BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Electrical Installation

UNIT 5
 CONTENTS

 Components of low tension (LT) switchgear

 Types of wires and cables
 Earthing Types and its importance
 Types of batteries
 Important characteristic of batteries
 Elementary calculations for energy consumption and
savings
 Battery backup
 COMPONENTS OF LT SWITCH
GEAR

 Switch fuse unit (SFU)

 Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

 Moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB)

 Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)

 SWITCH FUSE UNIT (SFU)

 Combination of switch and fuse together is called SFU.

 A switch isolate the circuit from supply for repair and
maintenance. It is manually operated.
 Fuse is a protective device which acts quickly during
abnormal condition to disconnect the circuit from the
supply.
Advantages of SFU:
 Number of joints in the circuit get reduced.
 Less space is required due to compact construction.
 Easy to handle/operate.
Switch fuse unit Fuse
MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER
(MCB)
 An electromechanical device which makes and breaks the
circuit in the normal operation.
 During fault/abnormal condition when current exceeds the
preset value, MCB disconnects the circuit.
 MCB is high fault capacity current limiting, trip free,
automatic switching with thermal and magnetic operation.
 MCB provides protection against overload and short
circuit.
 MCBs are rated for 240V single phase, 415V three phase,
and 220 V dc. The current rating is 0.5A to 63A.
MCBs are used because of following features:
 Its operation is very fast.
 No tripping circuit is required
 Automatic operation.
 Protection against overload and short circuit without noise,
flames or smoke.
 Reset quickly after fault correction.
 No rewiring is required.
 Cannot be reclosed if fault exist.
3-pole MCB 2-pole MCB
 Comparison between Fuse and
MCB
Sr.
Fuse MCB
No.
1 The operation of fuse is highly dependent on MCB instantly disconnects the supply
selection of its proper rating. If fuse wire is not automatically in the event of short circuit
selected properly ten it results in non operation of or overload. It thus eliminates the risk of
fuse even in case of short circuit. fire and prevents damage to wiring
system.
2 If the fuse wire after operation is replaced with a Restarting the power supply after tripping
newer one but go loose then it may be dangerous. due to overload or short circuit is easy.
Also to replace a blown use in between current
carrying points is dangerous specially in dark.
3 During replacement of fuse wire, the exact size of No maintenance and repairs is required for
fuse wire may not be available. Also for MCB. The distribution system employing
replacement a kit of hand tools has to be kept MCB provides satisfactory operation and
ready. lasts for years.
 MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT
BREAKER (MCCB)
 MCCB is similar to MCB but used for circuit having
current range from 63A to 3000A.
 Working is based on thermal mechanism. The bimetallic
contact expands and contract when there are temperature
changes.
 Under normal condition, the contacts are closed allowing
current to pass. Under over-load or short circuit condition,
current exceeds its safe value. Due to this, heat is generated,
and the contacts are opened to interrupt the circuit.
 Due to the interruption of high current, there is arc
formation. Hence in MCCB there are arc extinguishers
which suppress the arc.
 MCCB
 There is a disconnection switch, with the help of which, the MCCB can
be operated manually.
 It has adjustable trip settings which can be used for high current
applications.
 It can be easily reset after the fault rectification. Thus it provides
operational safely and convenience.
 All the operating parts of MCCB are covered within a plastic moulded
housing made in two halves. The two halves are joined together to form
the whole structure.
 The basic difference between MCB and MCCB is the current rating.
 Hence MCCBs are used for industrial and commercial applications
such as main feeder protection,, generator and motor protection,
capacitor bank protection, welding applications and applications which
require adjustable trip setting.
 EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT
BREAKER (ELCB)

 The ELCB is used to protect the circuit from the electrical

leakage.
 When someone gets an electric shock, then this circuit
breaker cuts off the power for protecting the personal safety
and the circuit against short circuit and overload.
 ELCB is a security device used in electrical system with
high Earth impedance to avoid shock.
 It notices difference in current between line and neutral
wire, and interrupt the circuit if an unsafe current is
detected.
 ELCB

 ELCB consists of a small current transformer (C.T.)

