CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The CRO stands for a cathode ray oscilloscope. It is typically divided into four
sections which are display, vertical controllers, horizontal controllers, and Triggers.

We can analyze the waveform by plotting amplitude along with the x-axis and y-
axis. The applications of CRO are mainly involved in the radio, TV receivers, also in
laboratory work involving research and design.

The oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals over time, thus
the voltage and time describe a shape and it is continuously graphed beside a scale.
By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties like amplitude, frequency,
rise time, distortion, time interval, and etc.

Block Diagram of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The general block diagram of CRO is shown below. It usually consists of the major
blocks namely:

o The Vertical Amplifier

o Delay line
o Trigger circuit
o Time base generator
o Horizontal Amplifier
o Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The Vertical Amplifier block amplifies the weak signals so that they produce
measurable deflection on the screen; this amplifier decides the sensitivity and
bandwidth of the CRO. Its output is given as input to the delay line.

Delay line block the next block is the delay line we know that the input signal is
applied to the horizontal as well as the vertical deflection plates but before reaching
the horizontal deflection plates the signal passes through different blocks such as
trigger circuit time-based generator and the horizontal amplifier thus a small delay
occurs and the signal reaches the vertical deflection plates before the horizontal plates
but this causes the distortion of a signal on the screen to avoid this situation a small
amount of delay is added using the delay line block after the vertical amplifier.
Trigger Circuit: The third block is a trigger circuit. This circuit generates trigger
pulses that keep the synchronization between the input signal and the horizontal
deflection circuit.

The time-based generator generates sawtooth waveforms and applies them

between the horizontal deflection plates as the sawtooth wave varies linearly with time
and takes place at a constant velocity hence x-axis of the CRO can be calibrated in
terms of time and input can be displayed with respect to time.

Horizontal amplifier: The last block is the strength of a sawtooth signal available at
the output of a time-based generator is not sufficient thus before applying it to the
horizontal plates the signal is amplified using a horizontal amplifier

Cathode Ray tube

A CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) works by using a high- speed electron beam that is
deflected by an electric or magnetic field to produce a visual display of an electrical
signal. When the electrical signal is applied to the two deflection plates to produce
electric fields perpendicular to each other. The electron beam is deflected by these
fields, causing it to hit a phosphorescent screen, producing a bright spot. The position
of the spot on the screen represents the magnitude and waveform of the electrical
signal. By measuring the position of the spot, the frequency, amplitude, and waveform
of the signal can be determined.

Construction of Cathode Ray Tube

The (CRO) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope consists of the following components:

1. Cathode Ray Tube

2. Electronic Gun Assembly
3. Deflecting Plate
4. Fluorescent Screen For CRT
5. Glass Envelope
Cathode Ray Tube

The primary purpose of the CRT, a vacuum tube, is to convert electrical signals into
visual signals. The electrostatic deflection plates and electron gun are also a part of
this tube. This electron gun's primary use is to produce a focused electrical ray with a
high frequency.

The horizontal ray transfers the electron beams from the left to the right, whereas the
vertical deflection plate shifts the ray up and down. The beam can be found anywhere
on the monitor because all these acts are independent of one another.

Electron Gun Assembly

The electron gun's primary purpose is to emit electrons so they can be transformed
into rays. A heater, a grid, a cathode, and anodes are for accelerating, pre-
accelerating, and focusing the major components of this gun. Strontium and barium
layers are formed at the cathode end to achieve high electron emission at a
reasonable temperature. Barium layers are deposited at the cathode end.

Once the cathode grid has generated the electrons, they flow through a centrally
located co-axial through the CRT's axis and into the control grid, which is often a nickel
cylinder. Therefore, it regulates the cathode's ability to create strong electrons.

Deflecting plate

The electron ray will pass through both sets of the deflecting plates when it leaves the
electron gun. This arrangement will produce on the vertical deflecting plate known as
the Y plate's vertical deflection. The horizontal deflection, often known as the X plate's
generally horizontal deflection, is done using the other set of the plate.

Fluorescent Screen

The faceplate, or front face, of a CRT monitor, is flat and is around 100 mm by 100 mm
in size. For larger screens, the CRT screen is slightly curved, and the faceplate can be
created by pushing the molten glass into a mold and then heating it.

