UNIT – 1

3D GRAPHICS FOR GAME DESIGN

Game Programming:
Game programming refers to the code that brings a video or computer game to life.
Gaming programmers use programming languages, such as Adobe ActionScript, C++ and
Java, to create graphics, sound, artificial intelligence and tools in video games.
To create artificial intelligence, you could write code to make computer-controlled
characters more realistic in terms of expression, reaction and communication.
If you'd rather work in graphics or sound programming, you could work to perfect the
playback of music, audio effects or animation.
It is the software development of video games.
3-Dimensional: (3D)
3D is a three dimensional with three spatial dimensions of width, height and depth.
Example: The physical world and everything that is observed in it are three dimensional.
The Three-dimensional transformations are extensions of two-dimensional
transformation.
In 2D two Coordinates i.e. X and Y are used where as in 3D three coordinates X, Y, Z are
used.
3D GRAPHICS:
3D Graphics technics and their application are fundamentals to entertainment, games and
computer- aided design industries.
In 3D graphics, objects are created on a 3-dimensional stage, where the current view is
derived from the camera angle and light sources, similar to the real world.
GAME DESIGN:
It is the process of creating and shaping the mechanics, systems and rules of a game.
Game design canvas is a tool that can be used to analyze and formulate games and their
development.
The main basic things to design a game are:
• Platform
• Gameplay
 • Levels
• Audience
• Hero
• Enemies
• Scoring
• Story
• Extras

Genres of Games:
A video game genre is a specific category of games related by similar gameplay
characteristics. Video game genres are not usually defined by the setting or story of the
game or its medium of play, but by the way the player interacts with the game. In the
other term it is said as, all the games which we develop come under one of the various
predefined categories, these categories are also called Genre of Game.
Before developing a game, the game engineer or project leader has to decide what type of
game he wants to develop for his audience.
Genre of a game defines the exact category of the game and can be relayed through the
similar gameplay characteristics, like - the type of objectives and storyline, the levels and
camera point (i.e. FPS, TPS), the features and the storyline that the game is showcasing.
Genre of a game is not defined by the content or the playing mode, but by the common
challenges and characteristics, that the game is having.
EXAMPLE:
FIFA and PES - Pro Evolution Soccer have similar properties and objectives as both of
them are soccer games and the player's get points or the levels of difficulty raises as the
team wins the matches by scoring goals, like a real-life football match.
Here we have listed the main genres when it comes to categorizing games.
1. ACTION GAMES:
An action game is a video game genre that emphasizes physical challenges, including
hand–eye coordination and reaction time.
The action category has some sub-categories and they are listed below:
• Stealth Game: These games lean towards emphasizing trick and precision in
striking over the more obvious and unconcealed shooters. Examples are: Metal
Gear series, IGI series etc.
It is totally different from shooter games. This type of game makes staying
undetected by enemies by hiding, sneaking using disguises.
Example: While playing if the player gets some special abilities or gadgets or information
that the player can get during the game.
• Stealth Game: These games start with a minimal resource with the player, in a
hostile condition, along with open world situation with the objective to collect
resources, craft tools, artilleries and arms & protection, in order for the survival of
the player as the game proceeds.
• Shooter Games: In these games, players draw on a range of weapons for
contributing in the action that takes place at a distance.

It focuses on the defeat of the characters, enemies using ranged weapons given to the
player.

The common resource found in many shooters games ammunition.

Ammunition: It is the material fired, scattered, dropped from any weapon.

• Platform Games: These games are set in three-dimensional (3D) environment

where the player guides the character through the obstructions for advancement in
game.

2. ADVENTURE GAMES:

Just like adventure movies, games with the storyline of adventure are full of
fictional landscapes, characters etc. These games portray a different way of
gameplay without excessive reflex, hard core challenges or actions.

The focus lies on the player in solving puzzles or mysteries by interacting with the
environment.

EXAMPLE: Mario, Tin-Tin are examples of adventure games.

Some categories of adventure games are:

• Graphic Adventures

• Visual Novels (based on novels and stories) – Harry Potter (played using
PlayStations, X Box and other gaming consoles)

• Interactive Adventures (based on movies) - Tin-Tin, Batman etc.

• Real-time 3D Adventures - Shadow of Memories

3. ROLE PLAYING GAMES:

A player is chosen who plays the major role in the storyline full of
numerous adventurers and specializes in particular skill sets and that player
progress in the storyline incrementing his skills and powers. This category is one
of the most famous genres and is played by gamers worldwide.

Here's a list of some sub-categories of role-playing games:

• The roguelike Game: It is a sub-genre and its name comes from the gameplay
elements of 1980 computer game Rogue.
 Example: Nethack is another example of roguelike game.

