑰′′ = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝐀 Answer

Problem:- Find the current through all resistances using
Superposition theorem.
Solution:-
Step-1:- Taking 2A current source is active and 10V
voltage source is inactive.

 Due to short circuit the current through 10Ω resistance

is 0A.
 By current division rule :-
Current through 5Ω branch = 1A↑
Current through 5Ω branch = 1A↓
Step-2:- Taking 10V voltage source is active and 2A
current source is inactive.

𝟏𝟎
Current through 10Ω branch 𝑰𝟏 = = 𝟏𝑨 ↓
𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎
Current through 5Ω branch 𝑰𝟐 = = 𝟏𝑨 ↓
𝟏𝟎

Step-3:- Total Branch Current

Current in 5Ω Branch (𝑹𝟏 ) = 1-1 = 0A
Current in 5Ω Branch (𝑹𝟐 ) = 1+1 = 2A↓ Answers
Current in 10Ω Branch (𝑹𝟑 ) = 0+1 = 1A↓
LECTURE-8
Thevenin’s
Theorem
 Thevenin’s Theorem

 Statement:- In an Active, linear and bilateral complex

network having dependent or independent voltage or
current sources, it can be converted into a simple network
called Thevenin's equivalent network having a voltage
source (Thevenin’s voltage) in series with Thevenin’s
resistance across the load (load remains unchanged).
Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s
Equivalent Network
 𝑽𝑻𝑯
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑹𝑻𝑯 + 𝑹𝑳

Where:-
𝑹𝑳 → 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝒕𝒉 → 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑽𝒕𝒉 → 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑰𝑳 → 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
 Steps to solve any Network by
using Thevenin’s Theorem:-
Step-1:- To determine 𝑹𝒕𝒉
It is an internal resistance of the circuit seen from load
terminal side.
Remove load resistance & replace all sources by their internal
resistances. i.e.
Voltage Source ------ Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source ------ Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

Step-2:- To determine 𝑽𝒕𝒉

Remove the load resistance and find the open circuit voltage
across the load.
 Step-3:- Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

𝑽𝒕𝒉
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳

Limitations:-
(1) This theorem is only applicable for Linear & Active circuit.
(2) This theorem is only applicable for Lumped Network.
Problem:- Using Thevenin’s theorem determine the
current through 6Ω resistor.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝑰𝑰𝟒 + 𝟐
𝟒∗𝟒
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = +𝟐
𝟒+𝟒

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝜴
Step-2:- 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load and determine the open
circuit voltage (𝑽𝑶.𝑪 )

𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎𝑨

Apply KVL in each Mesh:-

Mesh-1:-
𝟑 − 𝟒𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟓 = 𝟎
𝟖𝑰𝟏 = 𝟖
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟏𝑨

Mesh-2:-
−𝟓 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐𝑰𝟐 − 𝟒 − 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = −𝟓𝑽
Step-3:- Draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

𝟓
𝑰𝑩−𝑨 = 𝑰𝑳 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑨 Answer
𝟒+𝟔
LECTURE-9
Thevenin’s
Theorem
Problem:- Using Thevenin’s theorem determine the
current through 5Ω resistor.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝑰𝑰𝟐 + 𝟑

𝟒∗𝟐
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = +𝟑
𝟒+𝟐

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟑𝜴
Step-2:- 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load and determine the open
circuit voltage (𝑽𝑶.𝑪 )

Apply KCL at Node-1:-

𝑰 𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝟔

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟒 − 𝟔 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝟏𝟓 𝑽𝟏
+ +𝟎−𝟔=𝟎
𝟒 𝟐

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟑𝑽

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝑽𝑶.𝑪 = 𝟏𝟑𝑽

Step-3:- Draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟏𝟑
𝑰𝑨−𝑩 = 𝑰𝑳 = = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗𝟑𝑨 Answer
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳 𝟒. 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟓
Problem:- Using Thevenin’s theorem determine the
current through 2Ω resistor.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝑰𝑰 𝟑 + 𝟓 = 𝟒𝑰𝑰𝟖

