“JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

19.4

PROBABILITY 4
(Measures of location and dispersion)

by

A.J.Hobson

19.4.1 Common types of measure

19.4.2 Exercises
19.4.3 Answers to exercises
UNIT 19.4 - PROBABILITY 4
MEASURES OF LOCATION AND DISPERSION

19.4.1 COMMON TYPES OF MEASURE

We include, here three common measures of location (or central tendency), and one common
measure of dispersion (or scatter), used in the discussion of probability distributions.

(a) The Mean

(i) For Discrete Random Variables

If the values x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . . , xn of a discrete random variable, x, have probabilities

P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . . , Pn , respectively, then Pi represents the expected frequency of xi divided
by the total number of possible outcomes. For example, if the probability of a certain value
of x is 0.25, then there is a one in four chance of its occurring.

The arithmetic mean, µ, of the distribution may therefore be given by the formula

n
X
µ= x i Pi .
i=1

(ii) For Continuous Random Variables

In this case, it is necessary to use the probability density function, f (x), for the distribution
which is the rate of increase of the probability distribution function, F (x).

For a small interval, δx of x-values, the probability that any of these values occurs is ap-
proximately f (x)δx, which leads to the formula
Z ∞
µ= xf (x) dx.
−∞

(b) The Median

(i) For Discrete Random Variables

The median provides an estimate of the middle value of x, taking into account the frequency
at which each value occurs. More precisely, it is a value, m, of the random variable, x, for
which

1 1
P (x ≤ m) ≥ and P (x ≥ m) ≥ .
2 2

1
The median for a discrete random variable may not be unique (see Example 1, on page 3).

(ii) For Continuous Random Variables

The median for a continuous random variable is a value of the random variable, x, for which
there are equal chances of x being greater than or less than the median itself. More precisely,
it may be defined as the value, m, for which P (x ≤ m) = F (m) = 12 .

Note:
Other measures of location are sometimes used, such as “quartiles”, “deciles” and “per-
centiles”, which divide the range of x values into four, ten and one hundred equal parts,
respectively. For example, the third quartile of a distribution function, F (x), may be defined
as a value, q3 , of the random variable, x, such that

3
F (q3 ) = .
4

(c) The Mode

The mode is a measure of the most likely value occurring of the random variable, x.

(i) For Discrete Random Variables

In this case, the mode is any value of x with the highest probability, and, again, it may not
be unique (see Example 1, on page 3).

(ii) For Continuous Random Variables

In this case, we require a value of x for which the probability density function (measuring
the concentration of x values) has a maximum.

(d) The Standard Deviation

The most common meaure of dispersion (or scatter) for a probability distribution is the
“standard deviation”, σ.

(i) For Discrete Random Variables

In this case, the standard deviation is defined by the formula

v
u n
uX
σ=t (xi − µ)2 P (x).
i=1

2
(ii) For Continuous Random Variables

In this case, the standard deviation is defined by the formula

sZ
∞
σ= (x − µ)2 f (x) dx,
−∞

where f (x) denotes the probability density function.

Each measures the dispersion of the x values around the mean, µ.

Note:
σ 2 is known as the “variance” of the probability distribution.

EXAMPLES

1. Determine (a) the mean, (b) the median, (c) the mode and (d) the standard deviation
for a simple toss of an unbiased die.
Solution
(a) The mean is given by

6
X 1 22
µ= i× = = 3.5
i=1 6 6

(b) Both 3 and 4 on the die fit the definition of a median, since

1 2
P (x ≤ 3) = , P (x ≥ 3) =
2 3
and
2 1
P (x ≤ 4) = , P (x ≥ 4) = .
3 2

(c) All six outcomes count as a mode since they all have a probability of 16 .
(d) The standard deviation is given by
v
u 6
uX 1
σ=t (i − 3.5)2 ' 2.917
i=1 6

3
2. Determine (a) the mean, (b) the median, (c) the mode and (d) the standard deviation
for the distribution function
x
1 − e− 2

F (x) ≡ when x ≥ 0;
0 when x < 0.
Solution
First, we need the probability density function, f (x), which is given by
 1 −x
 2e 2 when x ≥ 0;
f (x) ≡

0 when x < 0
Hence,
(a)
Z ∞ 1 −x
µ= xe 2 dx,
0 2
which, on integration by parts, gives
h x
i∞ Z ∞ x
h x
i∞
µ = −xe− 2 + e− 2 dx = −2e− 2 = 2.
0 0 0

(b) The median is the value, m, for which

1
F (m) = .
2
That is,

m 1
1 − e− 2 = ,
2
giving

m 1
 
− = ln ;
2 2

and, hence, m ' 1.386.

(c) The mode is zero, since the maximum value of the probability density function
occurs when x = 0.

4
 (d) The standard deviation is given by
Z ∞ 1 x
σ2 = (x − 2)2 e− 2 dx,
0 2
which, on integration by parts, gives
h x
i∞ Z ∞ x
σ 2 = − (x − 2)2 e− 2 + 2(x − 2)e− 2 dx
0 0

h x
i∞ x
= 4 − 4(x − 2)e− 2 4e− 2 dx = 4.
0

Thus σ = 2.

19.4.2 EXERCISES

1. A probability function, P (x), is defined by the following table:

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
P (x) 0.17 0.29 0.27 0.16 0.07 0.03 0.01
Determine (a) the mean, (b) the median, (c) the mode and (d) the standard deviaton
of this distribution.
2. A certain assembly process is such that the probability of success at each attempt is
0.2. The probability, P (x) that x independent attempts are needed to achieve success
is given by

P (x) ≡ (0.2)(0.8)x−1 x = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Determine (a) the mean, (b) the median and (c) the standard deviation of this distri-
bution.
3. The running distance (in thousands of kilometres) which car owners achieve from a
certain type of tyre is a random variable with probability density function, f (x), where

1 −x/30

 30
e when x > 0;
f (x) ≡

0 when x ≤ 0,


5
 Determine
(a) the probability that one of these tyres will last at most 19000km;
(b) (i) the mean, (ii) the median and (iii) the standard deviation of the distribution.
4. The probability density function, f (x), of a random variable, x, is defined by

30x2 (1 − x)2

f (x) ≡ when 0 < x < 1;
0 otherwise.
Determine the probability that x will take a value within two standard deviations of its
mean.
5. The probability density function, f (x), of a random variable, x, is given by
2
1
xe−x /12

 12
when x > 0;
f (x) ≡

0 otherwise.
Determine (a) the median and (b) the mode for this distribution. Show also, (c), that
the mean, µ, is given by
Z ∞ 2 /12
µ= e−x dx.
0

19.4.3 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1. (a) Mean = 1.8; (b) median = 2; (c) mode = 1; (d) standard deviation = 1.34
2. (a) Mean = 5; (b) median = 3; (c) standard deviation = 4.47
3. (a) 0.47; (b) (i) mean = 30; (ii) median = 20.8; (iii) standard deviation = 30.
4. 0.969
√ √
5. (a) Median = 12 ln 2; (b) mode = 6.