BANANA PEEL CAN BE UTILIZE AS A PROMISING ALTERNATIVE FOR

MEDICINAL ACTIVITIES (Cancer Treatment)

BY

FODAY MOHAMED TURAY

41094

A Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfilment

Of the Requirements for
The Bachelor’s Degree in Chemistry

Faculty of Pure & Applied Science

Fourah Bay College
University of Sierra Leone

OCTOBER 2023

o
 Banana Peel Can Be Utilize As a Promising Alternative for Medicinal Activities
(Cancer Treatment)

By

Foday Mohamed Turay

41094

A Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfilment

Of The Requirements for
The Bachelor’s Degree in Chemistry

Faculty of Pure & Applied Science

Fourah Bay College
University Of Sierra Leone

October 2023

_____________________________ _________________
FODAY MOHAMED TURAY SUPERVISOR

a
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to several pillars of support that have illuminated my
journey in completing this project. To the Chemistry Department at Fourah Bay College, University
of Sierra Leone, your unwavering commitment to nurturing knowledge has been the bedrock of
my academic growth. Your guidance, resources, and the vibrant academic community you
fostered were integral to the success of this endeavor.

My sincere appreciation extends to my supervisor, whose mentorship and wisdom have been
invaluable. Your guidance has not only enriched my academic pursuits but also my personal
growth. Your belief in my potential served as a constant source of inspiration.

To my beloved family, your unconditional love, patience, and encouragement provided the
strength to persist through every challenge. You have been my steadfast foundation and the
driving force behind my ambitions. To my friends, your unwavering support, camaraderie, and
occasional distractions offered much needed respite during this demanding journey. Your
presence in my life is a source of endless joy.

I dedicate this achievement to all of you, as your collective influence has been indelible. This
project is as much yours as it is mine. Thank you for being the guiding lights that have led me to
this moment.

With immense gratitude and love,

FODAY MOHAMED TURAY

OCTOBER 2023

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ii-iv

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii-ix

ABSTRACT x-xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1-3

1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Reasoning 3-4
1.4 Significance of the study 4-5
1.5 Aims 5
1.6 Objectives 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Bananas (Banana Peels) 6-8

2.1.1 Effective Utilization of Banana Peels in Different Industries 8-9
2.2 Morphological Description 9
2.2.1 The Habit 9
2.2.2 Leaves, Stem, Root 10
2.2.3 Flower 10
2.2.4 Fruit 10
2.3 Taxonomical Classification 10
2.4 Pharmacological and Phytochemical Composition 11-13
2.4.1 Pharmacological Activities 13-14
2.4.2 Antioxidant Activity and Phenolic Content 14-16
2.4.3 Anticancer Effect 16-17

ii
 2.4.3.1 Cytotoxic Effects 17
2.5 Medicinal Importance 17-19
2.6 Nutritional Of Banana Peels 19-20
2.6.1 Nutritional Content of Banana Peels 20-21
2.6.2 Utilization of Bananas as Nutraceuticals and Food Ingredients 21
2.7 Cancer 22-23
2.7.1 Symptoms 23-24
2.7.2 Risk Factors and Chemoprevention 24-25
2.7.3 Tests and Diagnosis 25
2.7.3.1 Screening and Detection 25-26
2.7.3.2 Treatment Options and Treatment Decision Making 26-27
2.8 Utilization of Banana Peel at Home 27-28

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Literature Search 29

3.2 Experiment Methodology 29
3.2.1 Sample Collection and Preparation 29
3.2.2 Quantitative analysis of secondary metabolites 29-30
3.2.3 Estimation of Total Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity 30
3.2.4 Estimation of Total Flavonoids 30-31
3.3 Analysis of the Antioxidant Activities of Banana Extracts 31
3.3.1 Radical Scavenging Activity of 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) 31
3.3.2 Ferrous Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) 31-32
3.3.3 Radical Scavenging Activity of 2, 2-Azino-Bis (3- Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-
Sulfonic Acid) (ABTS) 32
3.3.4 Cell Lines and Culture Condition 32-33
3.3.5 MTT Assay (3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-Yl)-2, 5-Diphenyltetrazolium
Bromide) for Cell Cytotoxicity 33
3.3.6 Acridine Orange/Ethidium Bromide (AO/EB) Staining of MCF-7 Cell Lines 34
3.3.7 Anti-Angiogenic Assay 34
3.3.8 Reducing Power 34-35

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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36

4. Comparative Analysis of Banana Peels: Multifaceted Approaches and Tables 36

4.1 Characteristics of the Banana Peels: Comparative Analysis of Previous Research 36
4.2 Chemical Composition of Banana Peels and Pulp: A Comprehensive Analysis 37-41
4.3 Analysis of the Antioxidant Activities of Banana Extracts 41-43
4.4 Total Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity 43-45
4.5 MTT Assay for Cell Cytotoxicity 45-46

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE

RESEARCH 47-48

REFERENCES ix- xxii

iv
 LIST OF TABLES Page

Table1. Effective Utilization of Banana Peels In Food Processing and Beverage Industry 8

Table2. Taxonomical Classification 10

Table3. Banana Peel Is a Rich Source of Various Phytochemical Compounds 12

Table4. Physicochemical Properties and Proximate Composition (Dry Matter Basis, Except
Moisture) Of Ripe Banana Peel Powder 36

Table5. Nutrient Composition of Pulp and Peel of Banana 38

Table6. Mineral Content of Pulp and Peel Samples of Banana 39

Table7. Secondary Metabolites and Antioxidant Potential of Pulp and Peel 40

Table8. Yield and Antioxidant Activity of Banana Extracts 42

Table9. Cytotoxic Effects of Banana Extracts 43

v
 LIST OF FIGURES Page

Fig1. Banana Peel Wastes 6

Fig2. Steps Involved In Conversion of Banana Peels to Bio-Ethanol 7

vi
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Caption

ABTS 2, 2-Azino-Bis (3- Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-Sulfonic Acid)

ANOVA Analysis Of Variance
APOX Ascorbine Acid Peroxidase
AO Acridine Orange
ADF Acidic Detergent Fiber
BHA Βeta-Hydroxyanisole
BPC Banana Peel Cellulose
CAT Catalase
CHD Coronary Heart Disease
CVD Cardiovascular Disease
DOX Doxorubicin
DMEM Dulbecco`s Modified Eagle Media
DMSO Dimethyl Sulfoxide
DPPH 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl Radical
ºC Degree Celsius
ºBrix Degree Brix
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNS Dinitrosalicylic Acid
EC Value Electric Conductivity
EB Ethidium Bromide
ERBP Ethanol Red Banana Peel
ECM Endothelial Cell Medium
ECGS Endothelial Cell Growth Supplement
FRAP Ferrous Reducing Antioxidant Power
FBS Fetal Bovine Serum
FF Functional Foods
g Gram
HDL High‐Density Lipoprotein
HEPG2 Hepatoblastoma Cells

vii
HT-29 Human Colon Cancer
HCT-116 Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cell Line
HIFBS Heat-Inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum
HUVEC Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cell Lines
IC50 Inhibitory Concentration
IDF Insoluble Dietary Fiber
LDL Low-Density Lipoprotein
MTT Assay 3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-Yl)-2, 5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide
M199 Medium 199
µmol Micromoles
Ml Millilitre
µL Micro litre
Mg Milligram
µg Microgram
µM Micrometer
Mm Millimeter
M Meter
MCF-7 Human Breast Carcinoma Cell Line
NDF Neutral Detergent Fiber
Nm Nanometer
N Newton
OHC Oil-Holding Capacity
P< 0.05 Probability Level
PSA Prostate Specific Antigen
POX Peroxidase
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
PVAC Pro-Vitamin A, Carotenoid
PS Pork skin
Ppm Parts Per Million
PANC-1 Pancreatic Cancer Cells
P-Value Probability Value
RPMI Roswell Park Memorial Institute

viii
n Sample Size
s Second
SC Swelling Capacity
SDF Soluble Dietary Fiber
SOD Superoxide Dismutase
SEER Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results
TNF Tumor Necrosis Factor
T-Value Statistic difference
TSS Total Soluble Solids
TAE Tannic Acid Equivalents
TPTZ 2, 4, 6- Tripyridyl-S-Triazine
TDF Total Dietary Fiber
WHO World Health Organization
WHC Water-Holding Capacity

ix
 Banana Peel Can Be Utilize As a Promising Alternative for Medicinal Activities
(Cancer Treatment)

ABSTRACT

Cancer is a global health challenge that continues to demand innovative approaches to treatment.
By shedding light on the complex chemistry of banana peels, this abstract introduces the
expanding field of utilizing banana peels as a promising alternative for medicinal activities,
particularly in the context of cancer treatment and environmentally-conscious healthcare
solutions. Banana peels, long considered as agricultural waste, have recently accumulated
significant attention in the field of medicinal chemistry for their rich phytochemical composition.
Banana peels are found to be abundant in bioactive compounds, including phenolic substances,
flavonoids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, carotenoids, sterols, triterpenes, and
catecholamines. These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties,
making banana peels a compelling subject of study for their potential role in cancer treatment
mechanisms.

Research has indicated that well-ripened banana peels, with their characteristic dark spots,
produce a substance known as Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF). TNF has demonstrated the capability
to destroy cancerous tumors, and ripe bananas are notably eight times more effective in this
regard compared to their unripe counterparts. As the narrative of cancer therapy continues to
evolve, the integration of previously underestimated resources from our natural environment into
medicinal chemistry promises to revolutionize this approach to complex health issues. By tapping
into the rich resources offered by banana peels, it suggests innovative and sustainable pathways
for addressing complex health challenges. In a world that seeks eco-conscious and effective
solutions, this work offers a fresh perspective on the integration of nature’s gifts into the realm of
medicinal chemistry, signifying a breakthrough moment where the extraordinary potential of
ordinary resources is unveiled.

The abstract emphasizes the relevance of this research in addressing the pressing need for
effective and accessible solutions for cancer treatment. Furthermore, it emphasizes the potential
of banana peels as a natural, low-cost source of antioxidants and anti-tumor agents. While raw
banana peels may not be palatable to many, transforming them into food products presents an
opportunity for consistent consumption, which could yield health benefits. It stands as a

x
testament to the synergy between natural resources and scientific advancement, providing hope
and direction for the future of cancer therapeutics.

In conclusion, this abstract provides an overview of the exciting prospects surrounding banana
peels in cancer treatment. Further research and clinical trials are needed to unlock the full
therapeutic potential of banana peels and to translate these findings into practical, accessible and
cost-effective cancer treatments. The potential of banana peels in cancer therapy presents a
promising and innovative direction for future research and medical applications.

xi
 CHAPTER ONE (1)

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Banana peels belong to the members of the Musaceae family, and descend from a blooming
herbaceous plant in the genus Musa, scientifically known as Musa paradisiaca Linn. Sadia and
Azizuddin (2018) reported that its name Musa is derived from the word “Mouz” which is an Arabic
name. The name was given to banana plant as an honor to him, a Roman physician named Antonia
Musa and the banana plant is divided into four edible cultivars namely: Rhodochlamys, Eumusa,
Callimusa and Australimusa. It’s one of the most common eatable fruits grown in different
countries of the world. Bananas are one of the main crops in the world that has significance to
humans due to its nutritional value and mineral content. Although the plant is believed to have
originated in India and the rest of South Asia, it is now farmed not just in Sierra Leone but over the
entire subtropical and tropical regions of Africa. The banana plant contains different parts such as
stems, leaves, flowers and pulp, which have medical purposes. Banana peels are an important
source of functional compounds that can be harnessed due to their antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial properties (Manzoor A. & Ahmad S. 2021).

In recent decades, conventional medical practice and overall traditional medical systems have
attracted a consideration amount of attention and acceptance (Manzoor A. & Ahmad S. 2021). In
Africa and Asia, the banana fruit is a staple food for humans that has a great medicinal value and
its contribution is due to its primary source of starch. After being consumed, the peels are either
used as animal feed, fertilizer, or discarded. Banana peels have exhibit different medicinal
activities and they have been used in traditional medicine since ancient times. Peeled bananas are
used for healing wounds and fighting illnesses like depression, preventing anemia, regulating
blood pressure, preventing constipation, cure heartburn, prevent stroke, syphilis, and various
other diabetes treatments. It is used as a home remedy for the prevention of various blood and
reproductive problems. It is treated with the roots and stems of this plant that has been used
medicinally for generations. Under the recommendation of WHO, a minimum daily intake of 400 g
of fruit and vegetables must be observed based on evidence, that higher levels were protective
against cardiovascular diseases and some cancers. A campaign in many countries recommends a

1
launch of ‘5-a-day’ fruit and vegetable (Oyebode et al. 2014; HSCIC. 2012) that leads to an increase
in fresh fruits consumption.

The plants are classified as giant herbs as a result of the presence of (false aerial branches and
sheathing leaves developing from a rhizome). Parts of the banana plant other than the fruit itself
are used in many different types of traditional medicine (Coe F & Anderson GJ. 1999). The leaves
are also used as food wrappings and plates as they have a pleasant smell. Flower juice mixed with
curds effectively in treat dysentery and menorrhagia, and cryotherapy that is created from the
leaves of the young plant can be effectively treats blisters and burns. The World Health
Organization recently issued a series of resolutions aimed at boosting the safety and effectiveness
of herbal remedies (Barrett B. 1994). The functional foods (FF), particularly the tropical tree Musa
paradisiaca, are becoming as an alternative modern medical tool with beneficial effects on human
health. It is a new term for foods whose basic nutritional impact are obtained by enriching natural
substances with specific physiological preventive agents to promote specific health benefits
(Vukasovid. 2017). Most people in Africa depend on Musa paradisiaca as their primary source of
daily food dietary energy, and on average which provides more than 200 calories.

Natural plants can play a significant role in primary medicine. The consumption of the plant is
used as a promising alternative to the medicinal purposes commonly practiced in economically
and disadvantaged nations like Nigeria, like other parts of the plant, as a form of medical
treatment (Arun KB. et al. 2017). In genetics, Musa species are classified into three distinct
subgroups: Musa (has 22 chromosomes), Callimusa (has 20 chromosomes), and Ingentimusa (has
18 or 14 chromosomes). Musa paradisiaca grows up to 9 meters in height, and it can produce
yellow or green fruits and bears seedless, and can be up to 7 centimeters in length (Hawthorne
ME. et al. 2002). Banana peels have three genetic makeups, namely AAA, AAB, ABB, and AAAB and
are rich in dietary fiber. Studies have shown that banana pulp and skin contain high value
nutritional use in the pharmaceutical industry, for instances vitamins (A, B, C, E), β – carotene
(Kanazawa & Sakakibara 2000), and a wide range of phenolic compounds such as gallocatechins,
they including dopamine, catechins, epicatechins, lignins, and tannins (Someya 2002), and
anthocyanins like peonidin, malvidine, and phytosterols and triterpenes such as cycloeucalenol
and cycloartenol. (Mohammad Said. et al. 2016), it has a higher in mineral content than banana
pulp, which is high in starch and low in sugar. These secondary metabolites are associated with the
flavor and color of fruits and vegetables and are gaining attention due to their potent antioxidant

2
and health promoting properties (Kaur & Kapoor 2001). Medicinal applications of banana peel
products are getting greater attention from food manufacturers by transforming them into
functional food.