Phosphors crystals are used to cover the inside face of the faceplate and convert
electrical energy into light. This phenomenon is known as fluorescence it occurs when
an electronic ray strikes the phosphor crystal, increasing its energy level and causing
light to be produced during the crystallization of phosphorous.

Glass Envelope

It is a much evacuated conical kind of structure. The aquadag covers the inside faces
of the CRT located between the neck and the display. This substance conducts
electricity and functions as a high-voltage electrode. In order to assist the electron in
serving the center, the coating's surface is electrically attached to the accelerating
anode.
Electrical Quantities Measurements using Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope
The CRO may be used to measure electrical quantities like amplitude, time period, and
frequency.

The CRO is used to measure various electrical quantities such as voltage, current,
and frequency. The electron beam is directed at a phosphor-coated screen to produce
a visual representation of the electrical signal. To measure a specific electrical
quantity, the CRO is connected in parallel or series with the circuit under test and the
voltage or current waveform is displayed on the screen. By analyzing the waveform,
the CRO can provide accurate readings of various electrical quantities such as peak
voltage, frequency, and duty cycle

o Calculation of Amplitude
o Calculation of Time Duration
o Calculation of Frequency

Fig 4: Analyzing the waveform of CRO

Amplitude

The voltage signal is displayed on the screen as if it was a time function. The signal's
amplitude is consistent, but using the volt/division button on top of the CRO board, we
can adjust how many divisions are used to conceal the voltage signal in a vertical
direction. So, using the method below, we can measure the signal's amplitude as it
appears on the CRO screen.

A=j×nv Where, A = Amplitude of the signal j = is the

volt/division value

nv = no. of partitions that cover the displayed signal in vertical axis

Voltage=distance in cm×volts/cm
Time period

On its screen, CRO shows the voltage signal as a function of time. The time duration of
that periodic voltage signal is fixed, but by adjusting the time/division knob on the CRO
panel, we may change the number of divisions that span one full cycle of the voltage
signal in the horizontal direction. Therefore, by applying the following formula, we will
be able to determine the Time duration of the signal that is visible on the CRO screen.
The time taken for the signal to complete one cycle is called time duration

T=k×nh Where, T = time period of the signal k = is the

time/division value

nh = no. of partitions that cover up one whole cycle of the periodic signal on horizontal
axis

1ms=0.001s and 1μs=0.000001s

Frequency

The horizontal scale on the CRO screen makes it very simple to measure time
and frequency. The size of the signal on your CRO display should be increased if you
want to ensure precision while measuring a frequency so that the waveform can be
converted more easily. Initially, the time can be determined by counting the number of
flat partitions from one end of the signal to the other whenever it passes the flat line
and using the horizontal scale on the CRO. The signal's time period can then be
determined by increasing the number of flat segments through time or division.
Frequency =1/time period

Front panel Controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Position, brightness, focus, astigmatism, blanking, and calibration are the primary
controls of a CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope).

Position

The position control knob on an oscilloscope is mostly used to move the intense point
from the left to the right. One can easily move the place from the left side to the right
side by using the knob.

Brightness

The electron's intensity has a significant impact on the ray's brightness. The electron
ray's electron intensity is determined by the control grids. As a result, the brightness of
the electron rays can be changed and adjusted accordingly to control the grid voltage.
Focus

By adjusting the applied voltage to the CRO's center anode, the focus can be
controlled. The electrostatic lens can be created using the center and additional
anodes nearby. As a result, by adjusting the voltage across the center anode, the main
length of the lens can be altered.

Astigmatism and Blanking circuit

The CRO oscilloscope's time base generator produced the blanking voltage. This
additional focusing control in CRO is comparable to astigmatism in optical lenses. Due
to the different lengths of the electron pathways at the center and the corners of the
screen, a beam that is focused in the monitor's middle would be defocused here. The
oscilloscope's time base generator produced the blanking voltage.

Calibration circuit

In order to calibrate an oscilloscope, an oscillator is required. The oscillator, however,

should produce a square waveform for a predetermined voltage.

Graticule

It is the grid on the display screen of the CRO that consists of the horizontal and
vertical axis.