surrounding live/line/phase and neutral wire.
 The secondary winding of the C.T. is connected to relay
circuit which can trip the circuit breaker (CB) which is
connected in the circuit.
 Under normal conditions, the current in the line and the
neutral is same. There will not be any production of flux in
the core and no induced e.m.f.
 If there is a fault due to leakage, then the net current
through the core will no longer remain as zero but equal to
difference between line current and neutral current, which
will set up flux and emf in C.T.
 ELCB

 As per the preset value, the unbalance in the current is

detected by C.T. and relay coil is energized which will give
tripping signal for the circuit breaker.
 Thus ELCB provides protection against electric shock when
a person comes in contact with live parts resulting in flow
of current from body to earth.
 A properly connected ELCB detects such small currents in
mA flowing to earth through human body or earth wire and
breaks the circuit to reduce the risk of electrocution to
humans.
 WIRES

Metal drawn out into the form of thin flexible thread or rod is
called a wire. For example, copper wire, aluminium wire, steel
wire etc..
The various types of wires which are used for various wiring
schemes are:-
1. Vulcanised India Rubber wires (V.I.R.)
2. Cab Tyre Sheathed wires (C.T.S.)
3. Poly Vinyl Chloride wires (P.V.C.)
4. Flexible wires
VULCANISED INDIA RUBBER WIRES
(V.I.R.)

 This type of wire consists tinned conductor coated with

rubber insulation.
 This is further covered with protective cotton and bitumen
compound and finally finished with wax. This makes it
moisture and heat resistant.
 These are always single core wires.
 Though are covered with a cotton layer it has tendency to
absorb moisture and hence rarely used, now a days.
CAB TYRE SHEATHED WIRES
(C.T.S.)
 In this type, ordinary rubber insulated conductors are
provided with an additional tough rubber sheath.
 The wire is also known as tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.)
wire. It provides additional insulation and along with that a
protection against moisture, chemical fumes and wear and
tear.
 These are also available in single core, double core and
three core varieties.
POLY VINYL CHLORIDE WIRES
(P.V.C.)
These are most commonly used wires. These have conductors
with P.V.C. insulation. P.V.C. has following characteristics:
 It is moisture proof.
 It is tough and hence durable.
 It is chemically inert, therefore resistant to corrosion.
 As it is tough so additional covering is not required.
 The only disadvantage is, it softens at high temperature and
hence it avoided where extreme of temperature may occur
e.g. in heating appliances.
 FLEXIBLE WIRES

 These are used very commonly in domestic wiring or for

wiring of temporary nature.
 It consists of two separately insulated stranded conductors.
The insulation is mostly rubber and more commonly
available in parallel or twisted twins.
 Due to its flexible nature, the handling of these wires
becomes very easy.
 CABLES

 A cable is defined as the group of individually insulated

one or more conductors which is put together and finally
provided with number of layers of insulation to give
proper mechanical support.
 Conductor of Core: This section consists of single conductor or more than one
conductor. The conductors are also called cores. Cables with three conductors
used are aluminium or annealed copper. The conductors are stranded
conductors in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
 Insulation: Each conductor or core is covered by insulation of proper
thickness. The commonly used insulating materials are varnished cambric,
vulcanized bitumen and impregnated paper.
 Metallic Sheath: The insulated conductors are covered by lead sheath or
aluminium sheath. This provides the mechanical protection but mainly restricts
moisture and other gases to reach to the insulation.
 Bedding: The metallic sheath is covered by another layer called bedding. The
bedding consists of paper type compounded with a fibrous material like jute
strands or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath
from corrosion and from mechanical injury resulting due to armouring.
 Armouring: This layer consists of the layers of galvanized steel wires which
provide protection to the cable from the mechanical injury.
Based on voltage level the various types of cables are:
 Low tension cables: Used for the voltage levels upto 6.6kV.
 Medium tension cables: Used for 11kV level and are called
belted cable.
 High tension cables: Used for 22kV and 33kV levels. These
are screened type cables and further classified as:
i. H type cables
ii. S.L. cables i.e. separate lead screened cables.
Extra high tension cables: Used for voltage levels more than
33kV. These are pressure cables which are further classified as:
i. Oil filled Cables.
ii. Gas pressure cables.
Based on the cores, the various types of cables are:
i. Single core cable.
ii. Two core cable .
iii. Three core cable.