1.2 Problem statement

However, 30% of banana pulp is used for food production, which can cause a serious
environmental issue because of its high nitrogen and phosphorus content as well as high water
content (González-Montelongo 2010). Therefore, it is advisable to reduce the utilization of banana
peels in the food industry application. Due to population grown, the number of banana by-
products generated daily are increasing significantly, resulting in an environmental problem such
as the municipal landfills as a result of their high biodegradability and showing the loss of valuable
biomass and valuable nutrients (Padam 2014; Sagar 2018).

Banana peels are the waste products of bananas and they are rich in antioxidants, phenolic
content and minerals. These peels are biodegradable and they can produce environmental
problems due to their nitrogen and phosphorus content and they are easily accessible as it is not a
seasonal fruit and it grows well in Sierra Leone. The best solution is to bark extracts the peels in
order to protect human being, making it sustainable and profitable solutions in the food industry.
Bananas can continuously act as a natural source of antioxidants, making them a valuable resource
for the food industry. Using banana peels as fertilizer will help rotting organic matter attract pests
like fruit flies and cockroaches. So, it is better to use a store-bought fertilizer to fertilize
houseplants. The peels extract shows high toxicity to wrigglers (insects), suggesting potential for
producing natural larvicide production (insecticides) to prevent mosquito‐borne disease and
reduce the problem of agricultural waste issues.

1.3 Reasoning

The banana plants have medicinal purposes due to their traditional use by indigenous peoples.
Bioactive compounds and extracted minerals are being utilized in diagnosing, treating, and
managing various diseases. The peels and unripe fruits fermented and extracted with water have
shown anti‐ulcer effects when used. Banana peels have the potential to be a cancer chemo-
preventive agent due to their potential use of hydroxyanigorufone. The banana plants are
considered as a golden treasure of nature. Because every part of the banana plant, like the leaves,
pseudo-stem, fruits, flowers, and peels, are effectively used. Banana stem is used for making fiber.

3
This fiber can be used in different industries such as textiles, pulps, biodegradable sanitary pads,
automobiles, papers, aerospace, and constructions. This has the best flexibility, durability,
hardness, and compactness (M. Bhavani et al. 2023).

Banana peels contain a high amount of dietary fiber. This potentially helps in treating constipation
and enhancing general health (Anhwange 2009). Banana peels are a waste fruit that can be used
as a source of dietary fiber (Wachirasiri 2009). Dietary fiber is a crucial for the regulation of the
human body, granting glucose tolerance and a decreased starch digestion, which aids in providing
beneficial effects on the large bowel functions due to fermentation by bacterial microbiota.
(Ferrandis Vila 2018). The clinical practice recommends the intake of dietary fiber as a routine
meal to reduce diverticular disease, which delays the gastric emptying and increases small
intestinal transit time (Aune 2020). Also, the physicians recommend the intake of foods that
contain fiber for the reduction of cardiovascular disease, obesity, type 2 diabetes and some
cancers (Turner & Lupton 2011). The starch found within the meal produced by Musa paradisiaca
is extremely beneficial to the health of both humans and animals across.

1.4 Significance of the Study

Banana peels, has a major by-product of fruit processing. They are rich in phytochemical
compounds, which are responsible for pharmacological activities such as anti‐bacterial, anti‐
fungal, antioxidant, anti‐ulcer and anti‐cancer properties. However, the manipulation of food
processing waste disposal is a very serious environmental issue, and studies show that it is a good
source of polyphenols, carotenoids and other bioactive compounds which possess beneficial
effects on human health.

The potential applications of the peels depend on its chemical composition, which is rich in dietary
fiber, protein, essential amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and potassium (Emaga et al.
2007), and has medicinal benefits that reliefs from pain, swelling, itching, bruising, and sunburn
and wrinkles (Edwards 1991). In addition, hydroxyanigorufone has been discovered in Musa
paradisiaca, and its potential use as a cancer chemo-preventive agent.

Banana peels have been found to prevent anemia by stimulating the production of hemoglobin in
the blood, and helps in solving the problem of constipation and also the methanolic extract of
banana flowers contains 12 different types of polyphenols, found in 12.54% of the dietary fiber
(Arun KB. et al. 2017; Palafox-Carlos H. et al. 2011). Polyphenols have shown potential as a

4
defense mechanism against diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Dietary fiber extracted from
banana flowers serves as a container for biologically active substances, which enhances the
digestive tract and lowers colon cancer risk when they are paired with probiotic bacteria, which
help fermentation along and characterized as a matrix after first being the characterization of the
fiber production. According to Wath and Brayer Brand (1962), banana can also cure heart burn,
stress, stroke, ulcers and other ailments. The peels are used in making banana charcoal, an
alternative source of cooking fuel. In combination, banana peels with other substances create a
liniment for reducing the acuteness of the arthritis aches and pains (Kudan M. J. 1962).

This essay explores the nutritional value, pharmacological mechanism, and phytochemical
properties of the Musa paradisiaca plant, which has been widely researched for its potential
medical and economic benefits. The plant has pharmacological activities with various medications
that produced from its sources plant, such as Digitoxin, quinine, quinidine, vinblastine, vincristine,
atropine, codeine and morphine. Musa paradisiaca has been the focus of ethno-pharmacological
and ethno-botanical research because of its potential for both medical and economic benefit. The
Banana peels are extensively utilized in industrial applications such as biofuel production (Youssef
MA et al. 2018; Gaddafi ID et al. 2016), bio-sorbents, paper and pulp, cosmetics, energy related
activities, organic fertilizer, environmental clean-up, and biotechnology processes. The volume of
research has led to a comprehensive review of the medicinal activities of the banana peel.

1.5 Aims

1. Utilization of banana peels for their potential hydroxyanigorufone use as a cancer chemo-
preventive agent.

2. Identify its relevance to primary health care.

1.6 Objectives

1. To evaluate the prospective of using banana peel for pharmacological and medicinal
purposes.

2. It focuses on the optimal condition for extracting the banana peel, its nutritional benefits,
and phytochemical makeup.

3. To assess the banana peels and their phytochemicals for cancer prevention.

5
 CHAPTER TWO (2)

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BANANAS (Banana Peels)

Fig1. Banana peel wastes

The word banana, which originated in West Africa and was put into wider use by the Portuguese
(OECD Consensus Documents, 2010), banana peel is the outer skin (cover) of the banana fruit.
Bananas are a tropical fruit known collectively as the genus Musa in the family Musaceae. It is the
world’s most vital food yield, followed by rice, wheat and corn (Mahajan et al. 2010). Ongoing
research is exploring the potential to use banana peel extract in the development of natural
medicines for various health conditions. These natural alternatives have the potential to provide
effective and sustainable solutions to improve human health without relying solely on synthetic
pharmaceuticals.

The banana peel has become an integral part of many households because of its ability to help
treat skin problems due to its anti-inflammatory properties that can diminish the itchiness and
redness when applied directly to the skin, including allergies, bruises, skin irritation and reduce
wrinkles. Its uses are far from limited to being discarded in the trash (Journal of pharm. 2012).
Generally, it’s merely a thin, inedible layer that wraps the creamy yellow flesh, which contains
essential vitamins and minerals like potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and calcium of the peel
also helps increase the safety of gastric ulcer. Bananas are a good source of carbohydrates and
fiber. The high fiber content also indicates that the peels can help treat constipation and improve
overall health and well-being (Anhwange et al. 2009). In addition to these healing benefits, banana
peels can also be used for whitening teeth. The portion of the peel containing the highest
potassium content should be rubbed directly onto the teeth for two minutes after daily brushing.

6
This will help dissolve residues on the teeth and make them appear to be brighter. By utilizing the
peel of the banana, humans cannot only benefit from the nutrients contained in this fruit, but also
from its potential medicinal qualities. Studies done both in labs and by those utilizing the peel
found a decrease in inflammation, wrinkles, ulcers, and staining and discoloration of the teeth.

Daily use of the banana peel also makes the skin to be smoother, more elastic and less prone to
breakouts (acne). Drinking mashed banana peel extract in a liquid form can soothe the lining of
the stomach and help reduce the pain and discomfort associated. It is recognized that the by-
products of some fruits and vegetables are the main sent source of sugars, organic acids, minerals,
dietary fiber and phenolic compounds that have a wide range of action, which includes
antibacterial, antiviral, cardio-protective, anti-tumoral and anti‐mutagenic activities. Hence, the
newly discovered features related to the use of wastes for healing are very attractive (Chanda et
al. 2010). According to Engel Berger et al. (2003), the banana peel is a good source of nutrients
due to the high value obtained from the determination of lipids, carbohydrates and dietary fibers.

A promising alternative for the future is the utilization of banana peel waste as a sustainable
source for biofuels. Banana peels contain significant amounts of cellulose, which can be converted
into bioethanol through various processes such as hydrolysis and enzymatic fermentation.

Fig2. Adapted from (Muhammad, Azil bahari & Nor elina 2019).

This approach not only helps reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal but also provides
a renewable and carbon neutral energy. Banana peels have the potential to be utilized as a source
of bio-plastics. The starch and cellulose found in the peels can be extracted and processed to
create biodegradable materials that could replace conventional plastics in applications such as
packaging and disposable items. This innovative use of banana peels can help address the global
plastic pollution problem and contribute to a more sustainable future.

7
Overall, the future holds great potential for harnessing the various properties of banana peels, not
only as a waste management solution but also as a source of renewable energy, bio-plastics and
natural remedies. Banana peels are utilized for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Which are
used in various fields such as biotechnology, textile engineering, water treatment and consumer
silver products. According to A. Bankar et al. (2010), these nanoparticles were effective against
fungal and bacteria cultures. They can also be applied in the fields of microelectronics, bio-
diagnostics, sensing, imaging and drug design. Nanoparticles serve to increase the pharmaceutical
agent’s surface-to-volume ratio. These particles can pass through biological barriers and are made
from a wide array of biocompatible materials that can be used in food and pharmaceutical
industries (Sheikhzadeh S. et al. 2016; Souguir H. et al. 2013). Nanoparticles from native and
acetylated banana starch were prepared and used as Nano-vehicles for curcumin encapsulation
and release. Acetylation has demonstrated its potency as a chemical alteration for encapsulating
hydrogen bond donor molecules such as curcumin. A strong nanoparticle-curcumin interaction is
formed due to increased number of hydrogen bond-accepting sites. This facilitates the
incorporation of a greater number of curcumin molecules to the starch nanoparticles.
Encapsulation does not affect properties such as particle size and poly-dispersity index, proving
that it is possible to design nanoparticles from banana starch with sizes below 250 nm.

2.1.1 EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF BANANA PEELS IN DIFFERENT

INDUSTRIES.
Food processing & Medicinal & Cosmetic & Other industries
Beverage industry Nutraceuticals Home remedies
Yellow noodles anti‐cancer anti‐oxidants bio‐ alcohol
(Ramli et al.2009) (Alamsyah et al. 2016) (Munfarida et al.
2021)
Baking items Skin wounds Face and hair Electricity
(Shafi et al.2022) (Pilus et al.2021) generated
(Liu et al. 2004)
Banana peel flakes Mosquito bite Moisturizer Dye bio‐sorption
(Ahmad et al.2016) (Cendana et al.2020) (Singh et al.2016)
Jelly Teeth whitening agent Depilatory action bio‐degradable films
(Radzi.2020) (Broto et al.2022) (Ningtyas et
al.2021)
Table1. Effective utilization of banana peels in food processing and beverage industry. Adapted
from M. Bhavani et al. (2023)

The ferulic acid extracted from banana peels is generally used as a flavoring and aroma-enhancing
agent in the food industry. Thereby, it can be used in the preparation of cookies, cakes, bread, ice

8
cream, and bio-vanillin products (Saeed et al. 2021). Banana peels are used to treatment of
cracked heels which occur primarily in woman due to dryness and thickening of the skin. This
creates more space for microorganisms to attack, which can increase cracking and cause foot
infections and increase swelling. So, gel containing bananas peel extract and carboxyl methyl
cellulose. This gel is very effective than other chemical ointments, and is eco-friendly
(Rathinamoorthy R & Keerthana S. 2021). For thousands of years, man is known to have been
exploited plants as a source of medicinal drugs. Medicinal plants are possible sources of new drugs
and possess boundless values for developing pharmaceutical products, phyto-medicines, and
dietary supplements (Sam. et al. 2008). Banana peels act as a substrate for the production of
amylase and cellulose (Rana G.K. et al. 2018). Prepared baked products were found to have good
sensory attributes without affecting their physical or nutritional properties (Shafi A. et al. 2022).
Banana peel flakes can serve as a nutrition option for both morning breakfast and evening snacks.
A study indicated that, these flakes have significantly higher nutritional content compared to
banana pulp. To produce crispy banana peel flakes, Pre-treated banana peels are dried using
methods such as a hot oven or tray dryer. These flakes can be used to prevent diabetes and
depression (Meliala A. et al. 2020). Nowadays, people are increasingly favoring instant and
processed food products due to their ease preparation, time-saving nature, and nutritional
properties. Vitamin C plays an active role in human health and welfare mostly as an antioxidant
(Nwofiaet al. 2012). It is also generally used for protein metabolism and collagen synthesis
(Vunchiet al. 2011). The proportion of ash in any food is a reflection of its mineral content
(Vunchiet al. 2011; Omotosho 2005; Nnamani et al. 2009).

2.2 MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

Many morphological and agronomic variations have appeared in plants obtained by micro-
propagation (Vuylsteke et al. 1991; Cote et al. 1993). According to Mirconi et al. (1997), moisture
content of the peel to be 6.7%. The relatively low value may be due to the harvest time. The low
value also designate that the peel can be amass for a long time without growing mold.

2.2.1 The Habit

Banana is a giant herb whose pseudo-stem, is made of overlapping leaf sheaths, reaches 1‐8 m in
height and is soft and succulent. A substantial rhizome is another distinguishing feature (up to 9 m
in length) (F. Bakry et al. 2008).

9
2.2.2 Leaves, Stem, Root

The leaves emerge from the underground true stem, a small in sized rhizome, and the bud at the
axil of each leaf gives rise to a shoot, and the dried leaf bases form a fake trunk.

