B.Sc.

Nursing 1st Semester Exam 2024

Subject- Applied Physiology

Q.1. Enlist the names of blood clotting factors? Explain blood

coagulation mechanism.
Q2. Explain the function of organs of the respiratory system? Describe
physiology of respiration.
Q3. Explain functions of blood? Explain formation of blood cells.
Q4. Explain function of skin?
Q5. Explain functions of organs of the digestive system & explain
composition & function of gastric juice.
Q6. Explain cardiac cycle?
Q7. Explain conduction system of heart?
Q8. Explain function of kidney and mechanism of urine formation?
Q9. Write short note on tissue repair/healing mechanism.
Q10. Explain physiology of muscle contraction?
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.1. Enlist the names of blood clotting factors? Explain blood coagulation mechanism
BLOOD CLOTTING FACTORS

Table - Blood Clotting Factors

Factor Common name
I Fibrinogen
II Prothrombin
V Proaccelerin, labile factor
VII Proconvertin
VIII Antihaemophilic factor A
IX Antihaemophilic factor B
X Thrombokinase, Stuart–Prower factor
XI Antihaemophilic factor C
XII Hageman factor
XII Fibrin stabilising factor

BLOOD COAGULATION MECHANISM (Haemostasis)

Haemostasis is a sequence of responses that stops bleeding and can prevent haemorrhage from
smaller blood vessels. Haemostasis plays an important part in maintaining homeostasis, and it
consists of three main components:
a) Vasoconstriction
b) Platelet aggregation
c) Coagulation.
a) Vasoconstriction
 Results from contraction of the smooth muscle of the vessel wall, a reaction called
vascular spasm.
 Constriction blocks small blood vessels, thus preventing blood flow through them.
 The action of the sympathetic nervous system is to cause vasoconstriction, which restricts
blood flow for several minutes or several hours.
 Platelets release thromboxanes, which belong to the lipid group eicosanoids.
Thromboxanes are vasoconstrictors and potent hypertensive agents; they facilitate
platelet aggregation.
b) Platelet aggregation
 Platelets adhere to the exposed collagen fibres of the connective tissue of the damaged
blood vessels.
 Platelets release adenosine diphosphate, thromboxane and other chemicals that make
other platelets in the area stick, and they all clump together to form a platelet plug.
Platelet plugs are very effective in preventing blood loss in small blood vessels, and with
fibrin threads form tight plugs.
c) Coagulation
Blood coagulation is an important process to maintain homeostasis. If blood vessel damage is
so extensive that platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction cannot stop the bleeding, the
complicated process of coagulation (blood clotting) will begin to take place with the aid of

2
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

clotting factors. Coagulation factors are a group of proteins essential for clotting, and most of
the clotting factors are synthesised in the liver and some are obtained from our diet.

The simplified clotting stages involve the following:

1. Thromboplastinogenase is an enzyme released by the blood platelets and combines with
antihaemophilic factor to convert the plasma protein thromboplastinogen into
thromboplastin.
2. Thromboplastin combines with calcium ions to convert the inactive plasma protein
prothrombin into thrombin.
3. Thrombin acts as a catalyst to convert the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into insoluble
plasma protein fibrin.
4. The fibrin threads trap blood cells to form a clot.
5. Once the clot is formed, the healing of the damaged blood vessel takes place, which restores
the integrity of the blood vessel.
Two pathways were identified in triggering a blood clot: intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
The extrinsic pathway is a rapid clotting system activated when the blood vessels are ruptured
and tissue damage takes place. The intrinsic pathway is slower than the extrinsic pathway and is
activated when the inner walls of the blood vessels are damaged.

Q.2. Explain the function of organs of the respiratory system? Describe physiology of
respiration.

FUNCTION OF ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1) Respiratory function of the nose

1. Primary Role:
 First passage for inspired air in the respiratory system.
2. Air Conditioning in Nasal Cavity:
 Warming: Rapid warming due to mucosa's immense vascularity.
 Note: Can lead to significant blood loss in nosebleeds (epistaxis).
 Moistening: Ensures air is saturated with moisture.
 Filtering: Hairs at anterior nares trap larger particles.
3. Conchae and Surface Area:
 Three projecting conchae increase surface area.
 Induce turbulence, spreading inspired air over the entire nasal surface.
4. Maximization of Functions:
 Large surface area maximizes:
 Warming.
 Humidification.
 Filtering.
5. Filtering and Cleaning:
 Hairs at anterior nares trap larger particles.
 Smaller particles (dust, bacteria) settle and adhere to mucus.
 Mucus protects epithelium, prevents irritation, and drying.

