AM MODULATION

this must be the amplitude

linear modulation
Avoiding Interference: Modulation helps separate signals that share the
same frequency range, allowing listeners to tune into specific programs
without interference.

Antenna Size: To make antennas more practical in size, signals are shifted
to higher frequencies. Lower frequencies require enormous antennas,
which are impractical to build.

Energy Efficiency: High-frequency signals carry energy over greater

distances compared to lower-frequency sound signals, making
communication more effective and efficient.
an important eqn here
 Amplitude Modulation
A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband
message signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.
According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means,
the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude
of the signal containing information, at each instant. This can be well explained by the
following figures.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one
is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While,
the last one is the resultant modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are
interconnected with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the
modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the
same as that of the message signal.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.
Time-domain Representation of the Waves
Let the modulating signal be,

and the carrier signal be,

Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fcare the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
Modulation Index
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of
modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.
Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.

Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac. Mathematically,
we can write it as

Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when
the amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.
Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We
can use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and
minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.
Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave,

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as
Percentage of Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying
the modulation index value with 100.
For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the
modulated output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation.
Such a wave is called as an under-modulated wave.

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be
an over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180 o phase
reversal, which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such
an over-modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.
Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the
signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
BW=fmax−fmin
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

Here,
fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm
Substitute, fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)
⇒BW=2fm
Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice
the frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power
and the modulation index are known.
If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier
power. So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power
for a perfect modulation.
AM TRANSMITTERS:
AM MODULLATION
Amplitude Modulation
AM RECEIVERS
OBJECTIVES
 To define AM demodulation
 To define and describe the receiver
parameters
 To describe the operation of a tuned radio
frequency (TRF) receiver
 To describe the operation of a
superheterodyne receiver
LECTURE OVERVIEW
 Demodulation
 Receiverparameters
 Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver
 Superheterodyne receiver
INTRODUCTION
 AM demodulation – reverse process of AM
modulation.
 Demodulator: converts a received
modulated-wave back to the original
source information.
 Basic understanding of the terminology
commonly used to describe radio
receivers & their characteristics is needed
to understand demodulation process
SIMPLIFIED BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN AM RECEIVER
RECEIVER PARAMETERS
 Selectivity
 Bandwidth improvement
 Sensitivity
 Dynamic range
 Fidelity
 InsertionLoss
 Noise temperature & Equivalent noise
temperature
SELECTIVITY
 Used to measure the ability of the
receiver to accept a given band of
frequencies and reject all others.
 Way to describe selectivity is to simply
give the bandwidth of the receiver at the
-3dB points.
 Not necessarily a good means of
determining how well the receiver will
reject unwanted frequencies.
CONT’D…
 Give the receiver bandwidth at two levels
of attenuation. Eg: -3dB, -60dB
 The ratio of two BW ~ Shape factor
SF = B(-60 dB) / B(- 3dB)
Where
SF – Shape factor
B(-60dB) – BW 60dB below max signal level
B(-3dB) – BW 3dB below max signal level
CONT’D…
 Ifboth BW equal, the shape factor would
be 1.
 Impossible to achieve in practical circuit
 Example application for SF nearly 1
 Satellite
 Microwave
 Two way radio Rx
BANDWIDTH IMPROVEMENT
 Thermal noise directly proportional to
bandwidth.
 Reduce BW ~ reduce noise, improving system
performance.
 Reducing BW = improving the noise figure of
the RX
CONT’D…
Bandwidth Improvement, BI
BI = BRF /BIF
Where BRF = RF Bandwidth (Hz)
BIF = IF Bandwidth (Hz)
Noise figure improvement,
NF = 10 log BI
SENSITIVITY
 The minimum RF signal level that can be
detected at the input to the Rx and still
produce a usable demodulated
information signal.
 Usually stated in micro volts of received
signal.
 Rx sensitivity also called Rx threshold.
CONT’D…
 Depends on:
 The noise power present at the input to the
Rx.
 Rx noise figure.
 AM detector sensitivity.
 BI factor of the Rx