2.2.3 Flower

At the vegetative phase, the central meristems changes function, inducing the ‘flower’ primordial,
followed by the growth of the true stem within the pseudo-stem and the emergence of the
inflorescence. The complex inflorescence, which can be vertical, pendant or sub-horizontal, is
made up of an ear of cymes and produces clusters of androgynous flowers first. After that, the
female flowers are produced, consisting of an upper ovary and five stamens (Journal of
Pharmaceutical, 2022).

2.2.4 Fruit

The cultivated versions of this berry typically do not contain seeds and have a fleshy and long
morphology. The exterior layer of fresh fruits has a glossy, bluish-green layer. In contrast, the inner
layer is white, powdery, and contains a few seeds (Journal of Pharmaceutical, 2022). Fresh leaves
have been used medicinally for a range of disorders from headaches to urinary tract infections,
and stem juice was considered a remedy for gonorrhea. The peel of ripe bananas has antiseptic
properties and can be used to prepare a poultice for wounds or applied directly in an emergency
(Frison and Sharrock, 1999). Bananas are considered an ideal vehicle for edible vaccines (Mor et al.
1998).

2.3 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION

Kingdom Plantae
Sub kingdom Tracheabionta
Super-division Spermatophyte
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Subclass Zingiberidae
Order Zingiberales
Family Musaceae
Genus Musa Linn
Species Musa paradisiac Linn
Table2. Adapted from Singhal A.K.V, Giri S. and Kumar R,. (2022).

10
2.4 PHARMACOLOGICAL AND PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The phytochemical compounds found in banana peels, such as antioxidants and flavonoids, have
shown promising health benefits. Phytochemicals have been reported to be an immense source of
anticancer medications and chemo-preventive agents (Ketron et al., 2014). Bananas are rich in
micronutrients such as vitamin A (carotene), vitamin B (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, B6), vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) and phosphorus (Aurore et al. 2009). According to Lee EH et al. (2010), the peel can
be able to be consumed as a natural source of antioxidants due to its classification as non-toxic to
normal human cells. It is rich in phenolic compounds which prevent heart illnesses and cancer
(Someya et al. 2002). Some studies have mentioned that banana peels promote the beneficial
health which treats the cardiac disease, diarrhea, diabetes, dysentery, gout, hypertension,
intestinal lesion, ulcerative colitis and nephritis (Emaga et al. 2007; 2008; Iman and Akter et al.
2011). The peel of a banana also has a high concentration of manganese with a value of 54.73 mg /
kg, which aids in the cartilage and skeletal formation (Eshak 2016). Banana has more than a few
bio-actives which include biogenic amines, phenolics, phytosterols and carotenoids (Singh B et al.,
2016; Anyasi et al., 2015). These compounds are of immense benefit to consumers due to
countless positive effects they have on human health.

Interestingly, the banana peel is rich in phytochemical activities such as antioxidants, antibacterial,
antifungal, antioxidant, antiulcer and anticancer (R. González-Montelongo et al., 2010). To date,
only (Someya et al. 2002) they investigated the antioxidant activity of banana peels, measured its
effect on lipid autoxidation compared to its gallocatechin content (R. González-Montelongo et al.
2010). Banana peels are one of the important sources of soluble and insoluble fiber which are
lignin, pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose and galacturonic acid (Emaga et al. 2008). Banana contains
various bioactive compounds such as phenolics, carotenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, phlobatannins,
tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, biogenic amines and phytosterols, which are highly
desirable in diet as they exert health beneficial effects (Pereira & Maraschin 2015; John P et al.,
1995; Singh B et al., 2016). These composites are helpful in protecting the body against oxidative
stress due to their antioxidative activities (Mathew et al., 2017), controlling gene expression in cell
proliferation and apoptosis and important in controlling blood pressure (González-Aguilar et al.,
2008). The incorporation of banana pulp and peel in various food products could add value since
they have health benefits (Mathew et al., 2017). Thus, banana pulp and peel can be used as
natural sources of antioxidants and provitamin A. Banana peel is reported to have higher

11
antioxidant capacity than banana pulp (Vu H.T et al. 2018) and Liu (2004). Furthermore, phenolic
content of banana peel was higher compared to other fruits such as avocado, pineapple, papaya,
passion fruit, water melon and melon (Kondo et al., 2005). However, it is recommended that to
effectively recover and utilize phenolic compounds from banana peels, it is important to evaluate
its chemical profile, factors affecting the levels of phenolic compounds in the peels such as
antinutrients, and potential use of these compounds as food ingredients or nutraceuticals. It is
important to understand how these bioactive compounds found in fruits and vegetables limit or
prevent oxidative stresses as a free-radical scavengers or metalchelating agents. In the report of
Liu (2004), it was emphasized that there has to be a balance between oxidants and antioxidants
for normal functioning of the body cell and/or sustaining optimal physical condition in the human
body. Too much oxidant in the human body results in damage to the biomolecules such as
proteins, lipids carbohydrates and DNA. Hence, to understand the mechanism of action of
antioxidant, it is imperative to understand the formation of free radicals and their ability to
damage macromolecules and nucleic chains. Banana peel contains primary metabolites like 50% of
dietary fiber, 7% crude proteins, 10% crude fat, 3% starch, polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic
acid, α-linoleic acid), essential amino acids (leucine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine),
micronutrients (calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, zinc) and it also contains 10-20% pectin, 6-
12% lignin, cellulose 7-9%, 6-9% hemicellulose (Int. Journal of Adv. Research in Chem. Sci. 2018).

Phytochemical Concentration Activity Reference

Compounds
Phenolic compounds 0.9‐3 g/100 g Antioxidant (Nguyen TBT, Ketsa S, van
Doorn WG. y. 2003)
Gallocatechin 160 mg/100 g Antioxidant (Someya S, Yoshiki Y, Okubo
K. 2002)
Anthocyanins 0 Antioxidant (Seymour G, Taylor J, Tucker
G, eds. 1993)
Carotenoids 300-400µg/100g Antioxidant (Subagio, Morita N, Sawada
S. 1996)
Sterols and triterpenes 0 Antioxidant (Knapp FF, Nicholas HJ. 1969)
Table3. Banana peel is a rich source of various phytochemical compounds.

The ash of the mature fruit husk contains a number of different minerals, including carbonates of
potash and soda, chloride of potassium alkaline phosphates, lime silica, and others. The green
plantain contains a significant amount of tannin. The juice that is extracted from the stems of
plantain flowers contains a variety of different chemicals, some of which are listed below: potash,
soda, lime, magnesium, alumina, chlorides, sulfuric anhydride, phosphoric anhydride, silica, and
carbon anhydride (Journal of Pharmaceutical, 2022). Bananas are loaded with antioxidant

12
compounds, thereby helping to reduce premature aging of the body’s cells. Alpha linolenic acid,
one of these compounds, demonstrates significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer
activity. Alpha linolenic acid also boosts immune function and enhances blood circulation. Foods
contain not only nutrients but also large amounts of compounds called phytochemicals (Praveena
et al. 2018).

2.4.1 PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

Banana has various pharmacological effects. According to A. Bankar et al. (2010), Banana peels are
naturally rich in polymers such as lignin, hemicellulose and pectin that contribute to the synthesis
of silver nanoparticles. Therefore, banana peels have the potential for antimicrobial production
due to visible silver nanoparticles that are produced. They are also used for water purification and
the production of ethanol, cellulose and laccase (poly-copper oxidase). Dried banana peels contain
6‐9% protein and 20‐30% fiber as a fertilizer due to their lignin and cellulose content (Deithorn &
Mazzoni 2014). Ariani and Akhmad et al. (2018) explained that the antioxidant activity is
originated from secondary compounds in banana peel extract, such as alkaloids, flavonoids,
tannins, and saponin.

In Oyeyinka and Afolayan's (2019) proximate analysis of fresh peel and peel aqueous extract, they
report the presence of fat, moisture, carbohydrates (which dominate at around 68%), fiber, and
minerals including potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, and magnesium, in that
order of quantity, with trace elements such as zinc, copper, iron, and manganese present in
minute quantities. Additionally, they report the presence of trace elements including its important
to note that the pulp, the peel, and the extracts of the peel all followed the same pattern of
amount progression (Journal of Pharmaceutical 2022). Furthermore, banana peel exhibited no
toxicity towards normal human cells (Lee EH et al. 2010). Banana peels have been found to contain
bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloids, glycosides,
anthocyanins, and terpenoids which affect various biological and pharmacological (antibacterial,
antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory) functions (Pereira & Maraschin 2015).
According with Abbas et al. (2017) the methanol extract of Musa paradisiaca (bracts and flower
stalks) showed potent nephroprotective activity in gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in mice.
Cellulose Nano‐fibers isolated from the banana peel (Musa paradisiaca) exhibited no cytotoxicity
against the Caco-2 cell line (Tibolla H et al. 2014). A methanol extract of Musa paradisiaca roots
exhibited any signs of toxicity or mortality in broiler chickens at doses up to 4000mg/ kg body

13
weight (Anosa GN et al. 2011). Similarly, the hydro-ethanol extract of the pseudo‐strain of Musa
paradisiaca did not show any signs of toxicity or mortality in male Wister albino rats when
administered at doses of up to 3000 mg/kg body weight (Panigrahi PN et al. 2017).

According to Deithorn and Mazzoni (2014), banana peels contain various components, including
cellulose, extractives, lipids, proteins, simple sugars, starches, water, hydrocarbons and ash. These
components facilitate metal complexations, aiding in the sequestration of heavy metals and
exhibiting metal bio‐sorption capacity (Deithorn & Mazzoni 2014). Banana peels are also a good
source of natural antioxidants, including vitamins and beta‐carotene, which can help the skin
restore naturally. Someya et al. (2002) reported that the total phenolic compounds were found to
be more abundant in the peel (907 mg/100 g dry weight) than in the pulp (232 mg/100 g dry
weight). Pulp of Cavendish varieties has a phenolic content of about 30-60 mg/100 g fresh
material (Verde Mendez et al. 2003). In addition, obesity and diabetes are two of the most risk
contributors to heart disease (Goran et al. 2003). According with Slavin (2008) mentioned that an
adequate amount of fiber can consistently lower the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and
cardiovascular disease (CVD). This is caused by a decrease in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels.
Soluble fibers, for example beta-glucan, psyllium, pectin, and guar gum, were most effective in
lowering serum LDL cholesterol concentrations without influencing high‐density lipoprotein (HDL)
concentrations (Chawla & Patil 2010). Moreover, Wirstrom et al. (2013) also stated that fiber
intake can also reduce the risk of other coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors, like insulin
resistance, inflammation, dyslipidemia, and oxidative stress.

2.4.2 ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND PHENOLIC CONTENT

According to Nur Atiah (2010), Bananas peels are a good source of natural antioxidants, which
include vitamins and beta carotene. It is contains a number of antioxidants and minerals that can
help the skin restore itself naturally. Natural antioxidants are primarily phenolic compound that
may occur in all part of a plant. They are multifunction and can react as free radical terminators,
metals chelators and single oxygen quenchers. The common plant phenolic antioxidants are
topopherols, flavonoids and other related compound such as phenolic acid. Many nutritional
factors are widely considered to be critical for human health. Among them, free radicals have
been of concern as one of the factors contributing to chronic degenerative disease
(Patthamakanokporn et al. 2008). The phenolic compounds found in the banana peel can be
further categorized into four subgroups, namely flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-ols and

14
catecholamines (Vu et al. 2018). Genetic factors, the presence of natural components is
significantly influenced by, the production area of cultivations, environmental conditions, fruit
maturity, post-harvest practices, and processing methods all play significant roles in determining
the presence of natural components (Vu et al., 2018). The phenolic content, flavonoid content and
antioxidant capacity of mature and overripe fruit peel are lower than those of green peel
(Sundaram et al. 2011). Similarly, the transition of the peels peel from green to yellow leads to a
reduction in the levels of specific compounds, such as naringin, dopamine, norepinephrine and
rutin. According to Vu et al. (2019) study, revealed that the peels antioxidant capacity heightening
during banana ripened but diminished when it became overripe. This suggests that the antioxidant
properties are associated with phenolic components rather than chlorophylls and carotenoids.
Hence, it’s essential to consider the maturation stage when evaluating its potential application. In
line with a study by Sundaram et al. (2011), because unripe banana peel contains a significant
amount of polyphenols, it exhibits a stronger inhibitory effect against oxidative hemolysis of
human red blood cells compared to the extract from ripe banana peel.

Free radicals can attack any various substrates of interest in the body. Therefore, it will contribute
to chronic disease development such as oxidative modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL).
Oxidative modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL) has been hypothesized to be a causative agent in
the development of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative modified DNA may also play an important
role in human carcinogenesis. Oxidation reaction has deleterious effect on the antioxidant activity
where this oxidation level is influenced by temperature, light, air, physicochemical as well as the
presence of catalyst (Frankel & Meyer 2000). As a potent antioxidant, ascorbic acid has the
capacity to eliminate several different reactive oxygen species, keeps the membrane-bound
antioxidant a-tocopherol in the reduced state, acts as a cofactor maintaining the activity of a
number of enzymes (by keeping metal ions in the reduced state), appears to be the substrate for
oxalate and tartrate biosynthesis and has a role in stress resistance (Y. Hernández et al. 2006). The
antioxidant capacity depends on the content of total polyphenols and some phenolic acids (S.
Gorinstein et al. 2002; H. Leontowicz et al. 2007). Fruit and vegetables peels contain higher
amounts of total phenolics compared to the edible portions. It has been reported that phenolic
content and antioxidant capacities in different vegetable tissues decreased from peel, phloem to
xylem (Bozalan and Karadeniz 2011; Zhang and Hamauzu 2004).

15
Historically, herbal medicines were widely utilized to treat various infectious diseases with the
primary source of these remedies. These natural medicines predominantly originated from plant
materials including leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. These extracts may be used to develop novel
antimicrobial compounds with new chemical structures and mechanisms of action that will serve
as a barrier against multidrug resistant microorganisms. A previous study discovered that the
antimicrobial properties of banana peel were effective against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus
subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli (Mokbel & Hashinaga, 2005).

An in vitro antioxidant study of Musa Sapientum, Musa Paradisiaca, Musa Cavendish, and Musa
Acuminata peels was conducted using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) radical scavenging assay, and ferric reducing power assay. The results showed
that Musa Acuminata has the highest antioxidant activity followed by Musa Cavendish against
DPPH radical. In ferric reducing power and H2O2 scavenging assay, Musa Acuminata also showed
best antioxidant activity when compared with other extracts. The study revealed that the peels of
Musa species possess significant in vitro antioxidant activity, hence, the conclusion that eating the
peel of banana fruit would be beneficial considering its potential antioxidant property (Navghare
VV. et al. 2017). The researchers ascribed this effect to the abundant phenols, flavonoids, and
tannins detected in the peel extracts (Nur Nadirah et al. 2018). It can therefore be inferred that
the antioxidant compounds like phenols and flavonoids present in the peel are involved in DPPH
radical inhibition.