𝟒∗𝟖
𝑹𝒕𝒉 =
𝟒+𝟖

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝜴
Step-2:- 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load and determine the open
circuit voltage (𝑽𝑶.𝑪 )

Apply KCL at Node-1:-

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟔

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟔 = 𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 − 𝟏𝟓 𝑽𝒕𝒉
+ −𝟔=𝟎
𝟒 𝟖

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝟔𝑽
Step-3:- Draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟐𝟔
𝑰𝑨−𝑩 = 𝑰𝑳 = = = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝑨 Answer
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳 𝟐. 𝟔𝟕 + 𝟐
Problem:- Find out voltage across the load
resistance 𝑹𝑳 using Thevenin’s theorem when load
resistance is 2KΩ.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑰𝑰𝟑

𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟑
𝑹𝒕𝒉 =
𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟑

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝒌𝜴
Step-2:- 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load and determine the open
circuit voltage (𝑽𝑶.𝑪 )

Apply KCL at Node (𝑽𝒕𝒉 ) :-

𝑰𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 − 𝟒𝟓 𝑽𝒕𝒉
+ 𝟏𝟐 + +𝟎=𝟎
𝟏. 𝟓 𝟑

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝟖𝑽
Step-3:- Draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟏𝟖
𝑰𝑨−𝑩 = 𝑰𝑳 = = = 𝟔𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳 𝟏+𝟐

𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝟐𝒌𝜴 = 𝑰𝑳 ∗ 𝟐𝒌𝜴 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽 Answer

Problem:- Find the current in 10Ω resistance using
Thevenin’s theorem.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = [{(6∥𝟏) + 𝟐}∥3]

𝟔∗𝟏
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = + 𝟐 ∥𝟑
𝟔+𝟏

𝟐𝟎
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ∥𝟑
𝟕

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔Ω
Step-2:- 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load and determine the open
circuit voltage (𝑽𝑶.𝑪 )

𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 𝑨

Apply KVL in each Mesh:-

Mesh-1:-
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟔𝑰𝟏 − 𝟏 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

𝟕𝑰𝟏 −𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 … … … … … … … (𝒊)

 Mesh-2:-
− 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐𝑰𝟐 − 𝟑 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝑰𝟏 − 𝟔𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊
By solving equation (i) & (ii) we get:-
Mesh Currents:-

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝑨

Mesh-3:-
−𝑽𝒕𝒉 − 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟑 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = −𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝟖 𝐕
Step-3:- Draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝟖
𝑰 = −𝑰𝑳 = = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟐 𝑨
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 + 𝟏𝟎

𝑰𝑳 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟐 𝑨 Answer

LECTURE-10
Norton’s
Theorem
 Norton’s Theorem
 Statement:- In an Active, linear and bilateral complex
network having dependent or independent voltage or
current sources, it can be converted into a simple network
called Norton's equivalent network having a current source
(Norton’s current) in parallel with Norton’s resistance
across the load (load remains unchanged).
Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Equivalent
Network
 𝑹𝑵
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑵 ∗( )
𝑹𝑵 + 𝑹𝑳

Where:-
𝑹𝑳 → 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝑵 → 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏′𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑰𝑵 → 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏′𝒔 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝑳 → 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
 Steps to solve any Network by
using Norton’s Theorem:-
Step-1:- To determine 𝑹𝑵
It is an internal resistance of the circuit seen from load
terminal side.
Remove load resistance & replace all sources by their internal
resistances. i.e.
Voltage Source ………. Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source ………. Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

Step-2:- To determine 𝑰𝑵
Short circuit the load branch and find out the short circuit
current in the load by any method.
Step-3:- Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit.