Single core cables are made up of a single conductor covered

by
a PVC insulation. They are mainly used in power and lighting
circuits, both domestic and commercial applications.
 They are also used in the internal wiring of appliances
suitable for installation in conduits and trunks.
 Two core cable is used to connect small appliances
which are double insulated and need no earth.
The cable only has two cores being live and neutral. As
this is flex cable it will be of circular shape with an outer
sheath and two colour coded PVC insulated cores.

 Three core cable is made up of 3 solid cores, which are

individually insulated and wrapped in an outer PVC
sleeving. The colours of these cores are brown, black and
grey, with a bare earth core (to be insulated with green
and yellow sleeving).
Single core cable
Two core cable

Three core cable

 EARTHING

The connection of electrical machinery to the general mass of

earth, with a conducting material of very low resistance is
called earthing or grounding.
 The earthing of electrical equipment brings the equipments
to zero potential and avoid the shock to the operator, under
nay fault conditions.
 IMPORTANCE OF EARTHING
Consider a machine which is not earthed. It is operated at supply voltage
V.
 If a person touches to the outer part of the machine then as long as
insulation of the machine is perfect, person will not get a shock.
The insulation resistance of perfect insulation is infinite.
 But if there is some fault and insulation becomes weak or if one of the
winding is touching to the cover of the machine then insulation
resistance becomes zero.
 If person touches to such a machine, current flows through the body
of the person towards the earth. As body resistance is small, current
through the body is high so that the person receives a shock.
 To avoid such a situation, the body of the machine is connected to
the earth with a very low resistance.
 If the machine is earthed and the person touches to a faulty machine
then body resistance and earthing resistance appears to be in
parallel.
 As earthing resistance is very small than the resistance of the
body, hence almost entire leakage current flows through earthing
connection.
 Thus current through the body of the person is almost zero and
person does not receive any shock.
 Similarly due to earthing, the tall buildings, structures and other
machines are protected from high voltage in overhead lines and
the atmospheric lightening as high voltage and lightening gets
discharged to earth through earthing connection.
 Due to earthing the line voltage is maintained at constant value.
 Hence earthing is necessary for all domestic appliances, machines,
buildings and structures, equipments power stations etc.
 TYPES OF EARTHING

 Plate earthing: A copper plate or galvanized plate is

buried in an earth pit below ground level. The plate
electrode connects the electrical conductors to the earth.
 Pipe earthing: A galvanized steel perforated pipe inside
the ground connects the electrical conductors to the earth.
 Rod earthing: Similar to the Pipe earthing. A copper rod
replaces the pipe electrode.
 Chemical earthing: Similar to the pipe earthing. A
chemical compound material replaces the charcoal and salt
layers.
 PLATE EARTHING
 The earth connection is provided with the help of copper plate or Galvanized Iron
(G.I.) plate. The copper plate size is 60 cm × 60 cm × 3.18 mm, while G.I. plate size
is not less than 60 cm × 60 cm × 6.3 mm. The plate is embedded 3 m (10 ft.) into the
ground. The plate is kept with its face vertical.
 The plate is surrounded by the alternate layer of coke and salt for minimum
thickness of about 15 cm. The earth wire is drawn through G.I. pipe and is perfectly
bolted to the earth plate. The nut and bolts must be copper plate and must be of
galvanized iron for G.I. plate.
 The earth lead used must be G.I. wire or strip of sufficient cross sectional area to
carry the fault current safely. The earth wire is drawn through G.I. pipe of 19 mm
diameter, at about 60 cm below the ground.
 The G.I. pipe is fitted with a funnel on the top. In order to have an effective earthing,
salt water is poured periodically through the funnel.
 The earthing efficiency, increases with the increases of the plate area and depth of
embedding. If the resistivity of the soil is high, then it is necessary to embed the plate
vertically at a greater depth into ground.
 The only disadvantage of this method is that the discontinuity of the earth wire
from the earthing plate below the earth can not be observed physically. This
may cause misleading and may result into heavy losses under fault condition.
Plate Earthing
 PIPE EARTHING
 A G.I. pipe of 38 mm diameter and 2-meter (7 feet) length is embedded vertically
into the ground. This pipe acts as an earth electrode. The depth depends on the
condition of the soil.
 The earth wires are fastened to the top section of the pipe above the ground level
with nut and bolts.
 The pit area around the pipe is filled with salt and coal mixture for improving the
condition of the soil and earthing efficiency.
 The contact surface of G.I. pipe with the soil is more as compare to the plate due to its
circular section and hence can handle heavier leakage current for the same electrode
size.
 In summer season, soil becomes dry. In such case salt water is poured through the
funnel connected to the main G.I. pipe through 19 mm diameter pipe. This keeps
the soil wet.
 The earth wires are connected to the G.I. pipe above the ground level and can be
physically inspected from time to time. These connections can be checked for
performing continuity tests. The earth lead used must be G.I. wire of sufficient cross-
sectional area to carry fault current safely.
 The only disadvantage of pipe earthing is that the embedded pipe length has to be
increased sufficiently in case the soil specific resistivity is of high order. This
increases excavation work and hence increased cost.
Pipe Earthing
 Battery