 To improve ~ reduce the noise level

 Reducing the temperature or Rx BW or RX noise figure
DYNAMIC RANGE
 The difference (in dB) between the minimum
input level necessary to discern a signal and
the input level that will overdrive the Rx and
produce distortion.
 Input power range over which the Rx is
useful.
CONT’D…
A dynamic range of 100dB is considered
about the highest possible.
 A low dynamic range can cause a
desensitizing of the RF amplifiers and result
in severe intermodulation distortion of the
weaker input signal.
FIDELITY
A measure of the ability of a communication
system to produce (at the output of the Rx)
an exact replica of the original source
information.
CONT’D…
 Forms of distortion that can deteriorate the
fidelity of a communication system:-
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
NOISE TEMPERATURE & EQUIVALENT
NOISE TEMPERATURE
 Thermal noise directly proportional to
temperature ~ can be expressed in degrees,
watts or volts.
 Environmental temperature, T (kelvin)
T = N/KB
Where N = noise power (watts)
K = Boltzman’s Constant
(1.38 X 10-23 J/K)
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
CONT’D…
 Equivalent noise temperature, (Te)
Te = T(F-1)
Where T = environmental temperature
(kelvin)
F = Noise factor
 Te often used in low noise, sophisticated
radio receivers rather than noise figure.
INSERTION LOSS
 IL is a parameter associated with the
frequencies that fall within the passband
of a filter.
 The ratio of the power transferred to a
load with a filter in the circuit to the
power transferred to a load without the
filter.
IL (dB) = 10 log (Pout /Pin)
AM RECEIVERS
 Two basic types of radio receivers.
1. Coherent
 Synchronous receivers
 The frequencies generated in the Rx & used for
demodulation are synchronized to oscillator
frequencies generated in Tx.
2. Non-coherent
 Asynchronous receivers
 Either no frequencies are generated in the Rx or the
frequencies used for demodulation completely
independent from the Tx’s carrier frequency.
 Non-coherent detection = envelope detection.
COHERENT
 EXAMPLE OF COHERENT DEMODULATION: SSB

➢ The received signal is heterodyned /mixed with a

local carrier signal which is synchronous (coherent)
with the carrier used at the transmitting end.

Coherent demodulation

SSB
X LPF

cos wct
NON-COHERENT RX

 Tuned Radio Frequency Rx

 Superheterodyne Rx
NON-COHERENT TUNED RADIO
FREQUENCY RECEIVER (TRF RX)
CONT’D
 RF amplifier - to filter and amplify the
received signal to a level sufficient to drive
the detector
 Audio detector - converts RF signals directly
to information
 Audio stage – amplifies the information
signals to a usable level
 Advantages – simple and have relatively high
sensitivity
DISADVANTAGES OF TRF
 Bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with
center frequency when tuned over a wide
range of input frequencies
 This is caused by a phenomenon called the
skin effect
 Skin effect phenomenon:
B = f/Q
Where Q is quality factor.
CONT’D…
 Instabilitydue to large number of RF
amplifiers all tuned to the same center
frequency.
 Can be reduced by tuning each amplifier to a
slightly different frequency, slightly above or
below the desired center frequency.

 Their gains are not uniform over a very wide

frequency range because of the non-uniform
L/C ratios of the transformer-coupled tank
circuits in the RF amplifiers
AM SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
CONT’D…
 RF section:
 Preselector is use to provide enough initial band-
limiting to prevent a specific unwanted radio
frequency called the image frequency from
entering the receiver
 Preselector also reduces the noise bandwidth of
the receiver
 RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the
receiver
CONT’D…
 Mixer/ converter section:
 Is a nonlinear device and its purpose is to convert
radio frequencies to intermediate frequencies
(RF-to-IF translation)
 IF section:
 Most of the receiver gain and selectivity is
achieved in the IF section
 IF is always lower in frequency than the RF
because it is easier and less expensive to
construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low-
frequency signals.
CONT’D…
 Detector section:
 To convert the IF signals back to the original
source information
 Audio amplifier section:
 Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and
one or more speakers
FREQUENCY CONVERSION
 Highside injection,
flo = fRF + fIF
 Low side injection
flo = fRF - fIf
 INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF)