2) Pharynx Functions:
3
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

1. Passageway for Air and Food:

 Involved in respiratory and digestive systems.
 Air passes through nasal and oral sections.
 Food passes through oral and laryngeal sections.
2. Warming and Humidifying:
 Similar to the nose, warms and moistens air.
 Enhances air conditioning as it moves towards the lungs.
3. Hearing:
 Auditory tube (from nasopharynx to middle ear) equalizes ear pressure.
 Protects the tympanic membrane from atmospheric pressure changes.
4. Protection:
 Pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produce antibodies.
 Larger in children, tends to atrophy in adults.
5. Speech:
 Functions in speech by acting as a resonating chamber.
 Together with sinuses, contributes to individual voice characteristics.

3) Functions of the Larynx:

 Production of Sound:
 Pitch, volume, and resonance properties.
 Pitch: Length and tightness of cords.
 Volume: Force of cord vibration.
 Resonance: Mouth shape, tongue/lip positions, facial muscles, and sinus air.

4) Functions of the Trachea

 Support and patency:
 Tracheal cartilages maintain permanent openness.
 Soft tissue bands between cartilages allow flexibility.
 Trachealis muscle helps regulate tracheal diameter.
 Mucociliary escalator:
 Beating cilia move mucus with particles towards the larynx.
 Mucus is either swallowed or coughed up.
 Cough reflex:
 Sensitive nerve endings in larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
 Irritation generates nerve impulses to the respiratory center.
 Motor response: deep inspiration, closure of glottis, contraction of abdominal and
respiratory muscles, followed by glottis opening to expel air and remove
mucus/foreign material.
 Warming, humidifying, and filtering:
 Continues as in the nose, although air is normally saturated and at body
temperature when it reaches the trachea
5) Functions of the Lungs
1. Gas Exchange:
 Lungs facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air we
breathe and the bloodstream.
2. Oxygenation:
4
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

 Oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream from inhaled air in the lungs, supporting
the oxygenation of body tissues and cells.
3. Carbon Dioxide Removal:
 Lungs expel carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism, during
exhalation.
4. pH Regulation:
 Lungs play a role in maintaining the body's acid-base balance by controlling the
levels of carbon dioxide, which can influence blood pH.
5. Filtering and Humidifying Air:
 The respiratory system filters out harmful particles from inhaled air, and the lungs
humidify the air to prevent the respiratory tract from drying out.
6. Immune Defense:
 Lungs contain immune cells and produce mucus to trap and eliminate foreign
particles, helping to protect against infections.
7. Breathing Regulation:
 Lungs are involved in the regulation of breathing rate and depth to meet the
body's oxygen demands.
8. Blood Pressure Regulation:
 Lungs produce substances that help regulate blood pressure by influencing blood
vessel constriction and dilation.
9. Vocalization:
 Lungs, in coordination with the larynx and other structures, contribute to the
production of sound and speech.
10. Sensory Function:
 Lungs have sensory receptors that can respond to irritants, influencing cough
reflexes and other protective responses.

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION
Respiration: The term 'respiration' means the exchange of gases between body cells and the
environment.

Breathing (pulmonary ventilation): This is movement of air into and out of the lungs.

Respiration involves two main processes.

1. External Respiration:
 Involves the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the
respiratory system and the external environment. It occurs in the lungs, where
oxygen is taken in from the air and carbon dioxide is expelled.
2. Internal Respiration:
 Refers to the exchange of gases between the bloodstream and the body's tissues.
Oxygen is delivered to cells, and carbon dioxide, produced as a byproduct of
cellular metabolism, is transported back to the lungs for elimination.

5
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Respiration involves two separate but interrelated processes viz external respiration and internal
respiration.

Internal respiration: Internal respiration or cellular respiration involves the metabolic processes
carried out for production of energy rich molecule ATP by using O2. These processes mainly
include Kreb’s cycle, Electron transfer and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. During
these processes CO2 is released.