• Fantasy Games: Games such as Diablo, Final Fantasy, Prince of Persia have a
world full of unusual characters and villains and the player has to complete the
levels full of challenges and mysteries and there lies some hidden routes which
needs to be unlocked to proceed with the game.

• Sandbox RPG (Open World RPG):

These are modern games where the player is given full freedom and can
freely roam around and do anything (i.e. the player is not restricted to a single path
by rocks & fences, single objective etc.).
Examples of such games are the famous Grand Theft Auto
(GTA) series, Watch Dogs Series etc.
These games provide a large geographic area to explore along with the
primary objectives and tasks of the game.

• Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG):

This term came into existence commercially in the year 1990s and had
existed since 1978. This involves more than hundreds of players interacting and
cooperating with each other on the same platform in real-time.

4. SIMULATION GAMES:
These are primarily designed and developed to closely simulate(replicate)
all the aspects of our real life or a fictional setup.
The various sub-categories of simulation games are: -
• Farming Simulation
• Vehicle Simulation
• Life Simulation
• Management Simulation

5. STRATEGY GAMES:

The main focus lies on the gameplay which require a cautious and skilled mindset
and a good plan for being victorious.
• 4X Game: 4X games refer to a genre of a specific form of strategy video games
having four primary goals which are-
1. eXplore
 2. eXpand
3. eXploit
4. eXterminate

• Real-time strategy (RTT) and War games:

The real-time strategy games are characterized by acquiring resources,

building bases and other assets within the game, and the player has to make
specific decisions and perform certain actions constantly in order to cope up with
the changing game state.

For example: Age of Empires etc.

• Tower Defence:

Tower defence games have a very simple format and gameplay. Make your
tower strong by deploying suitable define system to demolish the enemy troops.

• Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA):

MOBA games are also called the action real-time strategy (ARTS) games,
which is a sub-genre of strategy games which was originated as a real-time
strategy game wherein a player takes control over a single character in one of two
teams.

6. SPORTS GAMES:

These games emulate the gameplay of any traditional physical sports to be

played on a device. The real-world sports like baseball, basketball, soccer, and
more are available in the form of PC games.

As you grow your skill levels, your game will also engage in mimicking
real professional athletes and the way they move and play.

Its sub-types are:

• Racing
• Indoor Sports

• Outdoor Sports

• Fighting

• Competitive and Misc

7. SCIENTIFIC AND EDUCATIONAL GAMES:

There are a handful of great educational games out there which can actually help
children and kids and even grownups to learn new things and gather knowledge.

8. Casual Game: A casual game is a video game targeted at or used by a mass

audience of casual gamers.

9. Programming Game: A programming game is a video game that incorporates

elements of computer programming, enabling the player to direct otherwise
autonomous units within the game to follow commands in a domain-specific
programming language, often represented as a visual language to simplify the
programming metaphor.

10. Logic Game: Logic games are unique puzzles found nowhere else but on the
LSAT.
Example: Logic puzzle, including Sudoku, Futoshiki, Kakuro, etc.
Logic games, a section of the LSAT. a game-theoretical device for defining the
semantics of a logic.

11. Music Game: Music video game where the gameplay is meaningfully and often
almost entirely oriented around the player's interactions with a musical score or
individual songs.

12. Party Game: Party video games are commonly designed as a collection of simple
minigames, designed to be intuitive and easy to control, and allow for competition
between many players.

13. Trivia Game: A trivia game or competition is one where the competitors are
asked questions about interesting but unimportant facts in many subjects.
 14. Board Game/Card Game: Card video gaming refers to the use of cards in
electronic or digital gaming devices to play various games of chance.
These games can include card games, such as poker or blackjack, as well as
games that combine cards with other elements, such as dice or football simulations

Benefits of Understanding the Genre of Game:

It is very crucial to understand the genre of the game before starting with game
development. If you are working for some client for Game development project, try to
understand the genre of the game that your client has in mind, it will help you with
following:

1. Design the theme of your Game. An adventure game may look good with a forest
backdrop, while a game being designed for school kids would look good with
colorful backdrop etc.

2. Game sounds also depend upon the genre of the game.

3. Use of blood and violence in the game is only advised for Action games for 18+
age group players.

Hence, you get a lot of ideas once the genre of the game is defined.

Basics concepts of 2D and 3D Graphics:

2D Computer Graphics:

2D computer graphics is the computer-based generation of digital images mostly from

two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images) and by
techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that
comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves.

3D Computer Graphics:

3D Computer Graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of

geometric data (often Cartesian) that is stored in the computer for the purposes of
performing calculations and rendering digital images.
EXAMPLE: Human Eyes have 3D Perception and also known as depth perception. With
Depth Perception, People see the world in all the three spatial dimensions.