 A device that converts the stored chemical energy into

electrical energy using chemical action is called battery.
 The chemical action that takes place in the battery is the
movement of electrons from one terminal to another.
Due to this chemical action, there exists a difference in
charge between two terminals that creates an electrical
energy between them.
 A cell is a device that consists of two electrodes and an
electrolyte. But battery is a Single unit which comprises of
two or more cells which are connected together
electrically.
 CONSTRUCTION

The component of a battery that participates actively in a chemical

reaction to generate electrical energy is called the active component. The
three main active components of a battery are:
 Anode:-The electrode that oxidises and release electrons when an
electrochemical reaction occurs is called anode. It is also called
negative electrode or reducing electrode. For example zinc and
lithium.
 Cathode:-The electrode that acquires electrons during
electrochemical reaction is called cathode. It is also called positive
electrode or oxidising electrode. For example metallic oxides.
 Electrolyte:- The medium through which electrons get transferred
from anode to cathode is called electrolyte. In general, electrolytes
are in liquid from like water or other solvents in which the material
required for ionic conduction, i.e., salt, acid, or alkalis are dissolved.
 WORKING

When a load is connected between the cathode and anode, due to

electrochemical action, the electrons get transferred from anode to
cathode. Due to this movement of electrons, the current starts flowing
from cathode to anode through the connected load.

The advantages of using batteries as energy sources are:

 Energy can be stored for a long duration of time.
 Delivers the energy effectively when compared to fossil fuels.
 Response time is less when compared to other fossil fuels.
 Efficiency of the battery is high.
 Battery can be operated at any place as it offers good tolerance to shock
and vibrations.
 Operating cost of the battery is cheap.
 Low- maintenance cost is required for the battery.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
BATTERIES
The two main categories of batteries are:
 Primary batteries and Secondary batteries.
Primary Batteries
 It is also called single-use or throw-away batteries as it cannot be
recharged to reuse. It is discarded after complete depletion of
charge in it. Examples of primary batteries are alkaline batteries,
mercury batteries. silver-oxide batteries, and zinc carbon batteries.
Secondary Batteries
 The batteries that can be electrically recharged again are called
secondary batteries. By allowing the current in the opposite
direction, these batteries can be recharged. Nickel Cadmium,
Lead-Acid batteries and Lithium batteries fall into the secondary
battery category.
COMPARISON BETWEEN PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY BATTERIES

Primary Battery Secondary Battery

Initial cost is less. Initial cost is high.