𝑹𝑵
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑵 ∗ ( )
𝑹𝑵 + 𝑹𝑳

Limitations:-
(1) This theorem is only applicable for Linear & Active circuit.
(2) This theorem is only applicable for Lumped Network.
Duality:- Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem are dual to
each-other because both the equivalent circuit can be
converted into each-other by using source transformation.
This is called “Duality”.
Problem:- Find the current in 12Ω resistance by
using Norton’s theorem for the given circuit.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝑵 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝑵 = 𝟖 + 𝟓 𝑰𝑰𝟒 = 𝟏𝟑𝑰𝑰𝟒

𝟏𝟑 ∗ 𝟒
𝑹𝑵 = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝜴
(𝟏𝟑 + 𝟒)

𝑹𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝜴
Step-2:- 𝑰𝑵 = ? ; Short circuited the load and determine the
short circuit current (𝑰𝑺.𝑪 )

Apply KVL in each mesh:-

Mesh (1):-
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝑨

Mesh (2):-
−𝟒𝟎 − 𝟖(𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 ) −𝟓𝑰𝟐 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
−𝟏𝟕𝑰𝟐 +𝟒𝑰𝟑 = −𝟏𝟐𝟎 … … … … … … … (𝒊)

Mesh (3):-
𝟒𝟎 − 𝟒 𝑰𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟒𝑰𝟐 − 𝟒𝑰𝟑 = −𝟒𝟎 … … … … … … … … . 𝒊𝒊
By solving equation (i) and (ii) we get:-

𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 𝑨 ; 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 𝑨

𝑰𝑵 = 𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 𝑨

Step(3):- Draw Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟖
𝑰𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 ∗
(𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟖 + 𝟏𝟐)

𝑰𝑳 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 𝑨 Answer
Problem:- Find the current in 6Ω resistance by
using Norton’s theorem for the given circuit.
Solution:-
Step-1:- 𝑹𝑵 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝑵 = 𝟒𝑰𝑰𝟒 + 𝟐

𝟒∗𝟒
𝑹𝑵 = +𝟐=𝟒𝜴
(𝟒 + 𝟒)

𝑹𝑵 = 𝟒 𝜴
Step-2:- 𝑰𝑵 = ? ; Short circuited the load and determine the
short circuit current (𝑰𝑺.𝑪 )

Apply KCL at Node-1:-

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝟑 𝑽𝟏 + 𝟓 𝑽𝟏 − 𝟒
+ + =𝟎
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽

𝑽𝟏 − 𝟒 𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝟒
𝑰𝑵 = 𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝑰𝟑 = = = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑨
𝟐 𝟐

𝑰𝑵 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑨
Step(3):- Draw Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

𝟒
𝑰𝑳 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 ∗
(𝟒 + 𝟔)

𝑰𝑳 = −𝟎 . 𝟓 𝑨 Answer
Problem:- Find the Thevenin’s and Norton’s
equivalent circuit.
Solution:- Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Step-1:- 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load
Voltage Source Short Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎 )
Current Source Open Circuit (as 𝑹𝑺𝒉 = ∞)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = [(2∥2)+1]

𝟐∗𝟐
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = +𝟏
𝟐+𝟐

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐Ω
Step-2:- 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ? ; remove the load and determine the open
circuit voltage (𝑽𝑶.𝑪 )

Apply KCL at 𝑽𝒕𝒉 Node:-

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 − 𝟏𝟎 𝑽𝒕𝒉
+ − 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓𝑽

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝑽𝑶.𝑪 = 𝟏𝟓𝑽

Step-3:- Draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Answer

Norton’s equivalent circuit:-

Step-1:- 𝑹𝑵 = 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐Ω

𝑹𝑵 = 𝟐Ω
Step-2:- 𝑰𝑵 = ? ; Short circuited the load and determine the
short circuit current (𝑰𝑺.𝑪 )

Apply KCL at 𝑽𝟏 Node:-

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝟎

𝑽𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
+ − 𝟏𝟎 + =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟏

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝑽

𝑽𝟏
𝑰𝟒 = 𝑰𝟒 = = 𝟕. 𝟓𝑨
𝟏
𝑰𝑵 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝑨
Step(3):- Draw Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Answer
THANK YOU