The Visual Cortex: This is located in the one part of the brain. It is responsible for
interpreting and processing visual information received from the eyes. The Visual Cortex
in each human eye first perceives the three dimensions of space as 2D images.

CONCEPTS FOR BOTH 2D AND 3D:

Both 2D and 3D types of graphics can be created with various software and technics such
as Vector graphics, raster graphics, pixel art, 3D Modelling, rendering, animation and
more.

a. Vector Graphics: They are digital images created from a series of

geometrically defined point lines and shapes. This is done under
mathematical equations rather than pixel.

b. Raster Graphics: This is a type of digital image that uses tiny rectangular
pixels or picture elements arranged in a grid formation to represent an
image.

c. Pixel Art: It is an art form that uses distinct, discrete color elements to
create images.

d. 3D Modelling: 3D models are used in films, gaming, architecture, product

design and more.

APPLICATIONS OF 3D MODELS:

3D models are used in most of the applications like:

1. Entertainment and media: 3D modelling is used extensively in VFX, video games

and films and TV. It isn’t at all uncommon to see productions that are entirely created
using 3D software.
2. Architecture and real estate: Architects and designers utilize 3D modelling to create
detailed virtual representations of buildings, interiors and landscapes. These models are
very useful in communicating the designer’s vision to prospective investors, clients and
the public.

3. Product design and manufacturing: 3D modelling is an efficient and environmental-

friendly way to develop prototypes, visualize product ideas and simulate functionality
pre-production. Designers can refine ideas and make countless iterations before a product
is finalized.

4. Automotive and aerospace industries: 3D modelling is used in both the design and
testing of vehicles and their components and in the advertising and marketing of them.
Many commercials of cars and airliners feature 3D generated imagery that looks so
realistic it’s nearly impossible to tell they aren’t real camera footage. 3D allows for
realistic simulations, which can be used in testing an idea or vehicle before it’s built.

5. Medical and healthcare: 3D modelling is utilized in medical imaging and surgical

planning. Accurate recreations of organs, bones and tissues can be used to aid in
diagnosis, treatment planning and aid medical research.

6. Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR): 3D modelling is essential in

creating immersive experiences. VR and AR have several applications and can be used
across nearly any industry.

7. Education and training: 3D modelling is used in educational settings to teach

concepts in a variety of subjects, from biology, to geography and even history. It allows
students and professionals to interact with virtual models and simulations in safe,
controlled environments. A great example of this is pilots flying in a flight simulator.
Basics concepts of 2D for Game Avatar:

1. SPRITES: In 2D game characters or avatars are represented as sprites.

These are 2D images or animations that can be moved, flipped or rotated to
create the illusion of movement.
Sprites are commonly used for characters, Enemies, Items and other
game elements. It also has a sprite sheet.
Sprite Sheet is a single image file that contains multiple frames or
animations of a sprite. Instead of loading individual images, developers can
load the sprite sheet into memory once and then display specific frames or
animations as needed. It is a grid of smaller images; each will represent a
different frame or animation of a sprite.
Example: Arcade ballon game.

2. ANIMATION: The Characters are made up of multiple sprites arranged in

a sequence to create fluid movements. This can involve walking, jumping,
attacking, etc.

3. PIXEL ART: 2D and 3D avatars can be designed in pixel art, using grid of
pixels to create the characters. This style s common in indie games
(Independent games), retro style games. It is a video game that usually
made by smaller development teams or even individuals on their own
without financial or technical support from large game publishers.

Example: Mine Craft was an indie game created by solo developer Markus
Persson, also known as Notch. The game begins in 2009 and later in 2014
indie status changed to the general game.

Basics concepts of 3D for Game Avatar:

1. 3D Models

2. Texturing: Textures are applied to 3D models to give them color, patterns etc.

3. Rigging and Animation: 3D Avatars are rigged meaning a digital skeleton is

placed within the model to enable the movement. Animations are created by
manipulating the rig.
4. Character Design: This is a crucial form for avatars to have distinct appearance
and personality.

GAME COMPONENTS:
Game components are the specific features that represent the intended mechanics
and dynamics. These could cover common components like points, badges and
leaderboard. The components are seen as the building blocks for the game
mechanics and dynamics to work accordingly.

Game Components are the key components of game designing.

Some of the main game components are:

• Game World
The game world is crucial for any good video game. After all, the game world
makes gamers live their gaming experience in the most authentic way. A game
design program will help you build a game that will make the players forget that
they are not living it. The characters of the game should feel natural and living.
Usually, inline game designers, concept artists, etc., are responsible for this part of
game design.