 Mixers generate signals that are the sum

and difference of the incoming signal
frequency (fS) and the frequency of the
local oscillator (fLO).
 The
difference frequency is more
commonly chosen as the IF.
 Some receivers use the sum frequency for
the IF.
 IMAGES
 An image (fIM) is an undesired signal that is
separated from the desired signal frequency
(frf) by two times the IF (fIF).
 fI = frf + 2fIF or frf - 2fIF
 Images interfere with the desired signal.
 Images can be eliminated or minimized by:
 Proper selection of the IF in design.
 Use of highly selective filters before the mixer.
 Use of a dual conversion receiver.
CON’T’D…
 Image frequency
fim = fRF + 2fIF
 Image Frequency rejection ratio
IFRR = √ (1 + Q²ρ²)
Where ρ = (fim/fRF) –(fRF/fim)
EXAMPLE
For a citizens band receiver using high-side
injection with an RF carrier of 27 MHz and an
IF center frequency of 455 kHz, determine
a. Local oscillator frequency
b. Image frequency
c. IFRR for a preselector Q of 100
AM APPLICATION
 AM Radio broadcasting
 Commercial AM radio broadcasting utilizes the
frequency band 535 – 1605 kHz for transmission
voice and music.
 Carrier frequency allocation range, 540-1600 kHz
with 10 kHz spacing.
CONT’D…
 Radio stations employ conventional AM for
signal transmission – to reduce the cost of
implementing the Rx.
 Used superheterodyne Rx.
 Every AM radio signal is converted to a
common IF frequency of fIF = 455 kHz.
ANGLE MODULATION
Introduction
 Angle modulation is the process by
which the angle (frequency or phase) of
the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.
Cont’d…
 classification into two types such as
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
 Used for :
 Commercial radio broadcasting
 Television sound transmission
 Two way mobile radio
 Cellular radio
 Microwave and satellite communication system
 Cont’d…
Advantages over AM:
 freedom from interference: all natural and
external noise consist of amplitude variations,
thus the AM receiver usually cannot
distinguish between amplitude of noise or
desired signal. AM is noisier than FM.
 operate in very high frequency band (VHF)
and above; (commercial FM broadcast
band):88M-108MHz
 Can transmit musical programs with higher
degree of fidelity.
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
PRINCIPLES

 In FM the carrier amplitude remains

constant, the carrier frequency varies
with the amplitude of modulating
signal.
 The amount of change in carrier
frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as frequency
deviation.
Carrier Modulating signal

Resting fc
FM

Increasing fc

Decreasing fc

Increasing fc

Resting fc
Comparison of AM and FM
 Phase modulation(PM)
 The process by which changing the phase of
carrier signal in accordance with the
instantaneous of message signal. The amplitude
remains constant after the modulation process.
 Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:

 m t   Vm cos  m t
And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ c t   ]
 PM(cont’d)
 Where  = phase angle of carrier signal . It is changed in
accordance with the amplitude of the message signal ;
  KVm ( t )  KVm cos m t
 After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will be
v pm ( t )  VC cos (C t  KVm cos m t )
or
v pm ( t )  VC cos (C t  m p cos m t )

 where m p  KVm ; modulation index of phase modulation

 K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of the
phase. Unit in rad/V or deg/V.
FREQUENCY
MODULATION(FM)
 A process where the frequency of the
carrier wave varies with the magnitude
variations of the modulating or audio
signal.
 The amplitude of the carrier wave is
kept constant.
Differences between FM and PM Waveforms

Carrier

Modulating
signal

FM

PM
FM(cont’d)
 Mathematical analysis:
 Let message signal:

 m t   Vm cos mt
 And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ ct   ]
 FM (cont’d)
 During the process of frequency modulations the
frequency of carrier signal is changed in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of message signal .Therefore
the frequency of carrier after modulation is written as
i  c  K1vm t   C  K1Vm cos m t

