How the elements are formed:

Atoms and Elements

From Cengage Learning
Source: An Introduction to Physical Science, 13th edition (Shipman, et.al.)
Early Concepts of the Atom
• Greek Philosophers (400 B.C.) debated whether matter
was continuous or discrete, but could prove neither.
• Continuous – could be divided indefinitely
• Discrete – ultimate indivisible particle
• Most (including Aristotle) agreed with the continuous theory.
• The continuous model of matter prevailed for 2200 years,
until 1807.

Section 9.1
Dalton’s Model –
“The Billiard Ball Model”
• In 1807 John Dalton presented evidence that matter was
discrete and must exist as particles.
• Dalton‟s major hypothesis stated that:
• Each chemical element is composed of small indivisible
particles called atoms,
• identical for each element but different from atoms of other
elements
• Essentially these particles are featureless spheres of
uniform density.

Section 9.1
Dalton’s Model
• Dalton‟s 1807 “billiard ball
model”
pictured the atom as a tiny
indivisible, uniformly
dense, solid sphere.

Section 9.1
Thomson – “Plum Pudding
Model”
• In 1903 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron.
• Further experiments by Thomson and others showed that
an electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31 kg and a charge of
–1.60 x 10-19 C.
• Thomson produced „rays‟ using several different gas
types in cathode-ray tubes.
• He noted that these rays were deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
• Thomson concluded that this ray consisted of negative
particles (now called electrons.)

Section 9.1
Thomson – “Plum
Pudding Model” (cont.)
• Identical electrons were produced no matter what gas
was in the tube.
• Therefore he concluded that atoms of all types contained
„electrons.‟
• Since atoms as a whole are electrically neutral, some
other part of the atom must be positive.
• Thomson concluded that the electrons were stuck
randomly in an otherwise homogeneous mass of
positively charged “pudding.”

Section 9.1
Thompson’s Model

• Thomson‟s 1903
“plum pudding model”
conceived the atom as
a sphere of positive
charge in which
negatively charged
electrons were
embedded.

Section 9.1
Ernest Rutherford’s Model
• In 1911 Rutherford discovered that 99.97% of the mass of
an atom was concentrated in a tiny core, or nucleus.
• Rutherford‟s model envisioned the electrons as circulating
in some way around a positively charged core.

Section 9.1
Rutherford’s Model

• Rutherford‟s 1911
“nuclear model”
envisioned the atom as
having a dense center
of positive charge (the
nucleus) around which
the electrons orbited.

Section 9.1
Microwaves
• Electromagnetic radiation that have relatively low
frequencies (about 1010 Hz)

Section 9.4
The Microwave Oven
• Because most foods contain moisture, their water
molecules absorb the microwave radiation and gain
energy
• As the water molecules gain energy, they rotate more rapidly,
thus heating/cooking the item
• Fats and oils in the foods also preferentially gain energy from
(are excited by) the microwaves

Section 9.4
The Microwave Oven
• Paper/plastic/ceramic/glass dishes are not directly heated
by the microwaves
• But may be heated by contact with the food (conduction)
• The interior metal sides of the oven reflect the radiation
and remain cool
• Do microwaves penetrate the food and heat it
throughout?
• Microwaves only penetrate a few centimeters and therefore they
work better if the food is cut into small pieces
• Inside of food must be heated by conduction

Section 9.4
“Discovery” of
Microwaves as a Cooking Tool
• In 1946 a Raytheon Corporation engineer, Percy
Spencer, put his chocolate bar too close to a microwave
source
• The chocolate bar melted of course, and …
• Within a year Raytheon introduced the first commercial
microwave oven!

Section 9.4
X-Rays
• Accidentally discovered in 1895 by the German physicist
Wilhelm Roentgen
• He noticed while working with a gas-discharge tube that a piece
of fluorescent paper across the room was glowing
• Roentgen deduced that some unknown/unseen radiation
from the tube was the cause
• He called this mysterious radiation “X-radiation” because it was
unknown

Section 9.4
X-Ray Production
• Electrons from the cathode are accelerated toward the
anode. Upon interacting with the atoms of the anode, the
atoms emit energy in the form of x-rays.

Section 9.4
Early use of X-Rays
• Within few months of their
discovery, X-rays were
being put to practical use.
• This is an X-ray of bird
shot embedded in a hand.
• Unfortunately, much of the
early use of X-rays was far
too aggressive, resulting in
later cancer.