• Game Storyline
Mission designers are the ones who have the responsibility of developing a
storyline for a game. They build the narrative of the game, develop characters and
events that will appeal to the gamers and keep them engaged.

• Video Game Characters

You also have character artists and animators who bring the characters of your
imagination to life. Character artists and animators work very closely with game
designers since they give that unique personality to the characters, making them
popular among gamers. The visual aesthetic is crucial to a good video game. Thus,
we see that games with heavy graphics and sharp visual appeal are usually the
most popular among gamers.

• Music
Another crucial aspect of making a video game popular is its music. Music has the
potential to take the video game to the next level by adding a certain mood to it.
Music can set the right pace for the gamer and get them hooked on an exciting
battle ahead. Without music, a video game is incomplete.
• Quality Assurance
For this step, we see the involvement of game testers. They check the software and
look out for any glitches or bugs in the game. Game testers possess exceptionally
high technical knowledge and evaluation skills.

• Visual Design and Art Style

Talented video game designers leverage aesthetics, color schemes, and graphical
fidelity to create visually stunning worlds that resonate with players. Whether it’s
a realistic setting or a stylized art direction, visual design sets the tone, enhances
storytelling, and establishes a unique atmosphere that contributes to the overall
game experience.

• Sound Design and Music

Sound design and music are essential components of video game design. The right
sound design and music choices can elevate gameplay moments, intensify
narrative beats, and leave a lasting impression on players.

• User Interface and User Experience

User interface (UI) and user experience (UX) are critical component of video
game design. A well-designed UI ensures intuitive navigation, clear
communication of information, and seamless interaction between players and the
game. By prioritizing user experience, video game designers can create interfaces
that are visually appealing, easy to understand, and enhance overall gameplay
enjoyment.
Recent trends include the rise of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR),
the incorporation of procedural generation techniques for dynamic content
creation, and the integration of multiplayer and social interaction features. These
trends push the boundaries of video game designer, creating new possibilities for
immersive and engaging experiences.

2D AND 3D TRANSFORMATIONS:

2D TRANSFORMATIONS:

2D Transformation in Computer Graphics is utilized to modify the position,

orientation, or size of objects within a two-dimensional space. These
transformations involve applying mathematical operations to the coordinates of
points or vertices in order to achieve the desired changes.
These transformations can be applied in a sequence to achieve more
complex effects. For example, a combination of translation, rotation, and scaling
 operations can be used to animate an object’s movement, rotation, and resizing in
a 2D animation.
The fundamental geometrical 2d Transformation in Computer
Graphics include:

• Rotation
• Translation
• Scaling
• Reflection
• Shearing

Rotation:

2D rotation is a fundamental concept that involves changing the orientation of an

object or a coordinate system in a 2D plane. It enables us to rotate graphical elements
around a specified point or axis by a certain angle.

To perform a 2D rotation, we need to consider two key components: the rotation

angle and the rotation center. The rotation angle, denoted as θ (in radians), represents
the amount of rotation to be applied. The rotation center, represented as (cx, cy),
defines the point around which the rotation will occur.

Translation:
 2D Translation is a transformation technique that changes the position of each point in
an object or a coordinate system by a specified distance in the x and y

axes.

Scaling:

2D Scaling in Computer Graphics involves resizing objects or coordinate systems in a 2D

plane. It allows us to change the size of each point in the object or coordinate system by
applying scaling factors in the x and y directions.

The scaling process is depicted using the scaling matrix S in the given figure:
Reflection:

2D reflection is a transformation technique that involves flipping or mirroring an object

or coordinate system across a specific axis in a 2D plane. It allows us to change the
orientation of each point in the object or coordinate system in relation to the reflection
axis.

Shearing:

2D Shearing transformation slants or distorts an object or coordinate system along either

the x-axis or y-axis in a 2D plane. It involves shifting the position of points in a specific
direction based on their original coordinates.
 3D TRANSFORMATIONS:
3-D Transformation is the process of manipulating the view of a three-D object
with respect to its original position by modifying its physical attributes through
various methods of transformation like Translation, Scaling, Rotation, Shear, etc.

Translation:

It is the process of changing the relative location of a 3-D object with respect to the
original position by changing its coordinates.

NOTE: USE ONLY THE ALPHABETS (A, B, C, D, E, F, G)

PROJECTIONS:
3D Projection is a design technic used to display a three-dimensional object on a two-
dimensional (2D) surface. It is process of converting a 3D object into 2D object. It is also
defined as mapping or transforming of the object in projection plane or view plane.
Types of Projections:
1. Parallel projections
2. Perspective projections

Center of Projection:
It is an arbitrary point from where the lines are drawn on each point of an object.
• If cop is located at a finite point in 3D space, Perspective projection is the result
• If the cop is located at infinity, all the lines are parallel and the result is a parallel
projection.
Parallel Projection:
A projection is said to be parallel, if center of projection is at an infinite distance from the
projected plane. The projection lines are parallel to each other and extended from the
object and intersect the view plane. It preserves relative propositions of objects, and it is
used in drafting to produce scale drawings of 3D objects. This is not a realistic
representation; the point of intersection is the projection of the vertex.