 To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated

signal, integrate equation above with respect to t

i   i dt   C  K1Vm cos m t  dt  C t 

K1Vm
sin m t
m
rad / s
where K1 is the deviation sensitivity constant for FM, unit in
V
or Hz/V.
FM(cont’d)
 Thus, we get the FM wave as:
K1Vm
v FM ( t )  Vc cos 1  Vc cos(C t  sin m t )
m

vFM ( t )  VC cos(C t  mf sinm t )

where modulation index for FM is given by

K1Vm
mf 
m
FM(cont’d)
 Frequency deviation: ∆f is the relative
displacement of carrier frequency (Hz) w.r.t
its unmodulated value. Given as:
max  C  K1Vm
min  C  K1Vm
d  max  C  C  min  K1Vm
d K1Vm
f  
2 2
FM(cont’d)
 Therefore:
K1Vm
f  ;
2
f
mf 
fm

where m f is the modulation index for FM.

 Equations for Phase and Frequency Modulated Carriers

Equations for Phase- and Frequency-Modulated Carriers

Copyright ©2004 by Pearson Education,

Inc.
Tomasi
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Electronic Communications Systems, 5e
All rights reserved.
 Bessel Function

 The expression of a carrier that either being

phase or frequency modulated by a single
frequency modulating signal can be written
in a general form as,

vFM ( t )  VC cos(C t  mf cos m t ) ----- (1)

where mf cos m t is the instantaneous phase

deviation.
 Bessel function (cont’d)
 BF is used to analyze angle-mod. wave by a
single-freq. sinusoidal produces a peak phase
deviation of m radians, where m is the modulation
index.
BF identity states,

n
cos(  m cos )   J n (m) cos (  n  ) ----(2)
n   2

Jn(m) is the Bessel Function of the First Kind of nth order

with argument m.
If eqn.(2) is applied into eqn.(1), it can be written as,

n
VFM ( t )  Vc 
n  
J n (m) cos ( c t  n m t  ) ----(3)
2
 Bessel function (cont’d)

Expanding eqn.(3),

   
v FM t   VC {J 0 (m f ) cos C t  J 1 (m f ) cos(C   m ) t    J 1 (m f ) cos(C   m ) t  
 2  2

 J 2 (m f ) cos [(c  2m t )]  J 2 (m f ) cos [(c  2m t )]  ......J n (m f )}

B.F. (cont’d)
 It is seen that each pair of side band is preceded by J
coefficients. The order of the coefficient is denoted by
subscript m. The Bessel function can be written as

 mf 
n
 1 m f / 22 m f / 24 (m f / 2) 6 
 
J n m f         ...........
 2   n 1! n  1! 2! n  2 ! 3! ( n  1) ! 

 n= number of the side frequency or J

 mf = modulation index
Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)
for some value of modulation index
B.F. (cont’d)
Representation of frequency spectrum
Angle Modulation
Part 2
FM Bandwidth
Power distribution of FM

Generation & Detection of FM

Application of FM
 FM Bandwidth

 Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM

requires infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM systems have
finite bandwidth and they perform well.
 The value of modulation index determine the number of
sidebands that have the significant relative amplitudes

Estimation of FM bandwidth can be made by 2 methods :

a) Bessel Function

b) Carson’s rule
 FM Bandwidth (cont’d)

a) Bessel Function
If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of frequency
spectrum are spaced by fm, thus the bandwidth is:

B  2nf m

where n  1 , number of significant sidebands

fm --- modulating signal freq.

This is the equation to determine the minimum BW for angle

mod. wave using Bessel table.
 FM Bandwidth (cont’d)

b) Carson’s rule
Carson’s rule is an approximation and gives transmission BW slightly
narrower than the BW determined using the Bessel table.

Carson’s rule is,

B  2 (f  f m )

where f ------ peak freq. deviation

fm ------ modulating signal freq.
 FM Bandwidth (cont’d)

For low mod. index (where m<1), the freq. spectrum

resembles AM DSBFC, and the min. BW is approximate
by,
B  2 fm

For high mod. index (where m  1), the min. BW is given

by,
B  2 f
Deviation Ratio (DR)
 The worse case modulation index which produces the widest
output frequency spectrum.
f (max )
DR  f m (max )

 Where
 ∆f(max) = max. peak frequency deviation

 fm(max) = max. modulating signal frequency

 FM Power Distribution
 As seen in Bessel function table, it shows that as the
sideband relative amplitude increases, the carrier
amplitude, J0 decreases.