Input impedance

The input impedance is greater than 1 Mega ohms; a high value of impedance is used
to prevent the circuit from the scope from being tested. To match fast amplifiers and
other devices.

Trigger level and slope

It's for the adjustment of voltage and an AC power line triggers the slope at a
frequency of 50 Hz.

AC/GND/DC Switch

In general the DC switch is used for all other signals including AC.

Applications of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

o The applications of CRO are in radio stations to observe the signal's sending and
receiving characteristics.
o The voltage, current, frequency, inductance, admittance, resistance, and power
factor are all measured with the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
o Additionally, the properties of the AM and FM circuits are examined using this
equipment.
o This device is used to regulate analog signals as well as to monitor and analyze
signal characteristics and attributes.
 o Through the resonance circuit, the CRO is used to view the signal's form,
bandwidth, etc.
o The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope can examine the voltage and current waveform's
shape, which aids in decision-making at a radio station or communication
station.
o It is utilized in labs for research purposes. After creating a new circuit,
researchers employ CRO to check the voltage and current waveforms of each
circuit component. It is
o Used to compare frequency and phase. It is utilized in TV, radar, and engine
pressure analysis, to monitor pulse and nerve system responses.
o The CROs are employed in extensively in the hysteresis loop to locate BH
curves.
o Tracing transistor curves is possible, using CRO’s

Advantages of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

1. Cost and Schedule

2. requirements for training
3. Consistency and excellence
4. efficiency of time
5. knowledge and experience
6. Ability to solve problems
7. Hassle-free
8. Assurance of accordance to regulations
9. voltmeter measurements
10.current measurements
11.analysis of the waveform obtained
12.phase and frequency measurement

Limitations of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

1. Comparing the cost of these oscilloscopes to other measurement tools like

multimeters, they are costly.
2. Once damaged or had trouble, they are difficult to repair.
3. These gadgets require total isolation.
4. These are enormous, weights more, big, and require more energy.

Uses of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The CRO can be utilized in the lab as

1. It may show many waveform variations.

2. It has the capacity to measure small intervals.
3. CRO can be used to measure potential differences using a voltmeter.

CRO probe
We can connect any test circuit to an oscilloscope through a probe. As CRO is a basic
oscilloscope, the probe which is connected to it is also called CRO probe.
We should select the probe in such a way that it should not create any loading issues
with the test circuit. So that we can analyze the test circuit with the signals properly on
CRO screen.

CRO probes should have the following characteristics.

 High impedance
 High bandwidth

The block diagram of CRO probe is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, CRO probe mainly consists of three blocks. Those are probe
head, co-axial cable and termination circuit. Co-axial cable simply connects the probe
head and termination circuit.

Types of CRO Probes

CRO probes can be classified into the following two types.

 Passive Probes
 Active Probes

Passive Probes

If the probe head consists of passive elements, then it is called passive probe. The
circuit diagram of passive probe is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a parallel combination of

resistor, R1 and a variable capacitor, C1. Similarly, the termination circuit consists of a
parallel combination of resistor, R2 and capacitor, C2.
The above circuit diagram is modified in the form of bridge circuit and it is shown in
below figure.

We can balance the bridge, by adjusting the value of variable capacitor, c1. For the
time being, consider the following balancing condition of AC bridge.

Z1Z4 =Z2Z3

Substitute, the impedances Z1,Z2,Z3 and Z4 as R1,1/jωC1,R2 and

1/jωC2 respectively in above equation.

R1(1/jωC2)=R2(1/jωC1)

⇒R1C1=R2C2---------------Equation 1

By voltage division principle, we will get the voltage across resistor, R2 as

V0=Vi(R2/(R1+R2))

Attenuation factor is the ratio of input voltage, Vi and output voltage, V0. So, from
above equation we will get the attenuation factor, α as

α=Vi/V0=(R1+R2)/R2

⇒α=1+R1/R2

⇒α−1=R1/R2

⇒R1=(α−1)/R2--------------Equation 2

the value of 𝑅2 for integer values ofα>1α>1.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the value of R1R1 is greater than or equal to

Substitute Equation 2 in Equation 1.