Parallel projection is divided into two parts and these two-parts sub divided into many.
Orthographic Projections:
In orthographic projection the direction of projection is normal to the projection of the
plane. In orthographic lines are parallel to each other making an angle 90 with view
plane. Orthographic parallel projections are done by projecting points along parallel lines
that are perpendicular to the projection line. Orthographic projections are most often used
to procedure the front, side, and top views of an object are called evaluations.
EXAMPLE: Engineering and architectural drawings commonly employ these
orthographic projections.

Orthographic is subdivided into two types and those are been divided in sub types.
Axonometric Orthographic Projections:
Orthographic projections that show more than one side of an object are called
axonometric orthographic projections.
This is divided into three types:
• Isometric Projections: The most common axonometric projection is an isometric
projection. In this projection parallelism of lines are preserved but angles are not
preserved.
• Dimetric projections: In these two projectors have equal angles with respect to
two principal axes.
• Trimetric projections: The direction of projection makes unequal angle with their
principal axis.

Oblique Projections:
Oblique projections are obtained by projectors along parallel lines that are not
perpendicular to the projection plane. An oblique projection shows the front and top
surfaces that include the three dimensions of height, width and depth.

Oblique is sub divided two types they are:

Cavalier Projections:
All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are projected with no change in
length. If the projected line making an angle 45 degrees with the projected plane, as a
result the line of the object length will not change.
Cabinet Projections:
All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are projected to one half of their length.
These gives a realistic appearance of object. It makes 63.4 degrees angle with the
projection plane. Here lines perpendicular to the viewing surface are projected at half
their actual length.

Perspective Projections:
A perspective projection is the one produced by straight lines radiating from a common
point and passing through point on the sphere to the plane of projection. Perspective
projection is a geometric technique used to produce a three-dimensional graphic image on
a plane, corresponding to what person sees.
Different types of perspective projections:
• One point perspective projections: In this, principal axis has a finite vanishing
point. Perspective projection is simple to draw.
 • Two-point perspective projections: Exactly 2 principals have vanishing points.
Perspective projection gives better impression of depth.

• Three-point perspective projections: All the three principal axes have finite
vanishing point. Perspective projection is most difficult to draw.

COLOR MODELS:
Color models in game programming are essential for defining and representing colors in a
digital environment. They provide a systematic way to express and manipulate colors,
which are crucial for rendering visuals and creating immersive game experiences. Several
color models are commonly used in game programming:
1. RGB (Red, Green, Blue):
Description: RGB is an additive color model in which various colors are produced by
combining red, green, and blue light in varying intensities. All other colors are produced
by the proportional ratio of these three colors only. 0 represents the black and as the value
increases the color intensity increases.
Usage in Games: RGB is extensively used in game development for defining colors in
digital displays, where each pixel's color is composed of different levels of red, green, and
blue light.

Color combination:
Green (255) + Red (255) = Yellow
Green (255) + Blue (255) = Cyan
Red (255) + Blue (255) = Magenta
Red (255) + Green (255) + Blue (255) = White

RGBA (Red, Green, Blue, Alpha):

Description: Similar to RGB, RGBA includes an additional channel (alpha) representing
the pixel's transparency or opacity.
Usage in Games: Essential for specifying not only color but also the transparency level of
objects or elements in the game environment, enabling effects like transparency,
translucency, and fading.
3. CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black):
Description: CMYK color model is widely used in printers. CMYK is a subtractive color
model primarily used in printing. Cyan, magenta, and yellow are combined to create colors,
while black is added to improve color depth and to print pure blacks. It is a subtractive
color model. 0 represents the primary color and 1 represents the lightest color. In this
model, point (1, 1, 1) represents black, and (0,0,0) represents white. It is a subtractive model
thus the value is subtracted from 1 to vary from least intense to a most intense color value.
Usage in Games: CMYK is less commonly used in games directly, as games are typically
designed for digital screens rather than print. However, it might be used for certain design
aspects, especially for assets intended for print media related to the game.