External respiration: The term external respiration involves the entire sequence of events
involve in exchange of respiratory gases between environment and the cells of the body. It
involves four different steps:

1. Breathing: Air is alternately moved in and out of the lungs so that the respiratory gases
exchanged between atmosphere and air sacs (alveoli) of lungs. It is also called
ventilation. Rate of breathing in controlled and changed according to the need of body. It
involves inhalation and exhalation.
2. Exchange of respiratory gases between air in alveoli and pulmonary capillaries by
diffusion.
3. Respiratory gases are transported by blood between lungs and the tissue.
4. Exchange of respiratory gases between blood and tissue by diffusion across the systemic
capillarie.

Q.3. Explain functions of blood? Explain formation of blood cells.

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
Functions of Blood:
1. Transportation:
 Oxygen and Nutrients: Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to body tissues, and it
transports nutrients from the digestive system to cells for energy.
 Carbon Dioxide and Wastes: It transports carbon dioxide, a waste product, from
cells back to the lungs for removal. It also carries metabolic wastes to the kidneys
for excretion.
2. Immune Defense:
 White Blood Cells (WBCs): Blood contains WBCs that defend against infections.
They identify and eliminate pathogens, contributing to the body's immune
response.
 Antibodies: Plasma carries antibodies that recognize and neutralize specific
pathogens, providing immunity.
3. Clotting and Hemostasis:
 Platelets: Blood contains platelets critical for clotting. They form a plug at the site
of vascular injuries, preventing excessive bleeding.
4. Regulation of pH and Electrolyte Balance:
 Buffer Systems: Blood acts as a buffer, helping maintain a stable pH by absorbing
or releasing hydrogen ions.

6
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

 Electrolytes: Blood carries essential ions (sodium, potassium) for maintaining

electrolyte balance crucial for nerve and muscle function.
5. Temperature Regulation:
 Heat Distribution: Blood helps regulate body temperature by distributing heat
throughout the body. Blood vessels near the skin release or retain heat as needed.
6. Hormone Transport:
 Endocrine System: Blood serves as a transportation system for hormones
produced by glands. These hormones regulate various physiological processes.
7. Fluid Balance:
 Osmotic Pressure: Blood regulates fluid balance by contributing to osmotic
pressure, preventing excessive fluid loss from the bloodstream.
8. Storage:
 Reservoir of Fluids: Blood acts as a reservoir for excess fluid, releasing stored
water when needed.
 Storage of Nutrients: It stores nutrients like glucose and fatty acids, releasing
them when the body requires energy.

FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS

 The process by which formed elements of blood develop is called Haemopoiesis or Haematopoiesis.
 Red bone marrow is the primary centre for haemopoiesis in the last three months of birth and
throughout life.

Figure - Haemopoiesis or Haematopoiesis

7
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.4. Explain function of skin?

FUNCTION OF SKIN

A. Protection
a) Chemical factors in the skin:
 Sebum (or oil) from the sebaceous glands is slightly acidic, retarding bacterial
colonization on the skin surface.
 Sweat from the sudoriferous glands is slightly hypertonic and can flush off
most bacteria on the skin surface.
 Melanin (skin pigment) from melonocytes avoids excessive ultraviolet
radiation from penetrating the skin layers
b) Physical factors in the skin:
 Stratified squamous epithelium in the epidermis layer provides a large
number of layers of cells, preventing most bacteria invasion. Keratinized
cells in the stratum corneum layer of the epidermis provides a physical barrier
against most invasion.
c) Biological factor in the skin:
 White blood cells such as macrophages destroy most invaded bacteria
and other foreign substances.
B. Excretion
Waste materials such as ammonia, urea, and excessive salt are eliminated from sweating.
C. Body temperature regulation
Sweating by the sweat glands promotes evaporation , resulting in a loss of excessive
body heat.
Vasoconstriction by arterioles (small arteries) in the dermis layer provides a smaller
surface area in the blood vessels, resulting in less heat loss .
Vasodilatation by arterioles in the dermis layer provides a larger surface area in the
blood vessels, resulting in greater heat loss.
D. Sensation
Nerve receptors in the dermis layers detect sensations such as heat, cold, pain, pressure,
and touch, allowing the body to be aware of these stimuli.
E. Vitamin D Synthesis
Ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight activates a series of chemical reactions in the
epidermis layer, resulting in the synthesis of vitamin D (cholecalciferol) from the
modification of cholesterol for the absorption of calcium.
F. Blood reservoir
Dermis houses an extensive network of blood vessels carrying 8-10% of total blood flow
in a resting adult.