(α−1)R2C1 =R2C2
 ⇒ (α−1)C1 =C2

⇒C1=C2/(α−1)-------------------Equation 3

From Equation 3, we can conclude that the value of C1 is less than or equal to the
value of C2 for integer values of α>1

Active Probes

If the probe head consists of active electronic components, then it is called active
probe. The block diagram of active probe is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a FET source follower in cascade
with BJT emitter follower. The FET source follower provides high input impedance and
low output impedance. Whereas, the purpose of BJT emitter follower is that it avoids or
eliminates the impedance mismatching.

The other two parts, such as co-axial cable and termination circuit remain same in both
active and passive probes.

Dual Trace Oscilloscope

In dual trace oscilloscope, a single electron beam generates 2 traces that
undergo deflection by two independent sources. In order to produce two separate
traces, basically, 2 methods are used, known as alternate and chopped mode. These
are also known as the two operating modes of the switch.
 It has two individual vertical input channels namely A and B.
 Both the inputs are separately fed to the preamplifier and attenuator stage. The
outputs of the two separate preamplifiers and attenuator stage are then
provided to the electronic switch. This switch only passes a single channel input
particularly at a time to the vertical amplifier.
 The circuit also has a trigger selector switch that permits the circuit triggering
with either A or B channel input or with the externally applied signal.
 The signal from the horizontal amplifier is fed to the electronic switch by either
sweep generator or channel B by switch S0 and S2.
 In this way, the vertical signal from channel A and horizontal signal from channel
B is provided to the CRT for the operation of the oscilloscope.
 This is the X-Y mode of the oscilloscope and permits accurate X-Y
measurements.
 Basically, the modes of operation of the oscilloscope rely on the choice of front
panel controls. Like either the trace of channel A is needed, channel B is needed
or separately traces of channel A or B is required.

ATERNATE MODE OF DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE

Whenever we activate the alternate mode, then it permits the connection between
both the channels alternately. This alternation or switching between the channels A
and B takes place at the beginning of each upcoming sweep.

Also, there exists synchronization between the switching rate and the sweep rate.
This leads to the spotting of traces of each channel on one sweep. Like in first
sweep traces of channel A will be spotted, then in the next sweep traces of channel
B will be considered by the CRT.

In this way, the alternate connection of the two-channel input with the vertical
amplifier is performed.

The change in the electronic switch from one channel to the other occurs at fly
back sweep duration. At the flyback period, the electron beam will be invisible and
so the changeover from one channel to other.
Hence a complete sweep signal from one vertical channel will be displayed at the
screen. While for the next sweep, the signal from another vertical channel will be
displayed.

This method allows us to maintain the proper phase relationship between signals of
channel A and B. However, along with advantage, a disadvantageous factor is also
associated with this mode.

Alternate mode leads to a display that will show the occurrence of both the signals
at different time. But in actual practice, the two events occur simultaneously. Also,
the method cannot be used for the representation of the low-frequency signal. The
figure below represents the waveform the oscilloscope output operating in alternate
mode:

CHOPPED MODE OF DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE

In this mode of operation during a single sweep, several times switching between
the two channels occurs. And this switching is so quick that even for the very small
segment the display is available at the screen.

The figure below shows the waveform representation in case of chopped mode:
 Here, the electronic switch undergoes free running at a very high frequency of
about 100 KHz to 500 KHz. And the frequency of electronic switch does not rely on
the frequency of the sweep generator.

Hence in this way, the small segments of the two channels get connected to the
amplifier in a continuous manner.

When the chopping rate is faster than the rate of horizontal sweep, then the
separately chopped segments will be merged and recombine to form originally
applied channel A and B waveform at the screen of CRT.

However, if the chopping rate is lesser than the sweep rate then it will definitely
lead to discontinuity in the display. Therefore, in such case alternate mode is more
suitable.

The dual trace oscillator permits the choice of respective mode of operation
through the front panel of the instrument.

Construction of Double Beam Oscilloscope

There are two individual vertical input channels for the two electron beams from
different sources. Each channel has its own attenuator and pre-amplifier, allowing
independent control of each beam’s amplitude.

The two channels can have either common or independent time base circuits for
different sweep rates. Each beam passes through its own channel for vertical
deflection before crossing a single set of horizontal plates.