1-RGB = CMY
Cyan is negative of Red.
Magenta is negative of Green.
Yellow is negative of Blue.
4. HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness):

Description: HSL is a cylindrical-coordinate representation of colors. Hue defines the type

of color (e.g., red, blue), saturation represents the intensity of the color, and lightness
determines the brightness of the color.
Usage in Games: Sometimes used for adjusting and manipulating colors in game design,
such as in character customization or specific visual effects.
5. HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value):
Description: Similar to HSL but with 'value' instead of 'lightness'. Value is a measure of
the brightness of a color. HSV color when is represented by a cone.
Usage in Games: Similar to HSL, HSV is utilized for color manipulation in games,
especially for applications requiring fine-tuning of color attributes or in creating varied
visual effects.

Hue is a color component. Since the cone represents the HSV model, the hue represents
different colors in different angle ranges.

Red color falls between 0 and 60 degrees in the HSV cone.

Yellow color falls between 61 and 120 degrees in the HSV cone.
Green color falls between 121 and 180 degrees in the HSV cone.
Cyan color falls between 181 and 240 degrees in the HSV cone.
Blue color falls between 241 and 300 degrees in the HSV cone.
Magenta color falls between 301 and 360 degrees in the HSV cone.

Saturation as the name suggest describes the percentage of the color. Sometimes this
value lies in the 0 to 1 range. 0 being the grey and 1 being the primary color. Saturation
describes the grey color.
The value represents the intensity of the color chosen. Its value lies in percentage from 0
to 100. 0 is black and 100 is the brightest and reveals the color.

YUV (Luminance, Chrominance):

Description: YUV is a color space separating luminance (brightness) and chrominance

(color information). It's used in video encoding and transmission.
Usage in Games: Sometimes used in certain video game development scenarios,
especially in video playback or encoding-related features.

YIQ (Luminance, Chrominance):

YIQ is the most widely colour model used in Television broadcasting. Y stands for
luminance part and IQ stands for chrominance part. In the black and white television, only
the luminance part (Y) was broadcast. The y value is similar to the grayscale part. The
colour information is represented by the IQ part.

These color models provide a structured way to represent and manipulate colors in game
development, enabling developers to create vibrant visuals, implement various effects, and
ensure consistency in rendering across different devices and platforms. The choice of color
model often depends on the specific requirements of the game and the intended visual
outcome.
These color models provide a structured way to represent and manipulate colors in game
development, enabling developers to create vibrant visuals, implement various effects, and
ensure consistency in rendering across different devices and platforms. The choice of color
model often depends on the specific requirements of the game and the intended visual
outcome.

ILLUMINATION AND SHADER MODELS:

Illumination and shader models are integral aspects of game programming that contribute
significantly to the visual aesthetics and realism of rendered graphics in video games. These
elements influence how light interacts with objects in a scene, affecting the appearance of
materials and surfaces.

Illumination Models:

Illumination models in game programming focus on simulating how light interacts with
objects and their surfaces. These models help determine how light affects the color,
brightness, and shading of objects in a 3D scene. Some common illumination models
include:

1.Ambient Lighting: Represents the light that is scattered or bounced around in the
environment, providing a base level of illumination to prevent scenes from appearing
completely dark in areas not directly lit by a light source.

2.Diffuse Reflection: Describes how light scatters or spreads when it hits a surface,
illuminating the surface uniformly. It's responsible for the primary color and brightness of
an object.

3.Specular Reflection: Refers to the shiny or reflective highlights on surfaces when light
is reflected off in a concentrated manner. This aspect is crucial for representing glossy or
metallic surfaces.
4.Emissive Lighting: Represents surfaces that emit light themselves, such as glowing
objects or light sources.

Shader Models:

Shaders are programs that describe the rendering process of an object in a scene, governing
how the surfaces are lit, colored, and shaded. Shader models define the algorithms and
operations for simulating various lighting effects and material properties. Some common
shader models in game programming are:

1.Vertex Shaders: Operate on each vertex of a 3D model and are responsible for
transformations like position, normal vector calculation, and passing data to the next stage.

2.Fragment (Pixel) Shaders: Handle individual pixels and are responsible for determining
the final color of each pixel. They incorporate lighting calculations, textures, and effects to
determine the pixel's appearance.

3.Geometry Shaders: Generate additional geometry or modify existing geometry on the

GPU, allowing for effects such as tessellation, particle effects, or silhouette enhancements.

4.Tessellation Shaders: Control the level of detail for geometry, adjusting the complexity
of 3D models dynamically.

Shader Effects:

Normal Mapping: Simulates finer surface details without adding extra geometry by
altering the way light interacts with surfaces based on normal maps.

Parallax Mapping: Creates an illusion of depth by displacing texture coordinates based

on a height map, giving the impression of surface relief.
Screen-Space Reflections (SSR): Simulates reflections based on what's visible on the
screen, enhancing the realism of reflective surfaces.