 This is because, in FM, the total transmitted power is

always constant and the total average power is equal to
the unmodulated carrier power, that is the amplitude of
the FM remains constant whether or not it is
modulated.
 FM Power Distribution (cont’d)

 In FM, the total power that is originally in the carrier is

redistributed between all components of the spectrum,
in an amount determined by the modulation index, mf
and the corresponding Bessel functions.

 At certain value of modulation index, the carrier

component goes to zero, where in this condition, the
power is carried by the sidebands only.
(refer to Bessel Table : at mf = 2.4, 5.45 and 8.65)
FM Power Distribution (cont’d)

Vc2
 The average power in unmodulated carrier Pc 
2R
 The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated carrier.
v c ( t ) 2 Vc2
Pt   cos 2 [c t  ( t )] , expandingto
R R
Vc2  1 1  Vc
2
Pt    cos[ 2c t  2( t )] 
R 2 2  2R
This shows that the average power of modulated carrier
is equal to the average power of the unmodulated carrier.

 The total modulated power

V02 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2 2(Vn ) 2

Pt  P0  P1  P2  ..  Pn     .. 
2R 2R 2R 2R
 Generation of FM
 Two methods of FM generation:
A. Direct method:
i) straight forward, requires a VCO whose
oscillation frequency has linear dependence on
applied voltage.
ii) Advantage: large frequency deviation
iii) Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to
drift and must be stabilized.
iv) Example circuits:
1) Reactance modulator
2) Varactor diode
 Generation of FM (cont’d)

1) Reactance modulator
 Generation of FM (cont’d)

2) Varactor diode modulator

Generation of FM (cont’d)

B) Indirect method:
Armstrong modulator
by using frequency-up conversion that
involves 2 methods :
a. Heterodyne method
b. Multiplication method
Wideband Armstrong Modulator
A complete Armstrong modulator is supposed to
provide a 75kHz frequency deviation. It uses a
balanced modulator and 90o phase shifter to phase-
modulate a crystal oscillator. Required deviation is
obtained by combination of multipliers and mixing,
raise the signal from 400kHz  14.47Hz to 90.2MHz  75kHz
suitable for broadcasting.
 FM Detection/Demodulation

 Is a process of getting back or regenerate the original

modulating signal from the modulated FM signal.

 It can be achieved by converting the frequency deviation of

FM signal to the variation of equivalent voltage.

 The demodulator will produce an output where its

instantaneous amplitude is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal.

 To detect an FM signal, it is necessary to have a circuit

whose output voltage varies linearly with the frequency of
the input signal
 FM detection (cont’d)

Several types :

a) PLL (Phase-Locked Loop) demodulator

b) Slope detection / FM discriminator
c) Foster-Seeley Phase-Shift discriminator
d) Ratio detector
e) Quadrature FM detector

Except for PLL, others are traditional FM detectors

having tuned circuits for detection.
The most commonly used demodulator presently is the PLL
demodulator because of its simplicity and small size. Can be
use to detect either NBFM or WBFM.
 PLL Demodulator

V0(t) Demod.
FM input, fi(t) signal output
Phase Low pass
Amplifier
detector filter

fvco

VCO Vc(t)
PLL Demodulator
Brief operation :

The phase detector produces an average output

voltage that is linear function of the phase difference
between the two input signals. Then the low
frequency component is passed through the LPF to
get a small DC average voltage to the amplifier.