Section 9.4
Early Thoughts about Elements
• The Greek philosophers (600 – 200 B.C.) were the first
people to speculate about the basic substances of matter.
• Aristotle speculated that all matter on earth is composed
of only four elements: earth, air, fire, and water.
• He was wrong on all counts!

Section 10.1
Symbols of the Elements
• Swedish chemist,
Jons Jakob
Berzelius (early
1800‟s) used one or
two letters of the
Latin name to
designate each
element.

Section 10.1
Symbols of the Elements
• Since Berzelius‟ time most elements have been
symbolized by the first one or two letters of the English
name.
• YOU are expected to know the names and symbols of the
45 elements listed on Table 10.2.

Section 10.1
Names and Symbols
of Common Elements

Section 10.1
The Atom
• All matter is composed of atoms.
• An atom is composed of three subatomic particles:
electrons (-), protons (+), and neutrons (0)
• The nucleus of the atom contains the protons and the
neutrons (also called nucleons.)
• The electrons surround (orbit) the nucleus.
• Electrons and protons have equal but opposite charges.

Section 10.2
Major Constituents of an Atom

U=unified atomic mass units

Section 10.2
The Atomic Nucleus
• Protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass and
are 2000 times more massive than an electron.
• Discovery – Electron (J.J. Thomson in 1897), Proton
(Ernest Rutherford in 1918), and Neutron (James
Chadwick in 1932)

Section 10.2
Rutherford's Alpha-
Scattering Experiment
• J.J. Thomson‟s “plum pudding” model predicted the alpha
particles would pass through the evenly distributed
positive charges in the gold atoms.

a particle = helium nucleus

Section 10.2
Rutherford's Alpha-
Scattering Experiment
• Only 1 out of 20,000 alpha particles bounced back.
• Rutherford could only explain this by assuming that each
gold atom had its positive charge concentrated in a very
small “nucleus.”
• Diameter of nucleus = about 10-14 m
• Electron orbit diameter = about 10-10 m
• Atomic Mass is concentrated in the nucleus (>99.97%)

Section 10.2
Atomic Mass is
Concentrated in the Nucleus!
• Therefore the volume (or size) of an atom is determined
by the orbiting electrons.
• The diameter of an atom is approximately 10,000 times the
diameter of the nucleus.
• If only nuclear material (protons and neutrons) could be
closely packed into a sphere the size of a ping-pong ball it
would have the incredible mass of 2.5 billion metric tons!

Section 10.2
Visual Representation of a
Nucleus
• Tightly Packed
Protons and Neutrons

Section 10.2
Atomic Designations
• Atomic Number (Z) – the # of protons in the nucleus
(“defines” the element – the # of protons is always the
same for a given element)
• Atomic Number also designates the number of electrons
in an element.
• If an element either gains or loses electrons, the resulting
particle is called and ion.
• For example, if a sodium atom (Na) loses an electron it
becomes a sodium ion (Na+.)

Section 10.2
More Atomic Designations
• Mass Number (A) – protons + neutrons, or the total
number of nucleons
• Isotope – when the number of neutrons vary in the
nucleus of a given element (always same number of
protons)
• Only 112 elements are known, but the total number of
isotopes is about 2000.

Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Determining the
Composition of an Atom
• Determine the number of protons, electrons,
and neutrons in the fluorine atom 19
9
F
• Atomic Number (Z) = 9
• \ protons = 9 & electrons = 9
• Mass Number (A) = 19
• A = N + Z {N = Neutron Number}
• \ N = A – Z = 19 – 9 = 10
• neutrons = 10

Section 10.2
Atomic Review
• Protons & Neutrons – in nucleus
• Electrons – orbit around nucleus
• Mass Number (A) = protons + neutrons
• Atomic Number (Z) = # of protons
• Neutron Number (N) = # of neutrons
• Isotope – an element with different # of neutrons (same #
of protons)

Section 10.2
Atomic Mass
• The weighted average mass of an atom of the element in
a naturally occurring sample
• The Atomic Mass is measured in unified atomic mass
units (u) – basically the weight of a proton or neutron.
• The 12C atom is used as the standard, and is assigned
the Atomic Mass of exactly 12 u.
• The weighted average mass of all carbon is slightly
higher than 12 (12.011) because some is 13C and 14C.

Section 10.2
Atomic Review
• Mass Number (A) – protons + neutrons, or the total
number of nucleons
• Isotope – when the number of neutrons vary in the
nucleus of a given element (always same number of
protons)
• Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons

Section 10.2