8
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.5. Explain functions of organs of the digestive system & explain composition & function
of gastric juice.

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive System Activities:

a. Ingestion:
 Intake of food into the alimentary tract.
b. Propulsion:
 Mixing and movement along the tract.
c. Digestion:
 Mechanical (e.g., chewing).
 Chemical (enzymatic breakdown).
d. Absorption:
 Passage of products into blood and lymph.
e. Elimination:
 Excretion of indigestible food as feces.

1. Tongue Functions
 Chewing (Mastication):
o Active role in breaking down food.
 Swallowing (Deglutition):
o Involved in the swallowing process.
 Speech:
o Contributes to speech production.
 Taste:
o Houses taste buds for the sense of taste.

2. Teeth Functions
1. Incisors and Canine Teeth:
 Cutting teeth for biting off food pieces.
2. Premolar and Molar Teeth:
 Broad, flat surfaces for grinding or chewing food.

3. Pharynx Functions
1. Nasopharynx: Respiration.
2. Oropharynx and laryngopharynx: Common passages for both respiratory and digestive
systems.
3. Passage for food from oral cavity to the esophagus.

4. Oesophagus Functions
a. Formation of a Bolus:
 Chewing (mastication), mixing with saliva.
 Forming a soft mass (bolus) ready for swallowing.
b. Swallowing (Deglutition):
a. Oral Stage:
o Voluntary muscles push the bolus into the pharynx.

9
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

b. Pharyngeal Stage:
o Reflex action in the pharynx muscles.
o Soft palate, tongue, and pharyngeal folds prevent backward
movement.
o Larynx is lifted, epiglottis occludes the trachea.
c. Oesophageal Stage:
1. Peristalsis propels the bolus to the stomach.
c. Preventing Gastric Reflux:
 Lower oesophageal sphincter constriction.
 Attachment of the stomach to the diaphragm.
 Acute cardio-oesophageal angle.
 Increased tone of the cardiac sphincter with increased intra-abdominal pressure.
d. Lubrication:
 Walls lubricated by mucus for easy bolus passage during peristaltic contraction.

5. Stomach
1. Temporary storage of food.
2. Chemical digestion by pepsins.
3. Mechanical breakdown via churning.
4. Limited absorption of water, alcohol, and lipid-soluble drugs.
5. Non-specific defense against microbes (hydrochloric acid).
6. Preparation of iron for absorption.
7. Production and secretion of intrinsic factor.
8. Regulation of passage into the duodenum.
9. Secretion of gastrin hormone.
6. Small Intestine
1. Peristalsis for onward movement.
2. Secretion of intestinal juice.
3. Completion of chemical digestion.
4. Protection against infection.
5. Secretion of hormones (CCK and secretin).
6. Absorption of nutrients.
7. Large Intestine
 Absorption: Continuation of water absorption from the ileum, along with mineral
salts, vitamins, and drugs.
 Microbial Activity: Colonized by bacteria synthesizing vitamin K and folic acid.
 Gas Production: Gases (nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane) produced by
bacterial fermentation.
 Mass Movement: Occasional strong peristalsis (mass movement) facilitates
movement of contents.
8. Pancreas
 Exocrine Function: Production of pancreatic juice containing enzymes for digestion.
 Endocrine Function: Secretion of hormones (insulin and glucagon) for blood
glucose regulation.
9. Liver
10
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

 Carbohydrate Metabolism: Maintains plasma glucose levels by storing or

releasing glycogen.
 Fat Metabolism: Converts stored fat for energy use by tissues.
 Protein Metabolism:
 Deamination: Removes nitrogenous portion from excess amino acids.
 Transamination: Forms new non-essential amino acids.
 Synthesis of Plasma Proteins: Produces albumins, globulins, and blood
clotting factors.
 Breakdown and Defence:
 Phagocytic hepatic macrophages break down erythrocytes.
 Liver defends against microbes.
 Detoxification:
 Inactivates drugs, ethanol, waste products, and microbial toxins.
 First-pass metabolism occurs in the liver.
 Inactivation of Hormones:
 Inactivates insulin, glucagon, cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid, and sex
hormones.
 Production of Heat:
 High metabolic rate produces significant heat.
 Secretion of Bile:
 Synthesizes bile constituents from mixed blood in sinusoids.
 Bile aids in fat digestion and consists of water, mineral salts, mucus, bile
pigments, bile salts, and cholesterol.
 Storage:
 Glycogen, fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), iron, copper, and some water-
soluble vitamins stored in the liver.