After amplification, part of the signal is fed back

through VCO where it results in frequency modulation
of the VCO frequency. When the loop is in lock, the
VCO frequency follows or tracks the incoming
frequency.
PLL Demodulator
 Let instantaneous freq of FM Input,
fi(t)=fc +k1vm(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f VCO(t)=f0 + k2Vc(t);
f0 is the free running frequency.
 For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
fvco = fi; or
PLL Demodulator
 f0 + k2Vc(t)= fc +k1vm(t), so,

Vc ( t )  f c  f 0  k1vm ( t )

 If VCO can be tuned so that fc=f0, then

Vc ( t )  k1vm ( t )
 Where Vc(t) is also taken as the output voltage,
which therefore is the demodulated output
Comparison AM and FM
 Its SNR can be increased without increasing transmitted power
about 25dB higher than in AM

 Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more easily to

suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter which eliminates the
amplitude variations and fluctuations.

 The modulation process can take place at a low level power

stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating power is needed.

 Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no waste of

power transmitted

 There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the

standardization body, which can reduce interference between
the adjacent channels.
 Applications of FM
 Used as WBFM in FM broadcasting and TV
audio modulation.
 Used as NBFM in VHF communication
equipment such as portable, mobile and
based stations.

It is preferred because of its immunity to noise or

interference and at the frequencies which used the
antennas of a reasonable size.
Summary of angle modulation
-what you need to be familiar with
Summary (cont’d)
Summary (cont’d)
 Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from Bessel
table:
B  2(n  f m )

b) Approximate minimum bandwidth using

Carson’s rule:
B  2(f  f m )
 Summary (cont’d)
 Multitone modulation (equation in general):
i  c  Kvm1  Kvm 2

i  c  2f1 cos 1t  2f 2 cos 2t....

f1 f 2
i  C t  sin 1t  sin 2t......
f1 f2
 Summary (cont’d)

v fm t   VC cos i
f1 f 2
v fm t   VC cos [C t  sin 1t  sin 2 t ]
f1 f2
 VC cos [C t  m f 1 sin 1t  m f 2 sin 2 t ]...........
Summary (cont’d)-
Comparison NBFM&WBFM
 Advantages

 Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the output

of the RX which proportional to the square of modulation index.
 Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective fading
since amplitude variations are unimportant and are removed at the
receiver using a limiting circuit.
 Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference. (minimizes
the effect of noise).
 Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter power in
information.
 Angle modulation is capable of handling a greater dynamic range of
modulating signal without distortion than AM.
Disadvantages
 Angle modulation requires a
transmission bandwidth much larger
than the message signal bandwidth.
 Angle modulation requires more
complex and expensive circuits than
AM.
 EEE 2326 ANALOGUE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ASSIGNMENT
1. Suppose that on AM signal, the 𝑉max⁡(𝑝−𝑝) value read from the graticule on the
oscilloscope screen is 5.9 division and 𝑉min⁡(𝑝−𝑝)
i. Determine the modulation index
ii. Calculate 𝑉𝐶 , 𝑉𝑚 and m if the vertical scale is 2V per division

2. An antenna has an impedance of 40Ω. An unmodulated AM signal produce a current of

4.8A. The modulation is 90%. Calculate the following :
i. Carrier power
ii. Total power
iii. Sideband power
iv. Efficiency
v. If the same antenna experience current change from 4.8A unmodulated to 5.1A.
What is the percentage modulation?

3. An AM transmitter uses high level modulation for the final RF power amplifier which
has a dc supply voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑐 of 48V with a total current I of 3.5A. The efficiency is 70%.
i. What is the RF input power of the final stage?
ii. How much AF power is requires for 100% modulation
iii. What is the carrier output power?
iv. What is the power in one sideband for 67% modulation
v. What is the maximum and minimum dc supply voltage swing with 100%
modulation

4. The modulating signal m (t) = 2Cos 4000⁡𝜋 t+ 5Cos 6000⁡𝜋 t is multiplied by the carrier
c(t) = 100 Cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t where 𝑓𝑐 =50KHz. Determine and sketch the power spectral density
of DSB signal.
5. An AM signal has the form u(t) = [20+2 Cos3000⁡𝜋 t+10 Cos6000⁡𝜋 t] Cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t where
𝑓𝑐 = 105 Hz.
i. Sketch the (Voltage) spectrum of u(t)
ii. Determine the power in each of the frequency components
iii. Determine the modulation index
iv. Determine the power in the sidebands, the total power, and the ratio of the
sidebands power ratio to the total power