Cost per kWh is high. Cost per kWh is less.
As these batteries are disposable, there is no As these batteries are rechargeable, regular
requirement of maintenance. maintenance is required.
Most suitable for portable application since it is Less suited for portable applications.
smaller and light weight in nature.
Has good charge maintenance Has poor charge maintenance
Not suitable for heavy load applications since the Suitable for heavy load applications due to its
discharge rate is poor. superior discharge rate.
In general, these batteries are limited to specific Due to inherent versatility, these batteries are used
applications. in most of the applications.
Examples:- Alkaline batteries, Mercury batteries, Example:- Nickel Cadmium, Lead-acid Batteries,
Silver-oxide batteries, zinc carbon batteries etc. Lithium batteries etc.
 TYPES OF BATTERIES AND
APPLICATIONS
Sr. No. Types of battery Applications
1. Lead acid battery In automobiles for starting and lighting, battery electric vehicles,
backup operations like rail road signals, air traffic controls and critical
systems in submarines, for lights and fans in trains etc.
2. Nickel-Cadmium In railways for lighting and air conditioning systems, for starting
battery engines and provide emergency power supply in military aero-planes
and helicopters, in movie cameras and photoflash, in electric shower,
variety of cordless electronic devices etc.
3. NiMH battery (Nickel Cellular phones, portable computers and laptops, digital cameras,
metal hydride) electronic toys, providing emergency supply to various electronic
instruments etc.
4. Lithium battery Consumer products such as camcorders, calculators, electric razors,
(Lithium Ion) medical equipments, portable radios, in traction applications in electric
and hybrid vehicles as standby power.
5. SMF battery (Sealed UPS systems, telecommunications equipments, fire alarms and security
Maintenance free) systems, office automation equipments, EPABX, solar lantern,
emergency lights, electronic weighing scale etc.
 IMPORTANT
CHARACTERISTICS
The various important characteristics for batteries are
 Nominal voltage: It is indicated on a battery depending on the number
of cells connected in series. It is open circuit voltage of a battery.
 Battery capacity or battery life: It is specified in ampere-hours (Ah).
It indicates the amount of electricity which a battery can supply at the
specified discharge rate till its voltage falls to a specified value.
Mathematically product of discharge current (ID) in amperes and the
time for discharge (TD) in hours till voltage falls to a specified value.
Battery capacity = ID*TD (Ah)
 Specific gravity of electrolyte: More the specific gravity of
electrolyte, more is the battery capacity. It decides internal resistance
of a battery.
Specific energy: The battery capacity expressed in watt-hour per kg
weight is called specific energy. It is also called gravimetric energy
density of a battery.
Electrical characteristics: These characteristics include the charging
and discharging curves for a battery. It is the graph of terminal voltage
against charging or discharging time in hours at normal rate.
 Battery efficiency :It is defined as the ratio of the output during
discharging to the input required during charging, to regain the
original state of the battery.
It is commonly called ampere-hour efficiency and denoted as ηAh.
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ arg 𝑒
𝜂𝐴ℎ =
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑐ℎ arg 𝑒

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ arg 𝑒

%𝜂𝐴ℎ = × 100
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑐ℎ arg 𝑒
Q1. An alkaline cell is discharged at a steady current of 4 ampere for 12
hours, the average terminal voltage being 1.2 V. To restore it to
original state of voltage , a steady current of 3 A for 20 hours is
required, the average terminal voltage being 1.44 V. Calculate the
ampere-hour and watt-hour efficiencies in this particular case.

Sol. Id = 4 A, Td = 12 hrs, Vd = 1.2 V, Ic= 3 A, Tc = 20hrs, Vc= 1.44 V.

Ampere hour efficiency:

%ηAH = {(Id ×Td )/(Ic ×Tc )} × 100
%ηAH = {(4×12)/(3×20)}× 100 = 80% Ans.

Watt-hour efficiency:
 %ηWH = {(Id ×Td × Vd)/(Ic×Tc×Vc)}×100
 %ηWH = {(4×12×1.2)/ (3×20×1.44) }×100= 66.66%Ans.
 BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS

 The emf of a fully charged Nickel-Iron battery is 1.4 V.

The average discharge voltage is about 1.2 V and the
average charging voltage is about 1.7 V per cell. The
characteristics of this type of battery are shown below in
the figure.
 The voltage characteristics of the Nickel Iron battery are similar to that
of the lead-acid cell. As the fully charged EMF 1.4 V and it slowly
decreases to 1.3 V and then very slowly to 1.1 or 1.0 V during
discharge.
 From the graph, we can see that there is no lower limit for discharging
EMF beyond which the output of the battery will be zero. That’s why
after a certain period the battery stop to any output.
 The EMF of a battery is directly proportional to the temperature,
which means the EMF of the battery increases with increase in
temperature.
 The average time of charging of a battery is 7 hours and discharging
time is 5 hours.
 Another characteristic of Edison battery is that
continuous operation at higher temperature decreases the
life of the battery, the same thing happens if the battery is
charged for more than the average time of charging.

 The ampere-hour and watt-hour efficiency of this nickel-

iron battery is 85 % and 60 % respectively.