COMPOSITION & FUNCTION OF GASTRIC JUICE.

Composition of Gastric Juice:
1. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):
 Provides an acidic environment crucial for activating digestive enzymes and
breaking down proteins.
2. Pepsinogen:
 Secreted as an inactive precursor, it is activated by HCl to form Pepsin, an
enzyme that digests proteins.
3. Intrinsic Factor:
 Essential for the absorption of Vitamin B12 in the small intestine.
Functions of Gastric Juice:
1. Protein Digestion:
 Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller peptides, facilitating further digestion in
the small intestine.
2. Activation of Enzymes:
 HCl activates pepsinogen to its active form (pepsin) and creates an optimal pH for
enzyme activity.
3. Protection Against Pathogens:
 The acidic environment helps to kill ingested microbes, contributing to the body's
defense.

11
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.6. Explain cardiac cycle?

CARDIAC CYCLE

The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events that occur during one complete heartbeat,
consisting of the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the heart chambers. The entire
cycle ensures the proper flow of blood throughout the body, with oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood flowing through different chambers.

The cardiac cycle lasts approximately 0.8 seconds in a healthy adult at rest (with an average
heart rate of 75 beats per minute).

Phases of the Cardiac Cycle

1. Atrial Systole (0.1 sec)

o Atria contract, pushing blood into the ventricles.
o The atrioventricular (AV) valves (tricuspid and mitral) remain open to allow
blood flow from atria to ventricles.
o The semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary) remain closed to prevent backflow
from the arteries.
2. Ventricular Systole (0.3 sec)
o Isovolumetric Contraction: Ventricles begin to contract but no blood is ejected
yet.
All valves are closed at this stage.
o Ventricular Ejection: Once the pressure in the ventricles exceeds that in the
aorta and pulmonary artery, the semilunar valves open, ejecting blood into these
arteries.
3. Atrial Diastole (0.7 sec)
o Atria are relaxed and start filling with blood from the veins (vena cava and
pulmonary veins).
This phase overlaps with ventricular systole.
4. Ventricular Diastole (0.5 sec)
o Isovolumetric Relaxation: The ventricles begin to relax, reducing pressure.
Both AV and semilunar valves remain closed temporarily.
o Ventricular Filling: As ventricular pressure drops, the AV valves open and
blood flows from the atria into the ventricles passively.

12
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.7. Explain conduction system of heart?

CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF HEART

(a) Auto rhythmicity:

1. Definition: Heart generates its own electrical impulses independently.
2. Nervous Control: Supplied with sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers.
3. Influence on heart rate: Sympathetic increases, parasympathetic decreases intrinsic heart
rate.
4. Hormonal Influence: Responsive to circulating hormones like adrenaline (epinephrine) and
thyroxine.
(b) Specialized Neuromuscular Cells:
1. Location: Found in small groups within the myocardium.
2. Function: Initiate and conduct impulses, ensuring coordinated and synchronized contraction
of the heart muscle.
Specialized neuromuscular cells are:-
Sinoatrial Node (SA Node)
Atrioventricular Node (AV node)
Atrioventricular Bundle (AV Bundle or Bundle of His)
Right and left bundle branch
Purkinje fibers

SEQUENCE OF CONDUCTION SYSTEM

• SA node (pacemaker)- SA cells generate regular electrical impulses.
 each impulse travels throughout the muscle fibers of both atria and the atria begin to
contract
 AV node - As the action potential enters the AV node from the right atrium, its
conduction slows to allow complete contraction of both atria
 AV bundle- After the AV node, conduction velocity increases as the impulse is relayed
through the AV bundle into the ventricles
 Right and left branches of the bundle fibers and Purkinje fibers- conduct the
impulses throughout the muscles of both ventricles, stimulating them to contract almost
simultaneously

13
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.8. Explain function of kidney and mechanism of urine formation?