2.4.3 ANTICANCER EFFECT

Researchers have investigated the anticancer effects of a wide variety of valuable plants, such as
the banana, given their additive and synergistic effects; the complex mixture of phytochemical
constituents found in fruit and vegetable extracts is more effective at preventing cancer than their
individual components. Moreover, edible phytochemicals serve as a convenient and attainable
resource for cancer handling and control. According to a study conducted through Dahham et al.
in 2015, the use of hexane as a solvent in preparing banana peel extracts resulted in the highest
toxicity towards HCT-116 (a human colorectal carcinoma cell line), causing an impressive 64.02%
cell inhibition of cell proliferation.

A research with Durgadevi et al. (2019) shown the aqueous methanol extract obtained from
banana peel displayed a significant cytotoxic activity toward MCF-7 breast cell lines. According

16
with Vijayakumar et al. (2017) demonstrated that banana peel crude extract could also be used to
synthesize gold nanoparticles that inhibited the biofilm formation of Gram-positive bacteria
Enterococcus faecalis, which were cytotoxic to human lung cancer cells. Cancer is currently among
the major world health concerns. Cancer is marked by irregular cell growth, and natural products
like bananas are presently being used in the fighting against this life-threating disease. An in vitro
assay of hill bananas has revealed their potential as anticancer agents, particularly in cases
involving colorectal cancer. A few studies have reported anti-proliferative effects of banana
extracts.

In accordance with Dahham et al. (2015) found that HE of a Malaysian variety of banana fruit flesh
had growth inhibitory effects on MCF-7 estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells. In line with
Kamal et al. (2019) have shown anticancer and radio-protective effects of banana peel extracts in-
vivo. A recent study demonstrated that oleic acid has anticancer effects based on the reduction of
autophagy (Giulitti et al. 2021). Whilst Vilela et al. (2014) reported that fruits of several Musa
species contain a noticeable amount of campesterol, stigma-sterol, and beta-sitosterol.
Furthermore, gamma-sitosterol has been reported to induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in
breast and lung cancer cells (Sundarraj et al. 2012).

2.4.3.1 Cytotoxic effects

The presence of flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenes, these offer different forms of cytotoxic effects
such as cell proliferation inhibition, apoptosis induction or modulating signal transduction, without
exhibiting considerable damage to normal cells (Liu RH 2004; Rahmat A et al. 2002). These are
relatively new, but very promising strategies in preventing cancer due to both additive and
synergistic effects (Kumar PS et al. 2015). Also, Durgadevi et al. (2019) demonstrated that the
aqueous methanol extract of Nendran banana peel had a significant cytotoxic activity against MCF-
7 breast cell lines. According with Rusmiati et al. (2021) studied the effect of Extract ethanol red
Banana Peel (ERBP) on the metastatic ability of breast cancer cells MCF-7 and also reported the
cell death in combination of DOX with ERBP.

2.5 MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE

Since the peels are abundant in carbohydrates, they act as fuel for the body and contribute to the
normal functioning of the brain. Carbohydrates are essential to be metabolized by the body and
converted into usable and functional energy. The vitamins, minerals and various organic

17
components increase the functioning and metabolic activity of all your organ systems, which
further increases energy levels. Which Simmonds N.W. and Shepherd K. (1955) reported that
Tannins and Gallic acid are components of the peel; it has somewhat high vitamin C content as
well as a modest amount of vitamin B content. Banana peels and pulps have impressive potassium
content. It is highly recommended by doctors for patients with low potassium levels. The banana
syrup has been used to treat diabetes, epilepsy, leprosy, fevers, hemorrhages, dysentery and
diarrhea (NM Rao et al. 2012). In India, the paste of mature and young leaves is used to treat
burns, skin afflictions, dysentery, diarrhea and malignant ulcers (NM Rao et al. 2012). The paste of
the roots is also used to treat dysentery and other chronic diseases (NM Rao et al. 2012).

Banana fruits do help prevent anemia, cure the heart burns, stress, strokes, ulcers and many other
minor illnesses. Banana should be considered to be a good source of natural antioxidants for foods
and a functional food source against cancer and heart disease (Someya et al. 2002). Medicinal
plants, medicinal herbs, or simple herbs have been identified and used since prehistoric times.
Plants produce many chemical compounds for their biological functions, including defense against
insects, fungi, and herbivorous mammals. These chemicals act on the human body in exactly the
same way as pharmaceutical drugs. Therefore, herbal medicines can be beneficial but also have
harmful side effects, just like conventional drugs. However, since a single plant may contain many
substances, the effects of using a plant as medicinally can be very complex (Arvouet-Grand A. et al.
1994). The plants can be a source of fertilizer, fiber, wrapping for food, plates and umbrellas, and
for making clothing, shoes, furniture and paper (Morton 1987; Sharrock 1997). In the green stage,
the liquefied fruit is used in Brazil to treat infant’s dehydration, because its tannins tend to protect
the lining of the intestinal tract against further loss of liquids (Moreira 1999). Bananas are
considered to be the ideal vehicle for edible vaccines due to the dessert fruit being attractive,
palatable (delicious) and can be eaten raw (Mor et al., 1998). There are extensive researches
aimed at expressing different vaccines in the fruit (e.g. Brown 1996; Bapat et al. 2000; Arntzen et
al. 2004; Sala et al. 2003; Sunil Kumar et al, 2005). The rate of recovery of a chemical entity is
largely determined by the by-product cellular matrix and the extraction technique applied
(Gencdag et al. 2021). Parts of banana, which include roots, pseudo-stems, stems, leaves, and
flowers, have long been utilized in local and traditional medicine in America, Asia, Oceania, India,
and Africa (Tsamo CVP et al. 2014). Based on the resources of Iranian traditional medicine,
bananas are prescribed for depressed patients (Tavakkoli-Kakhki M. et al. 2014). Iranian traditional
medicine as a complementary and alternative medicine involves several non-pharmacological

18
treatments, among which food therapy is the most notable. Data from an Arabic source indicate
that Musa species is useful against heat in the chest, lungs, and the bladder, and softens the
stomach (Touwaide A. et al. 2013). Report by (Kumar KPS et al. 2012), confirmed that banana fruit
from India have been used traditionally to fight off a large number of sicknesses.

This characteristic is attributed to the various constituents found in the fruit. For instance, the
anti-depressive effect, blood pressure regulation, and anti-anemic properties can be attributed to
the presence of tryptophan, high potassium levels, and elevated iron content in bananas,
respectively. Banana also aid in the body’s recovery in the context of nicotine, withdrawal,
potentially assisting them in quitting smoking. This could be due to the presence of not just
potassium and sodium but also vitamins B6 and B12. Anti-histamines found in banana peels work
by inhibiting and blocking histamines, thereby counteracting the effects of histamines. Histamines
are the chemical compounds released in body cells that cause allergic reactions. Hence, it is
applied on bug bites, where anti-histamines in the banana peel sink into the skin and prevent
further swelling and cure itching (Saravanan K. et al. 2011).

2.6 NUTRITIONAL OF BANANA PEELS

Banana peel is the outer part of banana that protects its inner flesh. It’s always been discharged
and leftover as a waste product for the banana-based product in the industries (Ibrahim et al.
2017). The peel of banana which known as a waste of banana production is discarded without any
purposes and usually be classified as the solid waste at large expense (Padam et al. 2014). Hence,
some researchers have conducted food innovation research for years to investigate the useful
application for banana peel in order to solve 11 some diseases (Khoozani et al. 2019). Some
studies have been carried out in the purpose of finding the nutrition content in banana skins
(Anhwange et al. 2009). Also, Aleksandra et al. (2005) evaluated that the re-utilization of various
agro-industrial wastes is of growing importance from many aspects. Considering the diversity and
intricacy of these materials, along with compositional data and compliant methodologies,
continue to undergo numerous refines and improvements. As reported in the literature, the strong
antioxidative properties of banana extracts could be due to different antioxidant components
present in them. Dopamine was found in a large amount in both peel and pulp of banana
(Kanazawa K. & Sakakibara H. 2000).

19
The utilization of fruit peels in nutrient supplementation primarily relies on their chemical
composition. Banana peel contains rich organic content (lipids, fiber, carbohydrate and protein) as
a key source of many bioactive compounds with various functionalities (H.M Zaini et al. 2022).
Some studies have been done by represents that banana skin had higher total dietary fiber, fat,
ash content, but lower starch and protein content (Mosa & Kahlil 2015; Wachirasiri et al. 2009).
The higher dietary fiber content of banana byproduct is also have been researched by Giri et al.
(2016). Moreover, Nagarajaiah and Prakash (2011) stated that banana peel consists of antioxidant
compounds such as carotenoids, catechol-amines, polyphenols and high amounts of
micronutrients were established in the peel of genus Musa. A slight rise in protein and lipid levels
in the banana skin which boosts soluble sugar while reducing starch content, and hemicellulose
serves as an indicator of fruit development. The chemical components present in starch were not
consistently affected by the ripening stage since starch is converted into reducing sugar
(Anhwange BA 2008).

2.6.1 Nutritional content of Banana Peels

The nutritional value of banana peels includes dietary fiber, vitamins like B6 and B12, potassium,
and certain antioxidants. It also traces amounts of protein and lipids. This depends on the type of
cultivar and stage of maturity. For instance, the plantain peels have low fiber content compared to
dessert banana peels, and lignin content tends to increase as banana ripen ranging (from 7 to
15%) of dry matter. According to Anhwange et al., (2009), the peel of banana is a good source of
nutrients due to high value obtained from the determination of lipids, carbohydrates and fiber.
The protein content in dried banana peels falls within the range of 6–9%, accompanied by a fiber
content ranging from 20–30%. In contrast, green plantain peels contain a substantial 40% starch,
which undergoes conversion into sugars during ripening. Green banana peels contain much less
starch (about 15%) than green plantain peels, while ripe banana peels contain up to 30% free
sugars (T.H Emaga et al. 2011). With the use of banana peels in water purification (A. Chaparadza
& J.M Hossenlopp 2012), it is used to produce ethanol (H.S Oberoi et al. 2011), cellulase (H.Y Sun
et al. 2011), and laccase (poly copper oxidase) (V. Vivekanand et al. 2011) as a fertilizer (M. Van
Uitert 2015), and in fertilization (F. Kalemelawa et al. 2012). Apple peel efficiently reduces the risk
of liver, breast, and colon cancer (T. Shih-Hsin et al. 2017).

Studies on genetic improvement of banana fruit is advancing at a rapid pace, using modern
biotechnology which includes genetic engineering. Other programs such as the use of banana as

20
edible vaccine delivery system and bio-fortification of bananas to increase their β-carotene, α-
tocopherol and iron contents are on the way (Khanna et al., 2008). These improvements will be
most beneficial for regions of the world that consume bananas as their major staple. However,
genetic improvement of banana fruit is a major challenge as cultivated banana fruits are basically
sterile or possess low fertility with conventional breeding, though possible in delivering a few
acceptable cultivars (Khanna et al., 2008). Some banana cultivars have been implicated for the
presence of dietary pro-vitamin A, carotenoid (PVAC) due to their characteristic orange-colored
fruit flesh. These notable differences in PVAC composition of the fruit could have significant
consequences on the nutritional profile of banana varieties (Khanna et al., 2008).

2.6.2 Utilization of Bananas as Nutraceuticals and Food Ingredients

According to the Science Forum, nutraceuticals is defined as a “diet supplement that delivers a
concentrated form of a biologically active component of food in a non-food matrix to enhance
health” (Zeisel SH 1999). In line with Anyasi et al., (2013) in their study further added that
nutraceutical can also be extracted from a different product derived from the food and
pharmaceutical industry, herbal and dietary supplement market, and the
pharmaceutical/agribusiness and nutrition conglomerates. Raw banana shows higher amount of
functional ingredients such as dietary fiber, resistant starch and total starch, which allows banana
to impart health benefits to humans when incorporated in food products (Alkarkhi A.F.M et al.,
2011). Raw bananas can be considered as a source for new food innovation and development for
partial or preprocessed food products like snacks and breakfast cereals (Aurore et al. 2009). Mixed
pulp and peel flour from green banana has higher ash, total fiber and total phenolic than
traditional wheat flour (Castelo-Branco et al., 2017). The addition of banana flour increases the
indigestible fraction and the content of phenolic compounds in spaghetti (Ovando-Martinez et al.,
2009). The influence of green banana flour as a substitution for cassava starch on the nutrition,
color, texture and sensory qualities of snacks was reported for raw banana flour (Wang Y et al.,
2012). In the study, increased nutritional value including dietary fiber, polyphenol content and
antioxidant capacity of the snacks was noted. Unripe banana peel can be incorporated in a sponge
cake without imparting negative effects on the sensory quality (Segundo C et al., 2017). Banana
peel extracts are rich in antioxidant capacity using multiple antioxidant assays. These peels are
helpful in exhibiting antimicrobial activity against a wide range of bacteria and fungi
(Muthukumaran et al., 2013).

21
2.7 CANCER

Cancer is a disease that affects people of all age groups and is caused by multiple factors.
Currently used anticancer drugs are toxic and non‐specific. Cancer, also referred to as a tumor or
malignancy, is one of the numerous types of diseases that are responsible for the slow and painful
deaths of individuals all over the world (Journal of Pharmaceutical 2022). Cancer also has the
ability to spread throughout your body caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells, the
DNA inside a cell contains a set of instructions telling the cell how to grow and divide. Breast
cancer is a cancer that forms in the cells of the breasts, the second leading cancer in women,
accounting for 25 % of all cases (Lazarus D. 2009). While Breast cancer is a condition that can
affect individuals of both genders, but it is much more prevalent among women. Currently
tamoxifen, selective oestrogen receptor modulator, is widely used in the prevention and
treatment of oestrogen receptor positive breast cancer (Mani RK et al. 2010). However, a
significant number of patients develop tamoxifen resistance and experience severe side effects
(Shixin D. et al. 2010; Unnati S. et al. 2013).