Global Illumination (GI): Simulates indirect light bounces, enhancing the realism of
lighting in the scene.

The choice and implementation of illumination and shader models in game development
significantly impact the overall visual quality and realism of the game's graphics,
contributing to immersive and visually appealing experiences for players.

ANIMATION:
The simulation of movement created by a series of pictures is animation.
Animation is method of photographing successive drawings, models or even puppets to
create illusion of movement in a sequence. Because our eyes can only retain an image for
approximately 1/ 10 of second, when multiple images appear in fast succession, the brain
blends them into a single moving image.
Animation in game programming involves bringing characters, objects, and environments
to life by creating the illusion of movement and action. It's a crucial aspect of game
development that enhances the player's immersion and engagement. There are various
types of animations used in games:
1. Frame by frame
2. Keyframe 2D
3. 3D
4. Stop Motion
5. Animation mixed with live action
6. Motion Graphics
7. White Board
8. Typography
9. Claymation
10. Rotoscope
11. Mechanical
12. Skeletal Animation
13. Morph Target animation (Blend Shapes)
14. Procedural Animation
15. Inverse Kinematics (IK)

1. Frame by frame:
This is also called as traditional animation. This traditional animation
technique – sometimes called flipbook animation or the stop-motion method
– is like a flipbook come to life. It’s an old-school style of animation, which
involves drawing each frame individually with incremental changes in each
image adding the sense of motion. It’s how early animated classics like
Steamboat Willie (1928) were created. While frame by frame gives
animators full control over how their characters move and interact with their
environment. Most animated videos will run at a minimum of 12 frames per
second (FPS).

2. Keyframe 2D:
Keyframe computer animation removes a lot of the time-consuming
work associated with stop motion. To put it in the simplest terms, keyframe
animation lets you use computers to set the ‘key frames’ of an element or
character’s movement – e.g. the beginning, the middle and the end of a
movement – and a computer will then render the frames in between those
points. This saves huge amounts of time and effort and makes animation a
lot more accessible to a much wider range of brands.

3. 3D Animation:
3D animation adds a third dimension – depth – to the animation equation,
creating a highly dynamic animated environment that empowers marketers
to craft realistic settings, characters, objects, textures, and lighting to
vitalize their videos in new ways. Most of the modern animated movies
you’re likely familiar with use this animation style; “Moana,”
“Frozen,” and “Coco” are just three of thousands of 3D-animated
movies created in the past several years.

4. Stop Motion Animation:

Stop motion is an animation technique through which physical objects are
moved in small increments and individually photographed so that, when
watched in rapid sequence, they create the feeling of movement.
 Mid-1900s with some animated classics like “Rudolph the Red-Nosed
Reindeer” and “Gumby. Modern examples of stop motion include Wes
Anderson’s latest film, “Isle of Dogs,”.

5. Animation mixed with live action:

Live-action animated is a film genre that combines live-action
filmmaking with animation. Projects that are both live-action and computer-
animated tend to have fictional characters or figures represented and
characterized by cast members through motion capture and then animated and
modeled by animators.
6. Motion graphics:
Motion graphics is a type of animated graphic design that usually
features a lot of text and simple graphics. While traditional animated
videos usually centre around characters and elaborate settings, motion graphics
videos give life to stories that otherwise wouldn’t be visual, using shapes,
graphics, and text to visually represent the story being told.
7. Whiteboard animations:
Whiteboard animation is a type of animation that features the illustrator
physically drawing the artwork on a whiteboard or other surface using pens
and markers. This animation style became popular shortly after the launch of
YouTube in 2005. Even back then, brands were attracted to the way whiteboard
animation let viewers see the story come to life before their eyes, and they’ve
kept coming back to this timeless approach ever since.
8. Typography animation:
Typography animation has become a popular way to bring life and
energy to the screen. It basically refers to the animation of words and data,
in time with a voiceover. t tends to be fairly minimalist in style and can be
used for anything from corporate presentations to music videos.
Typography animation also has its drawbacks. It’s usually limited to
conveying only a single message and can be visually repetitive, making it
difficult to use as a form of extended storytelling.

9. Clay animation (Claymation):

Clay animation is a type of stop motion animation that’s been around

for many decades, but retains a timeless appeal. It has a unique, distinct look
that can’t be found with other forms of animated video. Clay animation is an
 incredibly time-consuming process and requires a lot of patience. It can be
difficult to create smooth movements, which results in choppiness that detracts
from the overall effect.

