1.

3 Learning Theories

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is a learning theory that assumes the learner is a passive blank slate, shaped by
environmental stimuli through both positive and negative reinforcement.
It focuses on observable and measurable behavior, emphasizing that behavior is learned
primarily through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not
consider the mind or thought processes.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner.

Pavlov’s Experiment:

Ivan Pavlov is known for his work in classical conditioning. His famous experiment involved
meat, a dog, and a bell. Initially, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the
dog. Placing dog food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation
(unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung before the dog was presented
with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced
salivation (conditioned response). This demonstrates classical conditioning.
Figure 1
Pavlov’s Experiment Schematic

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:

Stimulus Generalization - Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it well
salivate at the other similar sounds

Extinction - If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response
to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery - Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but
will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination - The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning - Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and Steven Downs. It

stresses the connections and combinatorial creativity. All the knowledge is out there – it’s a
matter of making the connections.
Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the clustering of similar areas of interest that allows for
interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together.”

Edward Lee Thorndike 1904-1990

Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational
Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli and responses.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated than others because of rewards. Then he came up with three primary laws.

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to
the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism.

THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM stated that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three
primary laws:

Law of Effect

The Law of Effect stated that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened
when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the
response is weakened when the consequence is negative.

Law of Exercise
Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the stronger it will become.
“Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this.

Law of Readiness

This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to thestimulus, the stronger will
be the bond between them. When a person is ready to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it
becomes annoying to the person.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1.​ Learning​ requires​ both​ practice​ and​ reward​(laws​ of

effect/exercise)
2.​ A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
(law of readiness)
3.​ Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4.​ Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura

There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward Tolman's purposive
behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social learning. Both theories are influenced by
behaviorism (focused on internal elements and learning).

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory and is often seen as a
link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's theory was based on the
psychological views of the Gestalt Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.
Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing
signs for a goal, i.e. learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.

Tolman’s key concept

- Critique of Behaviorism: Cognitivism argues that behaviorism does not adequately explain
cognitive processes.

- Mind as an Information Processor: It views the mind as a system that processes and
organizes information.
- Whole Concept Understanding: The theory focuses on grasping concepts in their entirety
rather than just individual parts.

- Application in Online Education: Cognitivism is applied in online education, particularly

using Bloom's Taxonomy.

Cognitivist Strategies for Higher-Level Thinking:

- Starting lessons with an engaging hook.

- Conducting review quizzes to activate prior knowledge.
- Defining clear learning outcomes.
- Chunking content into manageable pieces.
- Utilizing graphic organizers for visualization.
- Encouraging active student participation.
- Providing positive feedback and encouragement.

Social Learning Theory:

Albert Bandura
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of
observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.

Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

Four Elements of Observational Learning

1.​ Attention – mental focus or concentration, willingness of the child to observe and mimic
the behavior of a model.
2.​ Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory, ability to store information.
3.​ Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior observe
4.​ Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one to act.

COGNITIVISM

What is Cognitivism?

Cognitivism, also referred to as cognitive development, is a learning theory that emphasizes

human cognition and intelligence as essential for forming hypotheses and intellectual growth. It
focuses on understanding the processes involved in thinking and knowledge acquisition,
examining areas such as learning, memory, problem-solving skills, and intelligence.
How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures and, as
such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981).

Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they
come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b).

Which factors Influence Learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play in
facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and
matched non-examples.

The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a
response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational
strategies (Shuell, 1986).

How Does Transfer Occur?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in memory

(Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts, then
transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the
form of rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991).

Classroom Implications

In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to learning.
When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that the teachers not
only create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child.

2 Factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort. (Classroom Management).

Value - measures the importance of a student's work to himself and others.

Effort - is the amount of time and energy students put into their work.

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)

•​ Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's cognitive development
and only assign tasks for which the child is prepared.
•​ Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to advance
through each developmental stage.
•​ Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end product.
•​ Children should be encouraged to learn from each other.
•​ Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's learning processes and
that the curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.

Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom

Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain. These games are
used to improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical thinking, and help people learn
different patterns of association.

Examples of cognitive games include:

Educational Websites and Computer Games

Sorting Games

Flash Cards

Board Games

Puzzle

What are the principles of constructivism?

1.​ Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed

2.​ Learning is an active process.

3.​ All Knowledge is socially constructed.

4.​ All knowledge is Personal

5.​ Learning exists in the mind

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Cognitive constructivism
Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, Cognitive constructivism states
knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive
structures.

Social constructivism

Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, ) who suggested that, every
function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on,
on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).

Radical constructivism

Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and states that all
knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses. Learners construct new
knowledge on the foundations of their existing knowledge.

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving

environment where students become active participants in their own learning.

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching.

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning environments,
which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching strategies:

1)​ Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

2)​ Teachers and students will share authority.
3)​ The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4)​ L3earning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students