In terms of cancer fighting potential, the ripened bananas are eight times as effective as in their
un-ripened state of green banana (Iwasawa H & Yamazaki M 2009). There are many types of
cancer treatments, it includes surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy or
combined therapy. Hence, identification and development of new chemotherapeutic agents from
plants “phytochemicals” have gained significant recognition in the field of cancer therapy and
become a major area of experimental cancer research (Gordaliza M. 2007). Recently, scientists all
over the world are concentrating on the herbal medicines to fight against cancer. Which Shanthy
et al. (2011) investigated the antioxidant activity and protective effect of Banana Peel on Human
Erythrocyte Oxidative Hemolysis at various stages of ripening. The natural bioactive compounds
such as carotenoids, quercetin derivatives, phenolic acids and saponins are found in the peels in
high concentration (Chen KC. et al. 2010). Like pulps, banana peels powder offers scope for making
new processed nutraceutical products. These parts of banana have long been used in traditional
medicine in Asia and Africa (Manosroi J. et al. 2006). Therefore, bioactive compounds from various
parts of banana are considered to be natural free radical defense that were acknowledged to be
beneficial for human health as an antioxidant, antitumor, and antimicrobial agent (Tsamo CVP. et
al. 2015; Orhue PO. et al. 2013).

22
By understanding the complex synergistic interaction of various constituents of anticancer herbs,
new novel herbal anticancer agents can be discovered and designed to attack the cancerous cells
without affecting normal cells of the body (Sampath Kumar KP et al. 2012). Research revolved
around the urgency to develop suitable therapy for the cure of cancer with no toxic effects
through methodical and scientific exploration of the enormous pool of synthetic, biological, and
natural products (Lazarus D. 2009; Demain AL. et al. 2011; Prasad KN. Et al. 2009). These are
relatively new, but very promising strategies in preventing cancer due to both additive and
synergistic effects (Kumar PS. Et al. 2015). Interest in the pharmacological effects of bioactive
compounds on cancer treatments and prevention has increased dramatically over the past 20
years. Many fruits such as guava (Rahmat A. et al. 2002), banana (Shiva KN. Et al. 2018), papaya
(Zhang CR. Et al. 2015), lemon (Chen KC. Et al. 2010), orange (Miller EG. et al. 2004), apple, water
melon, and litchi are reported to possess proven medicinal activities when used as a whole fruit,
seeds, leaves, and as peels with anticancer potential (Arora M. et al. 2013; Manosroi J. et al. 2006;
Tsamo CVP et al. 2015).

Munish G et al. (2016) investigated the anticancer activity of extracts of dried banana peels as well
as four other fruits by MTT assay on HepG2 cells. The extracts were prepared using 80% ethanol as
solvent by soaking for 7 days. The banana extract was found to have anticancer activity. Infections
such as bronchopneumonia, bacterial endocarditis and meningitis are caused by Micrococcus Spp.
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa will also be treated with the extracts of this medicinal peel. Thus,
the use of banana peels by traditional medical practitioners is justified (IOSR Journal of Pharmacy.
2014). Moreover, edible phytochemicals offers an available, suitable and approachable basis for
cancer control and management, as the side effects of cancer drugs and the burden of healthcare
costs are the main obstacles for the cancer patient, additional approaches are needed to establish
new cancer prevention programs for general public (Carlotto A. et al. 2013). Although, banana
pectin have been extracted and characterized to be used as phytochemical excipients in tablet
formulation (Bansal J. et al. 2014).

2.7.1 SYMPTOMS

According to Dr. Stephen Kopecky (2022), described the Signs and symptoms caused by cancer will
vary depending on what part of the body is affected. Some general signs and symptoms associated
with, but not specific to, cancer include:

23
 1. Fatigue
2. Lump or area of thickening that can be felt under the skin
3. Weight changes, including unintended loss or gain
4. Skin changes, such as yellowing, darkening or redness of the skin, sores that won't heal, or
changes to existing moles
5. Changes in bowel or bladder habits
6. Persistent cough
7. Difficulty swallowing
8. Hoarseness
9. Persistent indigestion or discomfort after eating
10. Persistent, unexplained muscle or joint pain
11. Persistent, unexplained fevers or night sweats
12. Unexplained bleeding or bruising.

2.7.2 RISK FACTORS AND CHEMOPREVENTION

The factors that determine the risk of developing cancers are not well known, although a few have
been identified. There are three well-established risk factors.

a) Increasing age: Cancer can take decades to develop. That's the majority of cancer diagnoses
occur in individuals aged 55 or older, but it’s essential to note that cancer is not limited to older
adults and has the potential to be diagnosed at any stage of life.

b) Ethnic origin: Certain lifestyle choices are known to increase your risk of cancer. Smoking,
drinking more than one drink a day (for women of all ages and everyone older than age 65) or two
drinks a day (for men age 65 and younger), excessive exposure to the sun or frequent blistering
sunburns, being obese, and having unsafe sex can contribute to cancer.

c) Heredity: If one first-line relative has Cancer, the risk is at least doubled. If two or more first-
line relatives are affected, the risk increases by 5-11-fold (Jansson KF et al. 2012; Hemminki K.
2012). Also defines as three or more affected relatives or at least two relatives who have
developed early onset disease, i.e. before age 55. Only a small fraction of cancers are results of
inherited conditions. If cancer runs in your family, there is a possibility that genetic mutations are
being passed down across different generations. Patients with hereditary Cancer usually have an

24
onset six to seven years earlier than spontaneous cases, but do not differ in other ways (Hemminki
K. 2012).

The frequency of autopsy-detected cancers is roughly the same in different parts of the world
(Dhom G et al. 1977). The findings indicate that exogenous factors affect the risk of progression
from latent Cancer to clinical Cancers, Factors such as the foods consumed, the pattern of sexual
behavior, alcohol consumption, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, chronic inflammation (Nelson
WG. et al. 2003; Leitzmann MF et al. 2012).

2.7.3 TESTS AND DIAGNOSIS

2.7.3.1 Screening and Detection

Screening is defined as the systematic examination of asymptomatic men (at risk) and is usually
initiated by health authorities. In contrast, early detection or opportunistic screening consists of
individual case findings, which are initiated by the person being screened (patient) and his
physician. A major consideration for cancer screening is to weigh up the possibility someone will
have needless treatment against saving lives. Actually, although none of the existing screening
tools can accurately distinguish between lethal and indolent Cancer, the use of prostate specific
antigen (PSA) has been shown to increase the Cancer detection rate with a shift to detection at
earlier and therefore curable stages (Smith DS. et al. 1996). This fact generated also concerns
about over-diagnosis and over-treating and arguments both for and against the efficacy of
screening. Under the light of this evidence it became clear why the issues of over diagnosis and
over-treating are of outmost importance when deciding to screen elderly individuals (Woolf HS.
1995). Also, Albertsen PC et al. (1998) demonstrated that men with prostate biopsy specimens
showing Gleason score 2 to 4 disease faced a minimal risk of death from prostate cancer within 15
years from diagnosis. Given that life expectancy of African-American males at the age of 65 is 16
years (Minino A. & Smith BL. 1983) and the mean time to cancer-specific death of apparently
clinically localized prostate cancer is 17 years (Horan AH. & McGehee M. 2000), it became obvious
why Cancer screening and treatment of prostate specific antigen (PSA) detected Cancers in elderly
patients is a controversial issue. Most doctors however argue against prostate specific antigen
(PSA) testing for men who are in their 70s or older, because even if prostate cancer were detected,
most men would be dead of something else before the cancer progressed (Scales C. et al. 2006).
According with Hoffman RM et al. (2006) and Walter LC et al. (2007) found a 56% and 50% prostate

25
specific antigen (PSA) screening rate in their cohort of elderly men in 2003 and 2010, respectively.
Whilst Bowen DJ et al. (2011) found that Cancer screening rates among men at the age of 80 and
older are even higher than that of men in the age range of 50 to 64 years (64% versus 56%).
Similarly, in a study by D’Ambrosio GG et al. (2010), the highest yearly exposure to PSA screening
and the highest frequency of repeat testing were observed in the age range of 70 to the 79 years.

2.7.3.2 Treatment Options and Treatment Decision making

Traditionally, Cancer is considering a slow progressive disease that needs enough time to become
life threatening for an elder individual and this possibly explains the above observation. However,
a multivariate analysis of the SEER database revealed significantly decreased odds of receiving
cancer directed surgery in the elderly patient with lung, liver, breast, pancreas, esophageal, gastric
cancers, sarcoma and rectal cancer while other studies have demonstrated under use of cancer
directed radiation and chemotherapy (Schrag D et al. 2001; Mahoney T et al. 2000; O’Connell JB et
al. 2004). These findings are posing justifiable concern about under-treatment of the elderly
cancer patient and raise the provocative question if this is due to judicious, evidence based
selection or discrimination based only on age (Fuchshuber P. 2004). The reasons for the observed
under use of cancer directed treatment in the elderly remain elusive. However, discrimination -if
present reflects the stereotypes that older people are physically frail, unfit for curative treatment,
indisposed to accept treatment related complications, impatient and uninterested in prolonging
survival. With regard to Cancer treatment decision making, increasing age is definitely a risk factor
for receiving inadequate treatment (Krahn MD et al. 2002). Also, Harlan LC et al. (2001)
demonstrated that advantaged age is- still- considering as important as PSA, clinical stage and
Gleason score while other demonstrated that age is the predominant factor influencing treatment
decision making. This generated an age-stratified random sample of 347 men from a cohort of
patients with newly diagnosed prostate carcinoma (Alibhai SMH et al. 2004). In the realm of
Cancer treatment includes:

 Surgery: which aims to eliminate the cancer or extract as much of the cancer to the
greatest extent achievable.
 Chemotherapy: This uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
 Radiation therapy: This uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays, to kill cancer
cells. This can be administered externally using a machine (known as external beam

26
 radiation), or internally by placing radiation sources inside your body, through a technique
called brachytherapy.
 Stem cell transplant: This is also known as bone marrow transplant. Your bone marrow is
the material inside your bones that makes blood cells from blood stem cells. A stem cell
transplant can use your own stem cells or stem cells from a donor.
 Biological therapy: This uses your body's immune system to fight cancer. Cancer can
persist without restraint in your body due to your immune systems inability to identify it as
a threat. Biological therapy can help your immune system to see the cancer and attack it.
 Hormone therapy: this utilized for cancers like breast and prostate cancer, which rely on
the body's hormones for growth. The approach involves either removing these hormones
from the body or inhibiting their impact to potentially halt the proliferation of cancer cells.
 Precision medication therapy. This focuses on specific abnormalities treatment that
involves using medications designed to target and attack cancer cells with precision,
minimizing damage to healthy cells that allow them to survive.
 Clinical trials: These are studies to investigate new ways of treating cancer. Numerous
clinical trials for cancer treatment are currently in progress. Depending on the specific type
of cancer, alternative treatment options may also be accessible.

2.8 UTILIZATION OF BANANA PEEL AT HOME

These applications can contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future,
when combined with other natural ingredients. Antioxidant lotion was made from banana peel
(yellow-colored peels are rich in flavonoids and phenolics) (M. Bhavani et al. 2023). Here are some
examples:

2.8.1. Banana Peel and Turmeric: Turmeric is known for its anti-inflammatory
properties, while banana peel contains antioxidants and vitamins. The combination of the two can
help create a potent remedy for reducing inflammation and supporting overall skin health. Free
radicals cause damage and inflammation of cells, increase the risk of UV damage, and contribute
to the development of skin cancer, so all these problems can be controlled and cured by this lotion
(M. Bhavani et al. 2023).

2.8.2. Banana Peel and Honey: Honey is a natural humectant and has antibacterial
properties. When combined with banana peels, it can help soothe and hydrate the skin, making it

27
a great remedy for dry or irritated skin. This moisturizer prepared from banana peels (Kepok) was
very effective in preventing xerosis (skin dryness) (M. Bhavani et al. 2023).

2.8.3. Banana Peel and Lemon: Lemon juice is rich in vitamin C and has astringent
properties. When mixed with banana peel, it can create a natural skin brightening and toning mask
that helps reduce the appearance of dark spots and even out skin tone. The face pack was
affordable, had no side effects, and was eco-friendly (Maske A.O. 2019). A gel mask crafted from
banana peel (Ambon variety) is simple to remove and boasts a high content of vitamin B6, vitamin
C, proteins, saponins, sugars, phosphorus, and tannins. This mask helped to reduce fine lines and
wrinkles and glow the skin (Wahyuni D.F et al. 2022).

2.8.4. Banana Peel and Aloe Vera: Aloe Vera is well-known for its soothing and healing
properties. When combined with banana peels, it can create a powerful remedy for sunburn or
other skin irritations, helping to reduce redness and promote healing. Antioxidants shield the scalp
from UV radiation and free radicals, so scalp health can be maintained. Banana peels have the
potential to be used as a raw material for anti-hair-loss shampoos since flavonoids stimulate and
repair damaged hair structures (Broto W. et al. 2022).

2.8.5. Banana Peel and Coconut Oil: Coconut oil is a natural moisturizer and has
antibacterial properties. When mixed with banana peels, it can form a nourishing hair mask,
promoting hair growth and reducing dandruff. A moisturizer crafted from using banana peels, and
owing its natural ingredients, which ensured there were no documented adverse reactions on
human skin. It was an oil-in-water type of emulsion with 4-5 months of shelf life (Cendana W. et al.
2020).

Remember, it's always important to do a patch test before using any new ingredients on your skin
or hair, and to consult a healthcare professional or dermatologist if you have any specific concerns
or allergies. The people are using traditionally the stem juice to treat epilepsy, hysteria, dysentery,
and diarrhea (M. Debabandya et al. 2010). By understanding the complex synergistic interaction of
various constituents of anticancer herbs, new novel herbal anticancer agents can be discovered
and designed to attack the cancerous cells without affecting normal cells of the body (Sampath
Kumar KP. et al. 2012). Recently, scientists all over the world are concentrating on the herbal
medicines to fight against cancer and intake of fruits and vegetables have a poorer risk of cancer
(M.S. Chen et al. 2004).

28
 CHAPTER THREE (3)

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Literature Search

To understand the concept of banana peel as a cancer chemo-preventive agent, I considered

studies that investigating the anticancer effects of banana extracts or components on cancer cell
lines were reviewed. I followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses (PRISMA) (Liberati A. et al. 2009) guidelines. Initially, I reviewed the abstracts of all
publications to determine the next steps or further analysis.

3.2 Experiment Methodology of (P. S. Kumar et al. 2019).

3.2.1 Sample Collection and Preparation

According to Hilma Aini (2020), Banana samples were selected based on their physical appearance
to ensure that the peels had minimal bruises and scars. Bananas were collected from various local
banana chip centers in Abuja, washed with hot deionized water to remove dirt, and the peel were
removed using either a scraper or sharp knife. Fresh peels were oven dried at 100°C for 24 hours
to remove other low molecular weight organic compounds such as methane (Nigeria Journal of
Eng. Sc. and Tech. 2020). Grind using a laboratory grinder and store in an air-tight jars at 4°C until
use. This raw material was stored in an airtight container and kept in desiccators until used for
further experiments (H.S. Oberoi et al. 2011).