 At 4oC temperature, the capacity of Edison battery falls to

zero, that’s why the battery should be heated up before
operation though during operation the I2R losses keeps the
battery hot and running.
 LEAD ACID BATTERY

Lead acid battery is the most commonly used secondary

battery. It uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the
generation of electrical energy from chemical reaction. It is
also denoted as Pb-Acid battery. In general, a single Pb-acid
battery can consist of 3, 6, or 12 lead acid cells.
The active components of lead acid battery are:
 Cathode: Lead peroxide (PbO2) and it is dark chocolate
brown in color when fully charged.
 Anode: Sponge lead and is grey in color when it is charged.
 Electrode: Dilute Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) contains 31% of
concentrated H2SO4.
 CHEMICAL ACTION IN Pb-ACID
BATTERY
Electrical Energy is supplied to the load when it is connected to
Pb-acid battery and the battery gets charged when it is connected to
DC Supply. The chemical action taking place in battery during
charging and discharging are given below:
During Charging
Here, a DC supply voltage higher than battery voltage is connected
to the electrodes of the battery such that positive electrode gets
connected to positive terminal.
 At anode:
PbSO4+ 2H Pb + H2SO4 (1)
 At cathode:
PbSO4 + SO4+ 2H2O PbO2 + 2H2SO4 (2)
 The changes that take place during charging of battery
are:

 Cathode gets converted into PbO2 and makes is dark chocolate brown color.
 Similarly, anode changes into grey color sponge lead.
 Concentration of electrolyte increases.
 Output voltage of a cell rises to 2.1V at no load condition.
 Chemical energy is produced from electrical energy.

During Discharging

When Pb-acid battery supplies current, the electrolyte, i.e., H2SO4gets splits into
Hydrogen ions (2H+) and Sulphate ions (SO4)
 At anode:
Pb + SO4 PbSO4 (3)
 At cathode:
PbO2 + 2H + H2SO4 PbSO4+ 2H2 (4)
The changes that takes place during discharging of
energy are:

 Cathode is covered with white colour PbSO4

 Similarly, anode is covered with PbSO4and converts grey
colour plate to white colour.
 Concentration of electrolyte decreases due to formation of
water.
 Output voltage of a cell falls to 1.8V at no load condition.
 Electrical Energy is produced from chemical energy.
Advantages of Pb-acid Battery:

 Efficiency of the battery is high, i.e., nearly 80 percent.

 Number of times the battery can be recharged is 300 to 1500
 It is environmental friendly.
 Cost of the battery is less.

Disadvantages of Pb-acid battery are:

 Effectiveness if the battery gets reduced at low temperature

 Due to overcharging, corrosion of battery occurs.
 It is not possible to keep it in ideal position for long duration.
Applications of Pb-acid Battery

The Pb-acid batteries are:

 Used in automobile applications for starting of internal
combustion engines.
 Used in emergency lighting and security alarm systems.
 Used in heavy duty loads like trains, lift, truck, etc.
 Used as an energy source in submarines.
 Nickel Cadmium Battery
A secondary battery made of nickel and cadmium is called Nickel
Cadmium battery and is denoted as Ni-Cd Battery. The active
components of Ni-Cd Battery are:
 Anode: Cadmium , Cd
 Cathode: Nickel hydroxide, NiOH2 and
 Electrolyte: Alkaline Potassium hydroxide, KOH.
The chemical action taking place in Ni-Cd Battery during discharging
and charging process is given as follows:

During Discharging

During the battery operation, the electrolyte KOH breaks into K and OH
ions. Hence, the following action takes place at anode and cathode
when the battery is connected to the load.
 At Anode:
Cd + 2OH Cd(OH)2 (5)
 At Cathode:
NiO(OH) + H2O Ni(OH)2 +OH (6)

During Charging

When the battery is connected to DC supply for charging purpose,

the following action takes place at anode and cathode:
 At Anode:
Cd(OH)2 + 2K Cd + 2KOH (7)
 At Cathode:
Ni(OH)2 + OH NiO(OH) + H2O (8)
 Advantages, Disadvantages and
Applications of Ni-Cd Battery
The advantages of Ni-Cd Battery are:

 It can be recharged many times.

 During discharging, it maintains voltage at a constant level.
 At low temperature, the performance of the battery is good.
 It is available in different configurations like button, cylindrical and rectangular.

The disadvantages of Ni-Cd Battery are:

 Due to high toxicity level of cadmium, it creates environmental pollution.

