14 � Engineering Physics-II

UNIT

2 PROPERTIES
Mechanical OF MATTER
properties

2.1 ELASTICITY

Introduction:
When an external force is applied on a body, which is not free to move, the shape and size of the
body change. The force applied is called deforming force. When the deforming forces are removed,
the body tends to regain its original shape and size due to a force developed within the body. The force
developed within the body, which is equal and opposite to deforming force is called restoring force.
Bodies, which completely regain their original size and shape after the removal of the deforming
force, are called elastic bodies. Bodies which change the shape and size on the application of force and
which do not regain their original condition on removal of the deforming forces are said to be plastic
bodies. Bodies which do not change their shape and size on application of force are called rigid bodies.
The property by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original shape and size after removal of
the deforming force is known as elasticity.
Stress :
When an external force is acting on an elastic body, it causes deformation (change in shape or in
size or both). At the same time, due to elastic property, a force is developed within the material, which
is equal and opposite to the applied force, to bring the body to its original shape and size. This force is
‘restoring force’.
Force F
Stress = =
Area A
The stress is defined as the restoring force acting on unit area.
Since the applied force and the restoring force are equal in magnitude, the ‘stress’ is measured as the
applied force acting per unit area.
The unit for stress is newton metre-2 with symbol N m-2 or 'pascal' with symbol 'Pa'.
When the applied force tends to compress the body, the stress is compressive. When it tends to
increase the length in the direction of the force, it is tensile and when it acts parallel to the surface of a
body, the stress is tangential stress.
Hooke's law:
Within the elastic limits, the strain produced in a body is directly proportional to the stress which
causes it.
i.e., strain ∝ stress
or stress ∝ strain
stress
∴ = a constant
strain
This constant is called 'modulus of elasticity'.
Types of strains:
Strain: Change in dimensions to original dimensions is known as Strain.
 Properties of Matter � 15

(1) Linear Strain:

When a wire or bar is subjected to two equal and opposite forces, namely pulls, at its ends, there is
an increase in the length. If the forces are tensile, the body is elongated. If the forces are compressive,
the length is shortened in the direction of the forces. This is called the 'linear strain'.
The linear strain is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length. If the change
(increase or decrease) in length is ' l ' in a wire or bar of original length L,
As the linear strain is ratio of lengths, it has no unit.

Change in length l
linear strain = =
original length L
(2) Bulk (or) Volume Strain:
When a force is applied uniformly and normally to the entire surface of the body, there is a change
in volume of the body, without any change in its shape. This strain is called 'bulk or volume strain'.
Volume strain is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume. It has also no unit.
If 'v' is the change in volume produced in a body of original volume ‘V’,
Change in volume v
bulk or volume strain = =
original volume V
(3) Shearing (or) Rigidity strain:
When a force is applied parallel to one face of a body, the opposite side being fixed, there is a change
in shape but not in size of the body. This strain is called the shearing strain.
Solids alone can have a shearing strain. It is measured by the angle of the shear 'θ' in radian.
Three modulii of elasticity
There are three types of modulii depending upon the three kinds of strain.
(a) Young's modulus (E):
It is defined as the ratio of linear stress to linear strain.
Let a wire of initial length L and cross-sectional area ' A', undergo an extension l, when a stretching
force 'F', is applied in the direction of its length.
The modulus of elasticity, in this case, is called Young's modulus and is given by
Linear stress
i.e., Young's modulus ( E ) =
Linear strain
F
Then, longitudinal or linear stress = A A
L
l I
and longitudinal strain =
L
F
Linear stress F / A F.L
E= = =
Linear strain l / L A.l

The unit for Young’s modulus is newton metre-2 with symbol N m-2. The single term unit which is
widely used for Young's modulus is 'pascal' with symbol 'Pa'.
(b) Bulk (or) Volume modulus (k):
It is defined as the ratio of bulk stress to bulk strain.
16 � Engineering Physics-II

When a body is subjected to a uniform compressive force, its volume decreases and the strain
produced is a bulk or volume strain.
If 'v' is the change in volume and V is the original volume, then
If F is the total compressive force acting on a total area A, then bulk stress = F/A = P
Bulk stress
Bulk modulus (k) = Bulk strain

If P is the stress applied i.e. (force/unit area) then,

v
bulk strain =
V
P P.V
bulk modulus k = =
v/V v
The unit for bulk modulus is 'newton metre-2' with symbol N m-2. The single term unit which is
widely used for bulk modulus is 'pascal' with symbol 'Pa'.
(c) Shearing (or) Rigidity modulus 'n':
The ratio of the shearing stress applied to the body to the shearing strain produced is called the
rigidity modulus and denoted by the letter 'n'.
If T is the tangential force/unit area and if θ is the angle of shear measured in radian, then
T F
rigidity modulus n = =
θ Aθ

The unit for rigidity modulus is 'newton metre-2 radian-1' with symbol N m-2 rad-1. The other unit
which is widely used for rigidity modulus is 'pascal radian-1' with symbol 'Pa rad-1'.
Poisson's ratio: σ
When a tensile stress is applied to a wire, the wire undergoes not only an extension of length in the
direction of the force but also a contraction in its thickness. The ratio of decrease in thickness to the
original thickness in lateral direction is known as lateral contraction.
The ratio of lateral contraction to linear elongation is called Poisson's ratio.
Lateral contraction
Poisson ' s ratio σ = Linear elongation
Bending of beams: Questions
A beam
A copper is of
wire a body having
3 m length anduniform cross section,
1 mm diameter the tolength
is subjected of which
a tension of 5 kgiswt.very large the
Calculate compared
elongation to its
thickness.
produced When suchif aYoung's
in the wire, beam ismodulus
fixed atofone end and
elasticity loadedis at
of copper theG other
120 Pa. end, it is called a cantilever.
A beam
A load of 5 kgis issupported
attached tosymmetrically
the free end of aon two
wire knife 2edges
of length m andAdiameter
and B at 0.6the
mm.same
If the level. It isof loaded
extension the
symmetrically with two equal weights W, W, beyond the
wire is 0.2 mm, calculate the Young's modulus of the material of the wire.knife edges, at C and D, so that AC=BD=a.
Now the beam is elevated at the centre. This type of bending is called uniform bending of beam.
A beam is supported symmetrically on two knife edges A and B near its ends in a horizontal level.
A weight hanger W is suspended by means of a loop of thread from a point which is exactly midway
between the two knife edges. Now the beam is depressed at the centre. This type of bending is called
non-uniform bending of beam.