3.2.2 Quantitative Analysis of Secondary Metabolites

Total carotenoids (Liu RH 2004), β-carotene (Kumar PS et al. 2015), total starch (Suresh Kumar P et
al., 2018), total and reducing sugars, protein (Prasad KN et al. 2009), superoxide dismutase (SOD)
(Kumar PS et al. 2015), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), glutathione reductase (Zhang CR et al.
2015), ascorbine acid peroxidase (APOX) and mineral nutrients (Kumar PS et al. 2015), were
estimated using standard methods. Fresh peel and pulp samples were used for the estimation of
phenolics, flavonoids, secondary metabolites, minerals and other follow-up analyses (P.S. Kumar
2019). An aliquot of the water-soluble extract of the powder sample was analyzed for water-
soluble reducing sugars using the dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method (Miller G.L. 1956). Starch was
extracted with dilute perchloric acid and further analyzed with Anthrone reagent (Branyikova I. et

29
al. 2011; Takeshita T. et al. 2014). Pectin content was determined using carbazole sulphuric acid
method (Sadasivam S. & Manikam A. 2005). Cellulose content was determined using anthrone
reagent as described in Sadasivam and Manikam (Sadasivam S. & Manikam A. 2005). Estimation of
neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acidic detergent fiber (ADF), hemicellulose and lignin was done by
gravimetric method (Sadasivam S. & Manikam A. 2005; Van Soest P.J et al. 1991).

3.2.3 Estimation of Total Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity

According to the method outlined by (Kumar PS et al. 2015), Phenolic compounds were estimated
from fruit peel and pulp extracts. The total phenolic compounds in banana peel powder were
determined by using the Folin-Ciocalteau method (Sahan Y. et al. 2013). According with Mahmood
et al. (2011) reported that the total phenolic content was 88.31mg tannic acid equivalents
(TAE)/100g (dry basis) of Musa paradisiaca peel. Briefly, 1g of fresh sample was extracted with
80% aqueous methanol, and 1mL of the sample was mixed with 1mL of Folin-Ciocalteau phenol
reagent and 1mL of 20% anhydrous sodium carbonate. The optical density was measured after 30
minutes at a wavelength of 650nm. The phenolic content was obtained from a standard curve of
Gallic acid (sample GAE g-1 mg) and then calculated as milligram phenol per gram of fresh weight
of sample. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by DPPH (AOAC, 2012), FRAP, and ABTS (Rufino
2010). Also, Ariani and R. Akhmad (2018) explained that the antioxidant activity comes from
secondary compounds present in banana peel extracts, such as alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, and
tannins. The analysis was performed in three times in a low-light environment.

3.2.4 Estimation of Total Flavonoids

According to Praveena M et al. (2018), the colorimetric Aluminum chloride technique was used for
flavonoid estimation and the Flavonoids are also powerful antioxidants that can reduce free
radicals (E. Middleton et al. 2000), because free radicals damage organ tissues and cause various
diseases. Also, Anal et al. (2014) determined flavonoids (quercetin equivalent 196mg/g) from the
banana peel extract. In a study by Behiry et al. (2019), they achieved and identified a high amount
of rutin (973.08 mg/100g dry extract, Musa paradisiaca).

According to (P.S. Kumar 2019), Fruit peel and pulp were extracted with 1g/10ml of 80% aqueous
methanol solvent. From 0.5ml of the extract was mixed with 1.5ml of methanol, 0.1ml of 10%
aluminum chloride, 0.1ml of 1M potassium acetate, and 2.8ml of distilled water, and after
standing at room temperature for 30minutes, the reaction mixture was absorbed. The

30
measurements were made using a double beam UV/Vis spectrophotometer (UV-3200, LabIndia) at
416nm. The total flavonoids content were obtained from a calibration curve using quercetin as a
standard and calculated as milligram of flavonoids/g fresh weight of sample.

3.3 Analysis of the Antioxidant Activities of Banana Extracts

3.3.1 Radical Scavenging Activity of 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)

According with Ryu et al. (2020), Radical scavenging activity of DPPH in banana flesh extracts were
determined as previously described with some modifications, and this DPPH assay was carried out
to evaluate the radical scavenging activity of the extracts (Pushpa H et al. 2014). Stable DPPH
radical scavenging activity was determined according to the protocol of (Kumar PS et al. 2015)
after making certain changes. DPPH, a commercially available oxidizing radical, is reduced by
antioxidants. The disappearance of the DPPH radical absorption at characteristic wavelengths is
monitored by the decrease in optical density (Oktay et al. 2003). Different extract concentrations
were taken in different test tubes.

According to (P.S. Kumar 2019), Five grams of fresh sample was taken and extracted with 25ml of
methanol. One milliliter of the extract was mixed with an equal volume of methanol and to which
1ml of 200µM DPPH was added. The control solution, blank solution and sample solution were
incubated for 30 minutes in the dark at 37°C. Absorbance was measured at the end at 515nm
against control using a spectrophotometer. Β-hydroxyanisole (BHA) was used as the reference
material and the percent inhibition was calculated by comparing the optical density values of the
extracts with those of the control. A dose response curves was obtained and used to calculate the
mean inhibitory concentration (IC50). To calculate the percent radical scavenging activity, the
following formula was used: (Absorbance of Controls – Absorbance of Treatment group) ÷
(Absorbance of Controls) × 100%.

3.3.2 Ferrous Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)

According to Benzie IFF & Strain JJ (1996), the antioxidant capacity of fruit pulp and peel of the
fruits was estimated spectrophotometrically following the procedure reported by Benzie and
Strain and the FRAP Assay was conducted according to the protocol of Dahham et al. (2015), with
minor modifications. According to (P.S Kumar. 2019), the FRAP reagent consists of 300mM acetate
buffer, 10mM TPTZ (2, 4, 6- tripyridyl-s-triazine) in 40mM HCl, and 20mM FeCl3.6H2O in the

31
proportion of (10:1:1 v/v/v) at 37°C. And then, 3.995ml of freshly prepared working FRAP reagent
was pipetted and mixed with various concentrations (3.25–100µM) to (50µl) of the appropriately
diluted banana samples and mixed thoroughly. An intense blue color complex was formed and the
absorbance at 593nm was recorded against a reagent blank after 30 minutes incubation at 37°C.
The standard graph curve was plotted using FeSO4.7H2O solution at different concentrations. The
reduction of Fe into Fe was observed by comparing the absorbance, and the FRAP activity was
expressed in µM FeSO4/ml. β-hydroxyl anisole (BHA) was used as standard.

3.3.3 Radical Scavenging Activity of 2, 2-Azino-Bis (3-

Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-Sulfonic Acid) (ABTS)

According to Ryu et al. (2020), An ABTS radical scavenging activity assay was conducted as
previously described which its According to (D.K Kim et al. 2022) Prior to the test, an ABTS stock
solution (7mM ABTS in 2.45mM potassium persulfate) was prepared and incubated at room
temperature for 20 hours. After incubation, 900 µL of ABTS solution was mixed with 100µL (5, 10,
and 20mg/ml in DMSO) of banana extract, incubated for 2 minutes, and the absorbance was
recorded using a micro-plate reader at 734nm. The percent radical scavenging activity of each
extract was calculated using the following formula: (absorbance of controls − of treatment group)
÷ (absorbance of controls) × 100%. The EC value of each banana extract was calculated using
Graph-Pad Prism 7.0 software (Graph-Pad Software, Inc.).

3.3.4 Cell Lines and Culture Conditions

According to Dahham et al. (2015), Analyzed Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cell Lines (HUVEC),
catalog Number (C2517A). Human colorectal cancer cell line (HCT-116), catalog number (CCL-247)
and human hormone-sensitive invasive breast cancer cell line MCF-7, catalog number (HTB-22)
were purchased from (ScienCell, USA). HUVECs were maintained in endothelial cell medium (ECM)
(ScienCell, USA) supplemented with endothelial cell growth supplement (ECGS), 5% HIFBS and 1%
PS. HCT-116 cells were maintained in RPMI whereas, MCF-7 was maintained in DMEM medium.
The medium was supplemented with 5% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum and 1%
penicillin/streptomycin. Cells were cultured in a humidified incubator at 37°C supplied by 5% CO2.
Cell culture work was done in sterile conditions using a class II biosafety cabinet (ESCO, USA).

According to D.K Kim et al. (2022), Human triple negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231),
human pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1), human hepatoblastoma cells (HepG2), normal mammary

32
epithelial cells MCF-10A, were cultured using the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC)
recommended media and Radio-resistant breast cancer MDA-MB-231/IR and breast cancer stem
cell-like MCF-7/SC cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM)
supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and maintained at 37°C under an atmosphere of
5% CO2.

3.3.5 MTT Assay (3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-Yl)-2, 5-Diphenyltetrazolium

Bromide) for Cell Cytotoxicity (P. S. Kumar 2019, Dahham Et Al. 2015)

The Banana extract in vitro cells tested for toxicity, using HT-29 cells (Human colon cancer) cells
by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay (Mosman T. 1983;
Chen KC et al. 2010; Berridge MV et al. 1993). Human triple-negative breast cancer cells MDA-MB-
231 and radio resistant triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231/IR were established and
characterized as previously described (Koh et al. 2019), human pancreatic cancer cells PANC-1,
human hepatoblastoma cells HepG2, and breast cancer stem cell line MCF-7SC were established
and characterized as previously described (To et al. 2020; Van Phuc et al. 2011). Briefly, the
cultured HT-29 cells (Human colon cancer) and MCF-7 cells were harvested by trypsinization and
pooled into a 15mL tubes (Zhang CR et al. 2015; Houston MC. 2007). Then, the cells were plated at
a density of 1×105 cells/well (200µl) into 96-well tissue culture plate in DMEM medium containing
10% FBS and 1% antibiotic solution for 24-48 hours at 37°C. The wells were washed with sterile
PBS and treated with various concentrations of 80 % aqueous methanol extract in a serum-free
DMEM medium. Then, the cells were incubated at 37°C in a humidified 5% CO2 incubator for 24
hours. After the incubation period, MTT (20µl of 5mg/ml) was added to each well, and the cells
were incubated for another 2-4 hours until a purple precipitate was clearly visible under an
inverted microscope. Finally, the medium together with MTT (220µl) were aspirated off the wells
and washed with 1X PBS (200µl). The water-insoluble formazan salts were solubilized with 200µL
dimethyl sulfoxide (DSMO/well) and the culture plates were shaken for 5minutes at room
temperature. The Absorbance was measured using a TECAN micro-plate reader at a primary wave
length of 570nm and a reference wavelength of 620nm. The percentage of cell viability was
calculated using the following formula: (absorbance of untreated controls – absorbance of
treatments) ÷ (absorbance of untreated controls) × 100% and half-maximal inhibitory
concentration (IC50) values for each extract were calculated using Graph Pad Prism 7.0 software.

33
3.3.6 Acridine Orange/Ethidium Bromide (AO/EB) Staining of MCF-7 Cell
Lines (P. S. Kumar Et Al. 2019)

AO/EB staining test was performed as described by Ciniglia C. et al. (2010). Briefly, 5×105 MCF-7
and HT-29 (human colon cancer) cells per ml were seeded in 24-well tissue culture plates and
treated with the best optimized Banana extract samples in a serum-free DMEM medium. The
plates were incubated at 37°C in a 5% CO2 incubator for 24 hours. After incubation, 50µl of
1mg/ml AO and EB were added to the wells and mixed gently. Finally, the plates were centrifuged
at 800rpm for 2 minutes and immediately evaluated within 1 hour and examined at least 100 cells
by fluorescence microscopy using a fluorescence filter. Early apoptosis, late apoptosis and necrosis
indices were calculated using the difference in 100 cells with the staining (Ciniglia C. et al. 2010).

3.3.7 Anti-Angiogenic Assay

Anti-angiogenic effects of banana extracts were investigated by using rat aortic ring assay model
according to the protocol described by Hassan L.E et al. (2014). The protocol is explained; thoracic
aortas were removed from euthanized rats and washed with serum-free medium. Aortic rings
were cut into one millimeter thickness pieces. The ring was placed in the center of each 48-wells
plate, and then followed by 300µl of serum-free M199 medium containing 3mg ml-1 fibrinogen
and 5mg ml-1 aprotinin. 50NIH Uml-1 thrombin in 0.15M NaCl was added to each well and
incubated at 37°C. for 90 minutes to solidify. Various concentrations of EOs dissolved in 0.3ml
M199 medium supplemented with 20% HIFBS, 0.1% Y-aminocaproic acid, 1% L-Glutamine, and
2.5µg/ml amphotericin B and 60µg/ml gentamicin, were added to each well. Suramin and 0.5%
DMSO were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The top layer medium was
replaced on the day four with fresh one containing the banana samples and incubated at 37°C in a
5% CO2.

3.3.8 Reducing Power

In this test, the Fe3+/ferricyanide complex is reduced to the iron form by antioxidant. The Fe2+
formed is monitored by measuring the formation of Pearl’s Prussian blue at 700 nm (Oyaizu 1986).
The mixtures were incubated at 50°C for 20 minutes. A portion of trichloroacetic acid (10%)
(2.5ml) was added to the mixture, which was then centrifuged at 3000rpm for 10 minutes. The top
layer of the substance (2.5ml) was mixed with FeCl3 (0.5 ml, 0.1%), and the absorbance was
measured at 700 nm. An Increase in absorption of the reaction mixtures indicated that there is an

34
increase in reducing power. The data were analyzed for mean and standard deviation. ANOVA was
used to determine significant differences in polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins and antioxidant
activity in banana peels. Correlation coefficient test was applied to test the association between
the antioxidant components and Probability level was fixed to P< 0.05.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR (4)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BANANA PEELS: MULTIFACETED

APPROACHES AND TABLES

4.1 Characteristics of the Banana Peels: Comparative Analysis of Previous

Research

In various research studies, it has been observed that the physicochemical characteristics of
banana peels and pulp differ significantly are given. Fresh banana peels were initially yellow in
color (Viviane D.M. et al. 2020), but According to Alkarkhi A.F.M et al. (2011) reported a substantial
darkening color which occurred during the drying process. After grinding, ripe banana peel powder
exhibited a brown color which changes was consistent across different ripeness stages and
varieties of bananas, as reported by Alkarkhi A.F.M et al. (2011) and Castelo-Branco V.N et al.
(2017). Furthermore, it was noted that banana pulp powder tends to be lighter in color compared
to peel powder, as evidenced by Alkarkhi A.F.M et al. (2011). This variation in color may be
attributed to processes like phenol oxidation, pigment degradation, caramelization, and Maillard
reactions that occur during the drying of banana peels, as described by Scarlett C.J. et al. (2017).
The total soluble solids in banana peels were found to be corresponds to the presence of glucose,
fructose, and sucrose, and It was observed that as the bananas ripened further, the concentration
of these soluble solids increased, as indicated by Khawas P. et al. (2016). In terms of physical
characteristics, the bulk density of banana peels ranged from 62 to 66g/ 100ml, indicating that the
samples were relatively lightweight.