 Since cadmium is a heavy metal, the weight of the batteries is high.
 The electrolyte used is in this battery is a corrosive hazardous chemical.

The major applications of Ni-Cd Battery are:

 Used in flash lights, photoflash units and portable electronic equipment.

 Used in emergency lighting and alarm systems.
 Used in air-crafts, space satellite systems.
 Used to start large diesel engines, gas turbine, etc.
 LITHIUM ION BATTERY
The secondary battery that plays a major role in electric vehicles is
Lithium Ion Battery or Li-ion battery. The active components of Li-
ion battery are:
 Anode: Lithium carbon
 Cathode: Lithium metal oxide, LiMOx where M is any metal, and
 Electrolyte: Non-aqueous electrolyte like Ethylene carbonate or
Diethyl carbonate.
Based on metal, the Li-ion battery is classified as:
1. Lithium cobalt oxide battery
2. Lithium Manganese oxide battery
3. Lithium Nickel Manganese battery
4. Lithium Ion Phosphate battery
5. Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide battery
6. Lithium Titanate battery
 Advantages, Disadvantages and
Applications of Li-ion Battery
The advantages of Li-ion Battery are:

 Weight of the battery is less when compared to other batteries.

 Li-ion Battery is available in different shapes.
 It posses very low self-discharging rate, i.e., 5-10 % per month.
 This battery does not pollute the environment, i.e. it is eco friendly.

The disadvantages of Li-ion Battery are:

 Flow of charge inside the battery gets affected due to deposition of ions.
 The internal resistance of the battery gets increases gradually and hence, the output decreases.
 It cannot be used to charge the normal charges.

The major applications of Li-ion Battery are:

 Used in the laptop, computers and advanced cellular phones.

 Used in military equipments like mine detectors, satellite, military radios etc..
 Lead Acid Nickel Cadmium Lithium Ion
It has very low internal resistance. It has very low internal resistance. It has medium internal resistance.
Nominal battery voltage is 3.2-
Nominal battery voltage is 2V Nominal battery voltage is 1.2V
3.7V
Charge and discharge cutoff Charge and discharge cutoff Charge and discharge cutoff
voltage are 2V and 2.4V voltage are 1.2V and 1V voltage are 4.2V and 2.5V
respectively respectively respectively
Less maintenance is required. Moderate maintenance is required. Free from maintenance
Its efficiency is approximately 90 Its efficiency is approxi. 70-90
Its efficiency is 99 percent
percent percent
Very high toxicity level Very high toxicity level Low toxicity level
Requires protection circuit for
It is thermally stable It is thermally stable
stability
Time taken to charge the battery is Time taken to charge the battery is Time taken to charge the battery is
8 to 16 hours. 1 to 2 hours. 1 to 4 hours.
Self-discharge per month is 5 Self-discharge per month is 20 Self-discharge per month is less
percent of its total capacity percent of its total capacity than 3 percent of its total capacity
 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND SAVINGS

The total electrical energy consumption is the addition of electrical

energy consumption of various domestic appliances or industrial
machinery.
 To calculate the consumption of an electrical appliance, following
factors are required:
1. Capacity of electrical appliances in watts.
2. Number of hours for which appliance is in use in one day.
3. Number of days per month or year as per the required energy calculation.
Mathematically energy consumption of an appliance is given by-
 kWh per month = {(Capacity of appliance in Watt)*(Number of
hours/day)*(Number of days/month)}/1000
 The division of 1000 is to express energy consumption in kWh i.e.
units.
[1Unit = 1 kWh ]
 Addition of energy consumptions of all appliances, total
energy consumption per month can be obtained.
 But practically an energy meter is installed which directly
measures the total energy consumption of a house or
industry.
 Thus for practical energy consumption calculation we need,
1. Energy meter reading at the start of counting period.
2. Energy meter reading at the end of counting period.
3. Number of days in a counting period which is generally a
month.
Total energy consumption per month =
Final reading in kWh after a month – Initial
reading in kWh.
 To find the consumption for one year, the energy consumption
per day is multiplied by 365 days.
 For calculating energy savings use:
Energy saving (kWh/year) = [365×Energy Consumption per day in
previous year] – [Energy consumption per current year].
 By knowing energy consumption of each appliance and replacing
bulbs by lower wattage bulbs, saving in energy can be achieved.