10. Rotoscope animation:

The main strength of frame by rotoscope animation is that it combines the
realism of film footage with the expressiveness of hand-drawn animation. The
animations can also be incredibly detailed and precise, allowing animators to
take advantage of minute changes in movements or expressions. The final
product often looks incredibly natural, which can be great for creating truly
realistic characters.
The main weakness of frame by rotoscope animation is the cost and time it
takes to produce. Animators have to draw each individual frame, which can
take a huge amount of time depending on the length and complexity of the
scene. Additionally, due to the complexity of the process, mistakes can be hard
to correct and adjustments may have to be made from scratch.
11. Mechanical animation:
Mechanical animation is a type of 3D animation. It involves creating
realistic 3D renders of mechanical systems and their components, and it’s a
great way, essentially, to show how things work.
For example, if you wanted to explain how a car engine worked…It can be
done through mechanical animation.
The time involved in creating this kind of video tends to be front-loaded
into creating the 3D model itself. Once the model’s done, it can be manipulated
and moved to reinforce the points you’re making in your video.
12. Skeletal Animation:
Description: Involves using a hierarchical structure of bones (skeleton) and
skinning (attaching the model to the skeleton) to animate characters.
Usage: Commonly used for character movements and complex animations such as
walking, running, and combat.
 13. Morph Target Animation (Blend Shapes):

Description: Uses different "morph targets" or shapes to interpolate between

various mesh positions. This is often used for facial expressions, lip-syncing, and
shape changes.
Usage: Primarily employed for facial animations and shape-shifting effects.

14. Procedural Animation:

Description: Involves generating animation through algorithms or physics
simulations rather than relying on pre-made animations.
Usage: Useful for creating natural movements or behaviors, such as cloth
simulation, particle effects, or dynamic environment interactions.
15. Inverse Kinematics (IK):

Description: Helps in solving the movement of end-effectors based on the desired

position, which can be useful for precise control of limb movements.
Usage: Often used for character feet placement on uneven terrains or hand
placements in interaction with objects.

Animation Workflow in Game Development:

1.Asset Creation: Artists design and create the 3D models, textures, and rig the characters
for animation.
2.Animation Software: Animators use specialized software like Blender, Maya, or 3ds
Max to create animations. These animations are then exported to formats compatible with
the game engine.

3.Integration with Game Engine: Game developers import the animations into the game
engine and implement them using scripts or built-in tools for controlling the playback and
blending of animations.
4.Programming & Scripting: Programmers write code to control the playback of
animations based on in-game events, player actions, or environmental interactions.

5.Blending and Transition: The game engine allows for smooth transitioning between
animations, blending different motions, and controlling the timing of the animations.

Animation is a critical part of game development that contributes to the overall gaming
experience, bringing characters and worlds to life and making the gameplay more
immersive and engaging for the players.

CONTROLLER-BASED ANIMATION:

Controller-based animation in game programming involves using controllers or input

devices to drive and control the animations of characters or objects within a game. It allows
developers to create responsive and dynamic animations that react to user input in real-
time, enhancing the overall player experience. Here's how it's typically implemented:

1. Understanding Input Devices:

Controllers: Gamepads, keyboards, or any input devices used by players to interact with
the game.

Inputs: Various actions or commands (e.g., button presses, analog stick movement)
initiated by players using these devices.
2. Mapping Inputs to Animations:

Developers map specific input actions to corresponding animations:

Movement: Inputs from analog sticks or directional keys can trigger walking, running, or
other locomotion animations.
Actions: Button presses or combinations may activate combat moves, jumps, crouching,
or interactions with the game world.

3. State-Based Animation Control:

Games often implement a state-based system to control animations based on the current
state of the character or object:

Finite State Machines (FSMs): Different states (e.g., idle, walking, running, attacking)
are defined, and the corresponding animations are played based on the current state.

4. Blending and Transitions:

Smooth transitions between animations are crucial to avoid abrupt or jarring changes.
Techniques such as animation blending and transition systems are used:

Animation Blending: Allows for combining multiple animations (e.g., blending a walking
animation with an aiming animation for more fluid movement in a shooting game).

Transitions: Provide smooth shifts from one animation state to another to avoid sudden
changes in character movements.

5. Scripting and Implementation:

Game developers write scripts or code to handle the logic for animation control:

Input Handling: Capturing input events and translating them into animation triggers.
Animation Control: Orchestrating the playback and transitions between animations based
on the received inputs or game states.

6. Player Feedback and Responsiveness:

Responsive animations create a more immersive gaming experience:

Visual Feedback: Ensure that the animations respond promptly to player actions,
providing clear feedback for their input.

Responsiveness: Make sure that the animations feel connected to the player's commands,
ensuring the character or objects move in sync with the user's input.

Controller-based animation is a crucial component in modern game development, allowing

for dynamic and engaging player experiences by giving direct control over character
movements and actions based on user input. This system of animation control significantly
contributes to the overall feel and responsiveness of the game.

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