FUNCTION OF KIDNEY
The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis, which is the body's internal balance
and stability.
Here are the key functions of the kidneys in this regard:
1. Filtration of Blood:
 The primary function of the kidneys is to filter waste products and excess substances
from the bloodstream. This includes metabolic waste, ions, and water-soluble toxins.
2. Regulation of Blood Pressure:
 The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by controlling the volume of blood and the
amount of water retained in the body. They adjust blood pressure by altering the
volume of urine produced.
3. Electrolyte Balance:
 Kidneys maintain the balance of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, and
phosphate) in the body. Proper electrolyte balance is crucial for nerve function,
muscle contraction, and maintaining cell membrane potentials.
4. Acid-Base Balance:
 The kidneys play a key role in regulating the pH level of the blood by excreting
hydrogen ions and reabsorbing bicarbonate ions. This helps maintain a stable and
slightly alkaline pH in the body.
5. Erythropoiesis Regulation:
 The kidneys produce and release erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the
production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. This ensures an adequate supply of
oxygen to tissues.
6. Water Balance:
 Kidneys control water balance by adjusting the amount of water reabsorbed from the
filtrate. This mechanism helps prevent dehydration or excessive fluid retention.
7. Toxin Removal:
 Besides metabolic waste, the kidneys filter out various toxins, drugs, and foreign
substances from the blood, preventing their accumulation in the body.
8. Glucose Regulation:
 The kidneys contribute to glucose regulation by reabsorbing glucose from the filtrate
back into the bloodstream. In cases of high blood sugar, excess glucose is excreted in
the urine.
9. Activation of Vitamin D:
 The kidneys convert inactive vitamin D into its active form, which is essential for the
absorption of calcium and phosphate in the intestines, promoting bone health.
10. Blood Volume Regulation:
 By adjusting the amount of water reabsorbed, the kidneys help regulate blood
volume. This, in turn, influences blood pressure and cardiac output.

MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION

Urine formation in the kidneys involves three crucial processes: filtration, selective reabsorption,
and secretion. Each process plays a vital role in maintaining the body's homeostasis by regulating
the composition of blood and urine.
I. Filtration
1. Location: Occurs in the renal corpuscles.
14
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

2. Process Overview:
 Blood is continuously filtered through the glomeruli in the renal corpuscles.
3. Mechanism:
 Blood flows through the glomeruli, where osmosis and diffusion allow fluid
containing useful substances and waste to exit the blood.
 This fluid then enters Bowman’s capsule, a process known as glomerular
filtration.
4. Composition of Glomerular Filtrate:
 Primarily contains water, salts (sodium, potassium), glucose, and urea.
 Urea is a key waste product formed in the liver from the breakdown of amino
acids and used to eliminate toxic ammonia.
II. Selective Reabsorption
1. Primary Location: Begins in the proximal convoluted tubules (PCT).
2. PCT Structure:
 Lined with cells having microvilli to increase surface area, facilitating absorption.
 Contains numerous mitochondria to generate ATP for active transport.
3. Substances Reabsorbed:
 Water, glucose, nutrients, sodium, and other ions are reabsorbed into the
bloodstream.
4. Process Continuation:
 Continues through the loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubules, and collecting
tubules.
5. Efficiency:
 Remarkably, about 99% of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed, with only 1%
eventually excreted as urine.
III. Secretion
1. Secretion Sites: Involves the renal tubules and collecting ducts.
2. Mechanism:
 Substances not removed by filtration are actively secreted into the renal tubules
from the surrounding peritubular capillaries.
3. Substances Secreted:
 Include hydrogen ions (H+), potassium ions (K+), ammonia (NH3), and various
drugs.
4. Secretion Process:
 Mainly occurs through active transport from the epithelial cells lining the renal
tubules and collecting ducts.

15
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.9. Write short note on tissue repair/healing mechanism.