Q2. Calculate the energy consumption per day in a house using 5

CFLs of 20 W each, 3 fans of 60 W each for 3 hrs a day.
AKTU (2018-19)
Sol. KWh = = 0.84 kWh.
 BATTERY BACKUP

A battery backup device is an electronic device that supplies secondary

power in the absence of the main power. It can also protect electronic
hardware from power spikes and fluctuations.
The main battery backup device which is commonly used is called
uninterruptible power supply [UPS].
Need of UPS:
1. Most of the systems operate on A.C. supply. Thus A.C. supply
failure causes periodical stoppage of the various systems.
2. Most of the modern systems are computers and microprocessors.
Any interruption in the power supply may results into the loss of the
work and may make system ineffective.
3. Many important places like hospitals, temples, playing grounds,
banks etc. require continuous supply for their efficient operation.
 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER
SUPPLY (UPS)
The basic block diagram of an UPS which is using two power
sources, controlled by a switch.
 The UPS is designed so that there is one source of power, used under
normal conditions, known as primary power source (a.c. mains) and other
source called the secondary power source that comes in to action if the
primary source is disrupted.
 A switch is used as a controlling device. It changes from primary source to
secondary source when it detects that the primary source has failed. It
automatically switches back from the secondary power source to the
primary when it is detected that the primary source has returned to normal.
 The power available from mains is a.c. All batteries provided d.c. Hence in
UPS there is circuitry to convert a.c. to d.c. for battery charging called a
converter. Similarly there is a device converting d.c. from battery to a.c. as
required by the load. This is called an inverter. These are important
components of any UPS.
 The two types of UPS are:- 1. On line UPS. 2. Off line UPS.
Online
UPS
 COMPARISON BETWEEN ON-LINE
AND OFF -LINE UPS

Sr.
Parameter ON line UPS OFF Line UPS
No.

Battery is the primary source and

A.C. is the primary source and battery is
1. Operation a.c. mains is secondary power
the secondary power source.
source.

Complete isolation between load

2. Isolation No isolation between load and a.c. mains.
and a.c. mains.

3. Reliability Highest and transfer time is zero Lower and transfer time is few msec

4. Economy High cost Low cost

5. Size Large size Small size
6. Efficiency Less due to power dissipation High efficiency
Q1. Explain the necessity of ELCB.
 There are certain situations where leakage current can flow
through the metal bodies of appliances, when person touches
to such appliances. Thus person gets a shock.
 Similarly there is risk of fire due to such earth leakage
currents.
 Thus a protective device is necessary which can sense small
leakage current and disconnects the circuit from supply. Such
a device is called earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB).
Q2. State the advantages of ELCB.
 Provide protection to a human against the electric shock.
 Detects very small leakage currents.
 Reduces the risk of fire due to hot spots.
 Saves electrical energy due to leakage.
 Energy conservation can be achieved.
Q3. States the application area of MCCB.
MCCB are used for high current protection such as,
 Generator protection
 Main feeder protection
 Motor protection
 Capacitor bank protection
 Welding applications
 Applications which needs adjustable current trip settings.

Q4. Names the various types of wires used in electrical

installations. AKTU (2018-19)
 Vulcanized India Rubber Wires (V.I.R.)
 Cab Type Sheathed Wires (C.T.S.)
 PolyVinyl Chloride Wires (P.V.C.)
 Flexible Wires
 Questions asked in AKTU Even Sem 2018-19
 Describe the electrical characteristics of lead-acid battery.
 Explain the construction, rating,specific applications of at least two types of wires and cables
used in electrical engineering.
 Explain (i).MCB (ii).MCCB (iii).ELCB
 Define The purpose of earthing the electrical appliances.
 What is the difference between primary and secondary batteries?
Questions asked in AKTU OddSem 2018-19
 Why Earth pin is made thicker and bigger than line and neutral?
 Calculate the energy consumption per day in a house using 5 CFLs of 20 W each, 3
 fans of 60 W each for 3 hrs a day.
 Draw the characteristics of battery.
 Calculate the backup of battery of 100AH connected to load of 100 watts and supply
voltageis 12V.
 (a)Write short notes on the following:
 MCB (ii) MCCB (c) Fuse (d) Types of wires
 Explain following:
 Need of Earthing
 Battery backup