A sweep generator drives the horizontal amplifier, providing a common

horizontal deflection for both beams across the screen.
A dual beam oscilloscope generates two electron beams within the cathode ray tube
using either a double electron gun tube or a split beam method. Each beam’s
brightness and focus are controlled separately. However, using two tubes increases
the oscilloscope’s size and weight, making it bulky.

The other method is the split beam tube, which uses a single electron gun. A horizontal
splitter plate between the Y deflection plate and the last anode isolates the two
channels. The potential of the splitter plate is the same as the last anode. Since the
single beam is split into two, the resulting beams are only half as bright as the original.
This is a disadvantage at high frequencies. To improve brightness, two sources can be
used in the last anode instead of one.

Difference between dual trace CRO and dual beam CRO

The dual beam oscilloscope has two different electron gun which passes through
two completely separate vertical channels, where as dual trace oscilloscope has single
electron beam which get split into two and passes through two separate channels.

Dual trace CRO cannot switch quickly between the traces so it cannot capture
two fast transient events whereas dual beam CRO there is no question of switching.

The brightness of the two displayed beam has drastically different as it operated
at widely spaced sweep speeds. On the other hand, dual trace brightness of the
resultant display is same.
The brightness of the displayed beam of the dual trace is half of the brightness of dual
beam CRO.
 Dual trace CRO Dual beam CRO

It is used two electron

It is used single electron beam to beams for displaying two
display two traces. signals.

Two vertical amplifiers are

A single vertical amplifier is used. used for two beams.

It is not able to capture two fast It is captures two fast

transient events. transient easily.

It cannot switch quickly between

traces, so simultaneous display It can display two traces
becomes difficult. simultaneously.

The two signals must have

the same frequency or they
The two signals may or may not have must be harmonically
same frequency. related.

A single beam can be used for Multiple beams are used for
displaying multiple traces. displaying multiple traces.

Two signals can be displayed on a

dual trace oscilloscope. But, the two Two signals can be
signals cannot be displayed together displayed simultaneously in
in real time. real time.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

A digital storage oscilloscope is a special kind of storage oscilloscope that

stores the input signal for years and displays it on a CRT screen when desired. Digital
storage oscilloscope (DSO) is totally reversed to the working of analog storage
oscilloscope.
In the analog storage (ASO)oscilloscope the input signals are stored in mesh
storage and whenever the signal display is needed the electron beam(or)electron gun
is activated which hits the mesh storage passing through a horizontal amplifier and
finally displays the signal on CRT screen. The stored signal can be used to display for
up to few days as the signal has a tendency to fade away.
In DSO the operation and working are totally different from that of ASO.
In DSO the signals are stored in digital form rather than in analog form. The
conversion of analog signals into digital/binary form can be achieved through Analog
to digital conversion (ADC) technique.
The converted signal is then stored in memory which acts as a storage unit in DSO.
Whenever the signal is needed to display on CRT the digital signal is reconstructed to
analog form with the Digital to analog conversion (DAC) technique. The below figure
is the block diagram of DSO.

Working of DSO

When an analog signal is given as an input it passes through an attenuator

circuit where the unwanted noise signals are attenuated and this clean signal is
applied to a vertical amplifier which performs the sampling and converts the input
into digital.
The digitally converted analog signal is stored in memory, which we can use
as many times as we want to display on CRT. And coming to control logic it controls
the ADC(Analog to Digital converter) conversion and deflection amplifiers. Both
vertical and horizontal deflection amplifiers are connected to a DAC (Digital to Analog
converter) which deflects the beam of electrons and so the trace on the CRT screen.
This is the working of DSO.
Advantages of DSO
 DSO is very easy to use and also allows for automation.
 We can store more than one input signal at a time which we can’t do in ASO.
 DSO can display much better-quality images.
 DSO is comparably cheaper than ASO.

Applications of DSO
 DSO can be used in the visual representation of radar targets.
 DSO can be used to measure AC and DC voltages and currents.
 DSO can be used in telecommunications.
 DSO is used as a monitoring device
 In the nuclear field, scientists use DSO to study environmental changes in absence
of terrestrial/cellular signals.

Functions of DSO
DSO is an instrument used to display and analyze electronic signals.It draws
waveforms or a graph of an instantaneous signal voltage against time.