Physicochemical properties Composition (g 100 g-1)

Lightness 40.83 ± 0.61 Moisture 6.48 ± 0.10
h° 62.00 ± 0.12 Ash 7.47 ± 0.06
Chroma 27.15 ± 0.29 Protein 8.56 ± 0.00
pH 4.70 ± 0.02 Lipids 14.42 ± 0.37
TSS (°Brix) 3.10 ± 0.00 Carbohydrates 21.43 ± 0.39
WHC (g water g-1) 6.01 ± 0.27 Starch 0.93 ± 0.03
OHC (g oil g-1) 3.79 ± 0.13 SDF 3.22 ± 0.10
SC (mL g-1) 5.07 ± 0.16 IDF 44.95 ± 0.96

Table4. Physicochemical properties and proximate composition (dry matter basis, except moisture) of ripe
banana peel powder. Adapted from (Viviane D.M. et al. 2020).

36
Average value ± Deviation from the mean, n=3. TSS: total soluble solids; WHC: water-holding
capacity; OHC: oil-holding capacity; SC: swelling capacity; SDF: soluble dietary fiber; IDF: insoluble
dietary fiber.

4.2 Chemical Composition of Banana Peels and Pulp: A Comprehensive

Analysis
The examination of the chemical composition of banana peels and pulp, facilitated by data
collected from various sources, provides valuable insights into the potential applications of these
agricultural by-products. It was observed, as per Table 4, that ripe banana peel powder exhibits
acidity and lower pH and Total Soluble Solids (TSS) content when compared to the pulp. The Water
Holding Capacity (WHC) of banana peel powder is the capacity of a material to retain water in its
matrix and its influenced by constituents such as protein and dietary fiber, particularly
hemicellulose and pectin, demonstrates similarities with the values reported in existing literatures
by (Alkarkhi et al., 2011); and (Torres-Oblitas et al., 2018). While variations in WHC were noted
between studies, in ripe banana peel powders (6.1-8.2g g-1 and 5.4g g-1, respectively), but was
greater than those found in unripe plantain peel powder (3.5 g g-1) (Agama-Acevedo E. et al.
2016), due to different particle size, preparation process, and the structural diversity of fibers
played contributing roles in these differences (Zhang L.L et al. 2017).

Additionally, the OHC refers to the ability of a food to retain fat during its processing, preserving
the flavor and improving texture (Torres-Oblitas et al. 2018; Resende L.M et al. 2019). The Oil
Holding Capacity (OHC) of ripe banana peel powder revealed similarities and disparities with other
peel powders and even wheat powder due to factors such as particle size, hydrophobic nature of
the fiber particles, fiber composition, several surface properties, and total charge density can
cause these differences (Zhang L.L. et al. 2017). The Specific Capacity (SC), linked to porosity,
crystallinity, and fibrous matrix characteristics, displayed values similar to soluble dietary fiber
from other sources (Wang L. et al. 2015). This suggests that ripe banana peel powder could serve
as an ingredient in products related to weight control, because it can increase the sensation of
fullness (Zhang W. et al., 2017). Notably, it displayed favorable technological properties compared
to other peel powders, making it a candidate for use in the preparation of bakery products with
potential claims as functional food (Torres-Oblitas et al., 2018).

In unripe bananas, starch is one of the main digestible carbohydrates; however, as ripening
progresses, the starch content decreases while soluble sugars increase (Khawas P. et al., 2016).
This transformation is attributed to enzymatic actions that degrade starch and contribute to sugar

37
formation. Notably, the ripe banana peels powder exhibited a high content of dietary fiber, with
the insoluble fraction being the most prominent. The peels are rich in insoluble dietary fiber; these
peels contain considerable quantities of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Starch content is
notably low, attributable to the advanced stage of ripening. Moisture content, at less than 15%,
remained consistent across varieties. These findings resonate with studies that suggest that the
stage of ripening exerts a more significant influence on the composition of peels than the variety
(Emaga et al., 2006). The dietary fiber content of fruit peels exceeds that of the pulp, underscoring
their protective role against external threats (Resende L.M et al., 2019). Given the recommended
daily intake of 25 to 38 grams of dietary fiber for adults (Dahl W.J et al., 2015), this banana peel
powder serves as a practical and sustainable ingredient for a myriad of products.

Furthermore, Table 5 presents a detailed analysis of the chemical parameters of both peel and
pulp. These fundamental nutrient parameters, including sugar, carbohydrates, protein, and fat,
were found in higher quantities in the pulp compared to the peel. The pulp also contained higher
value on Total Suspended Solids (TSS) - a quality essential for consumer acceptance in processed
products. Moreover, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, and total carbohydrates displayed
higher values in the pulp. However, the peel exhibited a greater value for fat content and ash
content. The higher fat content in the peel facilitates its use for essential oil extraction. In
conclusion, the comprehensive chemical analysis of banana peels and pulp, synthesized from data
collected from various sources, provides a profound understanding of the potential applications of
these agricultural by-products. This knowledge not only supports the creation of sustainable food
products but also opens doors to innovative uses for banana peel derivatives in the realms of
dietary and industrial applications.

Parameter % Peel Pulp p (0.05) t-value (5 %)

Moisture 75.3 ± 3.2 62.0 ± 2.87 1.24 2.34
TSS (°Brix) 6.4 ± 0.25 21.5 ± 0.81 0.43 -24.18
Reducing sugar 12.6 ± 0.47 17.8 ± 0.64 0.57 -10.23
Non-reducing sugar 3.4 ± 0.19 5.4 ± 0.09 0.67 -11.76
Starch 4.5 ± 0.11 7.6 ± 0.19 0.28 -10.21
Protein 0.35 ± 0.004 0.83 ± 0.04 0.23 -10.72
Fat 3.67 ± 0.20 2.58 ± 0.12 0.64 09.27
Total carbohydrate 22.6 ± 1.62 32.5 ± 1.99 0.42 -2.85
Ash 1.83 ± 0.10 1.54 ± 0.07 0.26 1.61

Table5. Nutrient Composition of Pulp and Peel of Banana (n=8). Adapted from P.S Kumar et al.,
(2019).

38
During the development stage of fruits, it is typical for mineral accumulation to be more
prominent in the peel compared to the pulp. Notably, potassium content was significantly higher
in the peel, measuring 618.4 mg/100 g, in contrast to 397.9 mg/100 g found in the pulp.
Respectively following potassium, magnesium content was the next highest, with values of 536
ppm in the peel and 421 ppm in the pulp, and calcium content was also notably greater in the
peel, measuring 220 ppm, compared to 130 ppm in the pulp. The positive impacts of potassium on
salt regulation and magnesium in reducing hypertension have been well-established, as supported
by previous research by Mani RK et al. (2010), Manosroi J. et al. (2006), and Emaga et al. (2007). As
a result, these mineral-rich peels hold significant potential for utilization in the nutraceutical and
cosmetic industries, as indicated by studies by Suresh Kumar P et al. (2018), Ighodaro O. (2012),
and Li ZY et al. (2012). Ripe banana peels also contain the anthocyanins delphinidin and other
compounds such as cyanide and catecholamines. Besides, the chemical-enzymatic and water
extractions are also were utilized to extract lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses (Bangoura et al.
2011; Elleuch et al. 2011). According to Rodriguez at al. (2006), mentioned that the enzymatic-
gravimetric method is closely related to the dietary fiber analytical method. Besides the
enzymatic-gravimetric method, the enzymes are used to eliminate starch and protein, followed by
use of ethanol to precipitate the soluble fiber concentrate (Prosky et al. 1985). Moreover, they can
be employed as a supplement in bakery and biscuit production due to their higher dietary fiber
content. The elevated ash content further reinforces the notion of greater mineral accumulation in
the peel compared to the pulp, as shown in Table 6.

Parameter Peel Pulp p (0.05) t-value (5%)

Potassium (mg/100 g) 618.4 ± 25.74 397.9 ± 15.05 0.43 13.11
Calcium (ppm) 220.0 ± 08.32 130.0 ± 04.68 0.57 13.76
Magnesium (ppm) 536.0 ± 30.37 421.0 ± 7.29 0.67 4.2
Iron (ppm) 12.4 ± 0.32 4.7 ± 0.11 0.29 17.59
Zinc (ppm) 2.8 ± 0.06 1.4 ± 0.06 0.56 11.43
Manganese (ppm) 2.3 ± 0.07 1.3 ± 0.05 0.63 18.8
Sodium (ppm) 38.0 ± 2.91 22.0 ± 1.34 0.42 3.95

Table6. Mineral Content of Pulp and Peel Samples of Banana (n=8). Adapted from P.S Kumar et al., (2019).

A medium that combines both polar and non-polar solvents has demonstrated the ability to
release polyphenols bound to cell walls and counteract the activity of polyphenol oxidase, an
enzyme responsible for breaking down polyphenols in plants. This finding is in line with the
research conducted by Emaga et al. in 2007. Polyphenols and flavonoids, which are bioactive and
health-promoting phytochemicals associated with the prevention of various diseases such as

39
cardiovascular conditions, cancers, and neurodegenerative disorders, have been extensively
documented in different parts of plants. Researchers including Ciniglia C. (2010) and Ediriweera
ER. (2009) have contributed to this body of knowledge. Banana peels have proven to be a suitable
substrate for the production of enzymes like amylase and cellulose, as indicated by Rana et al.,
(2018).

Furthermore, the application of banana peel or its powder as a sprinkle on meat, chicken
sausages, and fish products has been shown to enhance their tenderness. This use not only
increases dietary fiber content but also improves color, water retention, texture softness, and
reduces the fat content in the meat sausages, as reported in the research conducted by Zaini et al.
(2020). The positive effects of these compounds on human health is expected because they have
antioxidative properties, hence they are efficient in reducing oxidative stresses. Banana pulp has
been reported to have high anti-tumor and antioxidant potentials (Borges CV et al., 2014).
Consumption of bananas is advantageous to body muscles due to its high content of K. Banana is
usually suggested for patients’ suffering from anemia due owing to its high content of Fe. Banana
is low in Na; hence it helps in regulating blood pressure (Singh B et al., 2016).

Parameter (µmol/mg/min/µg/g/U) Peel Pulp p (0.05) t-value (5%)

Total phenols 0.54 ± 0.02 0.82 ± 0.03 0.42 -14.39
Total flavonoids 51.47 ± 1.94 49.20 ± 1.77 0.67 1.39
Total carotenoids 14.6 ± 0.33 15.8 ± 0.78 0.56 -1.26
β carotene 10.3 ± 0.33 12.6 ± 0.59 0.63 -4.62
Ascorbate peroxidase(APOX) 8.7 ± 0.66 18.9 ± 1.15 0.42 -5.91
Catalase (CAT) 6.98 ± 0.41 9.35 ± 0.47 0.26 -2.77
Peroxidase (POX) 30.74 ± 1.27 10.74 ± 0.41 0.42 2.11
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) 1.36 ± 0.05 2.97 ± 0.11 0.57 -18.92

Table7. Secondary Metabolites and Antioxidant Potential of Pulp and Peel (n=8). Adapted from P.S
Kumar et al. (2019).

According to P.S Kumar et al. (2019), the ferric reducing capability was found better with peel than
the pulp, the higher Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) activity observed in banana peels
can be attributed to the presence of phenols and carotenoids, a finding corroborated by various
studies. Carotenoids, which are known for their numerous health benefits including pro-vitamin A,
antioxidant properties, anti-cancer effects, anti-obesity impact, and the anabolic effect on bone
components, which are found in higher concentrations in the banana pulp rather than the peel, as
demonstrated in research by Kumar P.S et al., (2012). Moreover, the abundant carotenoid content
in bananas not only contributes to their nutritional value but also imparts the vibrant yellow color

40
associated with ripening, as reported by Orhue PO. et al., (2013). The antioxidant activity in
bananas is further influenced by secondary metabolites, playing a crucial importance role in
protecting cells from oxidative stress. Additionally, the concentration of antioxidant enzymes,
including Ascorbate Peroxidase (APOX), Catalase (CAT), Peroxidase (POX), and Superoxide
Dismutase (SOD), is higher in the banana pulp compared to the peel. These enzymes are crucial in
scavenging active oxygen species in plant cells, as documented by Arora M & Kaur P (2013). The
CAT, in particular, seems to play a significant role in defense mechanisms, as it is induced during
heating and remains active even during cold storage, as shown in research by Ghasemi K et al.,
(2009).

The POX, APOX and SOD participate in a great number of physiological processes, including the
biosynthesis of lignin and ethylene, defense against pathogens, response to wounds, and reactions
to stress. This is detailed in the research conducted by González-Gallego J. et al., (2010).
Interestingly, the POXs are recognized to be highly heat-stable enzymes in plants, and their
resistance to heat has been noted in various studies, such as those by Liu RH. (2004), Prasad KN et
al.,(2009), Suresh Kumar P et al., (2018), and Freitas D. & Glories Y. (1999). Significantly, the
concentration of these enzymes is notably higher in the banana peel compared to the pulp.

4.3 Analysis of the Antioxidant Activities of Banana Extracts

An analysis conducted by Vu et al., (2019) has provided insights into the antioxidant activities of
banana extracts, primarily assessing their radical scavenging ability using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) assays. Generally, the study revealed
that ethanol-based extracts of bananas exhibited notably strong antioxidant activity, while
extracts prepared with the solvent Hexane displayed relatively weaker or moderate DPPH and
FRAP scavenging capabilities in table8.

In a study conducted by Vu et al., (2019) highlighted an interesting trend in banana peel

antioxidant capacity, it was demonstrated that the antioxidant capacity of the peel increased as
the banana ripened but decreased once it reached an overripe stage. This suggests that the
antioxidant properties are linked with phenolic compounds rather than chlorophylls and
carotenoids. Consequently, considering the stage of ripeness is crucial importance when assessing
the potential applications of banana extracts. In accordance with research conducted by
Sundaram et al. (2011), the unripe banana peel, owing to its high polyphenol content, exhibits a
greater inhibits a greater inhibitory effect against the oxidative hemolysis of human red blood cells

41
compared to the ripe banana peel extract. This data underscores the potential health benefits of
utilizing unripe banana peel extracts with their higher polyphenol content.

Banana part used Solvents FRAP scavenging DPPH scavenging Yield %

(IC50 µg/ml) (µmol Fe2+/mg)
Peel n-Hexane 1.25 171.60 59.15
Ethanol 0.9 19.10 55.10
Water 2.25 54.11 79.28
Pulp n-Hexane 1.67 482.21 53.11
Ethanol 1.05 44.07 46.40
Water 3.90 151.09 190.50
Table8. Yield and antioxidant activity of Banana extracts. Adapted from Dahham et al. (2015).