TISSUE REPAIR
The replacement of worn-out, damaged, or dead cells is called tissue repair. New cells are
formed by cell division from the stroma (the supporting connective tissue) or from the
parenchyma (cells that form the functional part of the tissue or organ).
Tissue Regeneration Capacities:
1. Epithelial Cells:
 Characteristics:
 Endure wear and tear, even injury.
 Continuous capacity for renewal.
 Stem Cells:
 Present in some areas of skin and gastrointestinal epithelia.
 Divide to replace lost or damaged cells.
 Examples:
 Stem cells in red bone marrow replenish RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
 Mature cells like hepatocytes and endothelial cells can also divide.
2. Connective Tissues:
 Renewal Capacity:
 Bone has continuous renewal due to ample blood supply.
 Cartilage replenishes cells less readily (limited blood supply).
 Examples:
 Bone tissue benefits from a robust blood supply.
 Cartilage renewal is slower due to smaller blood supply.
3. Muscular Tissue:
 Renewal Limits:
 Limited renewal capacity.
 Satellite Cells:
 Present in some muscles (e.g., skeletal muscles).
 Aid in regeneration to a certain extent.
 Cardiac Muscle:
 Lacks satellite cells.
 Mature cardiac muscle fibers do not divide.
 Limited renewal via stem cells migrating from the blood.
 Smooth Muscle:
 Can proliferate, but slower than epithelial and connective tissues.
4. Nervous Tissue:
 Renewal Challenge:
 Poorest capacity for renewal.
 Stem Cells:
 Present in the brain but often do not undergo mitosis.
 Research Ongoing:
 Efforts to understand and enhance renewal capacity in nervous
tissue.

16
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Mechanism of Tissue Repair:

1. Objective:
 Restore injured tissue/organ to normal structure and function.
2. Regeneration vs. Fibrosis:
 Regeneration:
 Accomplished by parenchymal cells for normal repair.
 Fibrosis:
 Involves fibroblasts in stroma.
 Synthesize collagen and matrix materials, forming scar tissue.
 Scar tissue impairs original function.
3. Repair Processes:
 Large Open Wounds:
 Fibroblasts and parenchymal cells active.
 Fibroblasts rapidly divide, forming new collagen fibers for structural
strength.
 Blood capillaries sprout to supply materials to healing tissue.
 Result: Actively growing connective tissue known as granulation
tissue.
 Granulation tissue provides a stromal framework supporting migrating
epithelial cells.
 Newly formed tissue secretes fluid with bacteria-killing properties.
4. Scar Tissue Impact:
 Formation of scar tissue in fibrosis.
 Impairment of original tissue/organ function.

17
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Q.10. Explain physiology of muscle contraction?

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

1. Myofilaments Composition:
 Thick myofilaments are made of myosin, with crossbridges projecting radially around its
long axis.
 Thin myofilaments consist of actin, arranged in a double-stranded coil, accompanied by
troponin and tropomyosin.
2. Sarcomeres and Myofibrils:
 Sarcomeres, the basic units of muscle contraction, are formed by joining many end-to-
end.
 Myofibrils, composed of sarcomeres, shorten when sarcomeres contract, leading to
muscle shortening.
3. Sliding Filament Model:
 Muscle contraction involves the sliding of actin and myosin myofilaments past each other
within the sarcomeres.
 This mechanism is known as the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.
4. Resting Muscle Fiber:
 In a resting state, myosin crossbridges are inhibited from binding with actin filaments due
to troponin and tropomyosin.
5. Nerve Impulse and Calcium Release:
 When a nerve impulse reaches a muscle fiber, it travels along the sarcolemma and T-
tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
6. Muscle Contraction Process:
 Calcium ions bind with troponin, pushing tropomyosin away from actin receptor sites.
 Myosin crossbridges interact with actin, pulling actin filaments toward the center (H-
zone) of each sarcomere.
 The bond between myosin crossbridges and actin breaks down under enzyme influence.
 Crossbridges are free to rejoin with other actin receptor sites, causing actin filaments to
slide past myosin filaments.
 This sliding results in overlapping and shortening of sarcomeres, leading to muscle fiber
contraction.
7. Relaxation of Muscle Fibers:
 Muscle relaxation occurs when calcium ions are actively reabsorbed by the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
 Troponin and tropomyosin inhibit the interaction of actin and myosin filaments.
 As a result, the actin filaments do not shorten, and the muscle returns to a relaxed state.

18
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

Summary of events in the contraction of a muscle fiber

19
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923
B.Sc. Nursing 1st Sem Applied Physiology Bhushan Science

20
Student Helpline Number- 8602802923