The analysis of banana extracts revealed varying antioxidant activities among the tested extracts.
Notably, peels extracted with ethanol displayed potent antioxidant activity on the DPPH assay,
with the lowest IC50 value of 19.10µg/mL. Similarly, ethanol extracts of the peels exhibited
significant antioxidant activity in the FRAP assay, with IC50 values of 55.10µg/mL. Additionally, the
ethanol extract of banana pulp demonstrated remarkable FRAP radical scavenging effect, with
IC50 values of 46.40µM of Fe2+/mg. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value serves
as a quantitative measure of the effectiveness of a substance in inhibiting a specific biological or
physiological process, such as cell proliferation. This quantitative measure signifies the amount of
inhibitor (sample) needed to inhibit a specific biological process, such as the percentage of cell
proliferation inhibition. The cellulose extracted from banana peels contained a high caloric content
which was consistent with the results of chemical analysis, which showed the remaining protein,
fat, and carbohydrate contents in the BPC.

According to Adedayo et al. (2016) documented that aqueous extracts derived from the three
Nigerian varieties demonstrate free radical scavenging effects at concentrations spanning from 5
to 25 mg/mL. In contrast, a study conducted by researchers other than Sulaiman et al. (2011)
shown that banana flesh extracts from Malaysia, obtained by a sequential extraction process
involving hexane, chloroform, and methanol display potent abilities in scavenging free radical
abilities. Moreover, Oyeyinka and Afolayan (2020) observed that the peak antioxidant activity in
banana extracts was demonstrated by acetone and ethanol extracts from Musa sinensis and Musa
paradisiaca (South African) varieties when tested at the highest concentration of (0.01 mg/ml).
This suggests that the antioxidant activity of banana flesh extracts may vary depending on the
extraction methods and solvents employed in the extraction process.

42
 % inhibition of cell proliferation
Fruits part used Solvent HCT-116 MCF-7 HUVEC
Peel n-Hexane 62.04 48.22 6.92
Ethanol 16.14 44.62 11.12
Water 11.8 20.53 4.65
Pulp n-Hexane 32.76 61.21 5.11
Ethanol 18.2 12.07 4.4
Water 11.42 15.09 1.5
Table9. Cytotoxic effects of Banana extracts. Adapted from Dahham et al. (2015)

The cytotoxicity of banana extracts was assessed at varying concentrations against HCT-116 and
MCF-7 tumor cell lines, as well as normal HUVEC cells (Table 9). The extracts that demonstrated
over 60% inhibition of cell proliferation were considered active extracts. Notably, hexane extracts
of both banana peel and pulp exhibited the highest cytotoxicity towards HCT-116 and MCF-7, with
inhibition percentages of 62.04 and 61.21, respectively. Conversely, water and ethanol extracts
displayed poor cytotoxic effects against HCT-116 and MCF-7. Most importantly, all banana extracts
showed poor cytotoxicity against normal cell lines. The morphological changes observed in the
treated cancer cells provided clear evidence of the significant cytotoxicity of hexane banana
extracts. When treated with 0.1% DMSO, the cancer cells formed a compact monolayer of rapidly
growing cells with distinct nuclei and intact cell membranes.

Previous research, including studies by Suresh Kumar P et al. (2018), Orhue PO. et al. (2013), and Li
ZY. et al. (2012), had already reported the anticancer properties of banana pulp due to its tumor
necrosis factor content. Given the high levels of phenols and flavonoids, banana peel was selected
for evaluating its anticancer potential against MCF-7 cells. MCF-7 is a well-known model system
for breast cancer studies and its susceptibility to apoptosis. Despite the initial response of many
tumors to chemotherapy, breast cancer cells can develop resistance to treatment over time. The
presence of more viable cells in untreated MCF-7 cells compared to peel-treated samples indicates
the potential of banana peel as an anticancer agent, with the presence of bioactive compounds
capable of suppressing cell proliferation.

4.4 Total Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity

According to the P.S Kumar et al. (2019) findings, the analysis of total phenolic compounds and
antioxidant activity in banana peels extracted with methanol, ethyl alcohol, and aqueous media
revealed significant variations in phenolic content and antioxidant potential. Someya et al. (2002)
reported that total phenolics were more abundant in the peel (907 mg/100 g dry weight)

43
compared to the pulp (232 mg/100 g dry weight), attributing the better antioxidant content to a
higher concentration of gallocatechin in the peel. However, it's important to note that different
studies have reported diverse results in total phenolic compounds. For example, researchers
found higher total phenolic content in Cavendish banana peel flour at different ripening stages
(ranging from 590 to 2900 mg GAE 100 g-1) (Khawas P. & Deka S.C. 2016; Rebello L.P.G et al. 2014)
and unripe plantain peel flour (771 mg GAE 100 g-1) (Agama-Acevedo E. et al. 2016). These
disparities in total phenolic compounds can be influenced by factors such as fruit variety,
cultivation conditions, maturity, pre-treatment methods (e.g., drying, freeze drying, blanching),
and extraction conditions (solvent type, temperature, time, and process). The presence of
interferers like chlorophyll, lipids, and terpenes, as well as the choice of the phenolic standard, can
also impact the determination of these substances, as discussed by Vu H.T et al. (2018) and Aboul-
Enein A.M et al., (2016).

In light of the variety of plant compounds with different polarities and biological activities, it is
essential to employ multiple methods for determining antioxidants, each with distinct mechanisms
of action and associated advantages and limitations (Vu H.T et al. 2017). The study by Viviane D.M.
et al. (2020), reported antioxidant activity in banana peel powder in terms of Trolox equivalents:
13.14 µmol L-1 by ABTS, 28.92 µmol L-1 by DPPH, and 38.01 µmol L-1 by FRAP, all in dry weight.
These findings suggest that the compounds in the powder have affinity for iron reduction
reactions, making them efficient in FRAP radical reduction, and they can effectively react with
DPPH free radicals. The antioxidant activity results can vary depending on the banana cultivar,
ripening stage, powder production method, and conditions of compound extraction. There was a
strong positive correlation between phenolic content and antioxidant activities, which were found
in results of Viviane D.M. et al. (2020), which strong intensity (r > 0.7) between total content of
phenolic compounds and total antioxidant activity for the methods ABTS (r = 0.914), FRAP (r =
0.877), and DPPH (r = 0.912), between FRAP and ABTS (r = 0.997), FRAP and DPPH (r = 0.997), and
ABTS and DPPH (r = 1.000). These data corroborates findings in other studies on banana peel as
discussed by Vu H.T et al. (2017), Pereira G.A et al. (2017) and González-Montelongo et al. (2010).

This suggests that phenolics are the primary antioxidant compounds in ripe banana peel, but other
substances such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, phytosterols, and dietary fibers also contribute to
the scavenging of free radicals (González-Montelongo et al. 2010). These results indicate that the
produced powder can serve as a natural, cost-effective source of antioxidants for various food

44
applications. Notably, there were no significant differences in total polyphenol contents of peel
extracts, and total antioxidant activity remained consistent, though there was a marginal
difference in total flavonoid content among the extracts.

4.5 MTT Assay for Cell Cytotoxicity

In the context of anticancer research, the MTT assay for cell cytotoxicity is an essential tool. It's
important to note that tumor cells undergo apoptosis in the presence of anticancer drugs, while
normal cells tend to become necrotic if exposed to toxic agents. MTT tests, commonly used for cell
viability assessments, cannot distinguish between these different cell death mechanisms, which
mean that the impact of certain drugs might be detrimental to healthy cells. This is why it's crucial
to focus on detecting apoptosis in tumor cells, which is more specific and beneficial in anticancer
drug development as discussed by Suresh Kumar P. et al. (2018), Ghasemi K. et al. (2009) and
González-Gallego J. et al. (2010). To differentiate between normal cells, early apoptotic cells, late
apoptotic cells, and dead cells, the evaluation of nuclear morphology becomes essential. One
traditional method is fluorescent staining using acridine orange (AO). However, a relatively new
approach involves the use of AO/EB (Ethidium Bromide) staining, which has been reported in a
limited number of papers of Goulas V et al. (2012) and Senthilraja P et al. (2015). This dual staining
technique effectively allows the detection of morphological alterations in apoptotic cells, making it
possible to differentiate between different cell states, such as normal, early apoptotic, late
apoptotic, and necrotic cells (Tsamo CVP. et al. 2015).

In this study, MCF-7 cells exposed to a plant extract were analyzed using Acridine Orange/
Ethidium Bromide (AO/EB) staining. AO stains live cells with green fluorescence, while EB, which
penetrates the nucleus of dead cells, binds to concentrated DNA fragments or apoptotic bodies,
causing red fluorescence. The results indicated that healthy and viable cells displayed green
fluorescence with well-organized nuclei. Early apoptotic cells appeared as crescent-shaped or
granular yellow-green with AO nuclear staining, while late apoptotic cells displayed concentrated
and asymmetrically localized orange nuclear ETBr staining. Necrotic cells exhibited uneven,
orange-red fluorescence at their periphery without chromatin fragmentation as reported by
Tsamo CVP. et al. (2015) and Sumathy N. et al. (2011). According to the studies of Zhang CR. et al.
(2015) and Ciniglia C. et al. (2010), which shows the Necrotic cells (7 %) showed uneven, orange-
red fluorescence at their periphery without chromatin fragmentation. Such modifications indicate
that the cells were undergoing a state of disintegration.

45
The results studies of P.S. Kumar et al. (2019) on anticancer activity of banana peel extract were
corroborated with the earlier reports demonstrating similar effectiveness in various parts of the
banana, including the pulp and seeds in inhibiting cancer cell lines, as discussed by Suresh Kumar
P. et al.(2018), Senthilraja P. et al. (2015) and Sumathy N. et al. (2011). This study emphasizes that
aqueous methanol extract of banana peels exhibits potent cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 breast
cell lines. The presence of high flavonoid content in the extract, a secondary metabolite
responsible for various therapeutic effects, was noted.

The result obtained in this P.S. Kumar et al. (2019) study provides valuable insights, that banana
fruit peels has a broad spectrum of biological activities and could be used as a good source of
antioxidant and anti-tumor agent. However, additional investigation is required to determine the
bioactive constituents within banana peel extracts, purify and characterize these compounds, and
understand their mechanisms of action. Such evaluations are crucial for the potential utilization of
peel extracts in the pharmaceutical industry. Moreover, the composition of bioactive compounds
in banana peels can vary depending on species, composition, and geographical origin, but key
compounds are generally consistent, and their concentration plays a vital role in their biological
activities. Additionally, it's worth noting that bananas have a mild natural radioactivity, exceeding
that of many other fruits, due to their high potassium content and the presence of small quantities
of the isotope potassium-40, which naturally occurs in potassium. This concept of the "banana
equivalent dose" is sometimes used in nuclear communication to make comparisons between
radiation levels and exposures.

In summary, banana peels represent a promising resource with potential applications in

addressing health issues related to oxidative stress. Analyzing the results of these studies, it’s
found that the concentration of bioactive compounds differs from one species to another,
depending on the composition and geographical area of origin. Still, the composition comprises
identical key compounds, and their concentration plays a crucial role.

46
 CHAPTER FIVE (5)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

In conclusion, bananas are a globally consumed staple for medicinal properties, that banana peels
can be used as a potential dietary supplement for protection against pancreatic and breast
cancers. People are using various traditional medicines as primary health care therapy to treat
different diseases in many regions, including Sierra Leone. While scientific evidence for these
therapies is lacking, researchers are now exploring the bioactive ingredients including
antimicrobial and anticancer agents within medicinal plants and herbs, including bananas.

Bananas, a major economic agricultural crop worldwide, offer a multitude of medicinal benefits. In
Africa, people have been traditionally used to address issues like digestion, constipation, and
diarrhea. For this medical ground, researcher has examined the pharmacological qualities as well
as the phytochemical make-up of Musa, namely Musa paradisiaca. The pharmacological studies
suggest that some of these traditional uses may have a basis in reality, especially for conditions
like ulcers, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disorders. However, there have not yet
been any clinical trials on humans that needed to validate these claims. Despite this, there is a
promising path to uncovering the latent capabilities of banana plants. Ripe bananas, has better
anti-cancer property with their dark spots, produce a substance called Tumor Necrosis Factor
(TNF), which is known to destroy cancerous tumors (Iwasawa H and Yamazaki M.2009). In fact,
ripe bananas are significantly more effective in terms of cancer-fighting potential compared to
unripe green bananas.

On the contrary, the precise mechanisms by which the chemical constituents of banana peels
combat diseases or infections remain mysterious, there is ongoing research employing various
scientific approaches, such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. These
approaches aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms that
responsible for the health-promoting properties of banana peels, thereby improving our
knowledge of banana peel phytochemicals as functional ingredients. The consumption of dietary
fiber including that found in banana peels has been identified as a protective factor against
chronic diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes mellitus (Huang T. et al.
2015).The reason for this is that high fiber intake contributes to improved serum lipoprotein
values, reduced blood pressure, aids weight management, and promotes regularity (Anderson J.W

47
et al. 2009). Several authors also suggest that the feasibility of incorporating fruit peels into
human diets, as evidenced by the work of Wolfe and Liu (2003). Surprisingly, public acceptability
tests have yielded remarkably positive results, reaching levels as high as 80%. Beyond just
enhancing nutritional value and supplying essential antioxidants for disease prevention, there is
emerging research suggesting potential applications of fruit peels in the treatment of acute liver
failure, as investigated by (Mosa and Khalil 2015). Fruit peels, including those from watermelon,
pawpaw, orange, pineapple, banana, apple, mango, and pomegranate have important proportions
of peels. Those peels are valuable sources of nutrients (lipids, proteins, minerals, etc.) and
phytochemicals, despite their phenolic compounds and anti-nutrient content. Banana peels,
known for their functional properties like water-holding capacity (WHC) and oil-holding capacity
(OHC), have the potential for use in food development. Their ability to retain water and hold oil
makes them practical, especially as blending agents in high-fat food products.

In summary, the latest scientific knowledge suggests that banana peels hold great potential as a
source of functional ingredients, including antioxidants and antimicrobial agents. While raw
banana peels may not be palatable to many, transforming them into food products can offer
delicious and nutritious options, promoting regular consumption. The diverse compounds found in
banana peels, such as phenolic substances, flavonoid compounds, tannin elements, saponin
compounds, glycosides, alkaloids, carotenoids, sterol components, triterpene compounds, and
catecholamine compounds, isolated from banana peels, have demonstrated antioxidant and
antimicrobial activities. This indicates that the banana peels offer promising avenues for future
research. Banana peels represent a promising resource for addressing health issues related to
oxidative stress. The insights from these studies shed light on the potential applications of banana
peel extracts and their biological activities.

48
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