WEEK 1: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

What is an Electric Circuit?

 Is an interconnection of electrical elements (alexander)

 Is a closed loop network which provides a return path for the flow of current

International System of Measurement

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K

Luminous Intensity candela cd

Charge coulomb C

SI Prefixes / Engineering Notation

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hector h
10 deka da
 10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Charge vs Current

• Charge is an electrical property of matter carried by some elementary particles

• Measured in coulombs (C)

q=¿

• Electric Current is the flow of charged particles

• Measured in amperes (A)

q
I=
t

Voltage

• EMF or Potential Difference is the amount of work needed to move a unit charge from one point to another.

• Measured in volts (V)

E
emf = p . d .=V =
q

Power vs Energy

• Power is the rate at which energy is being consumed or produced

• Measured in watts (W)

P=VI

• Energy is the capacity to do work

• Measured in Joules (J) or kilowatt-hour (kWhr)

E=Pt
Practice Problems

1. How much charge is carried by 6.24x1021 electrons?

2. How much time would it take for a current of 1-A transfer 30-C of charge?

3. A current of 3-A flows for 5 mins. How much charge is transferred?

4. How long must a current of 0.1-A flow to transfer a charge of 30-C?

5. Re-write the following as indicated:

1000-pF = ____-nF
0.02-µF = ____-pF
5000-kHz = ____-MHz
47-kΩ = ____-MΩ
0.32-mA = ____-µA

6. An emf of 250-V is connected across a resistance and the current flowing is 4-A. What is the power
consumption?

7. 450-J of energy is converted into heat in 1 minute. How much power was consumed?

8. A current of 10-A flows through a conductor and 10-W is dissipated. What p.d. exists across the ends of the
conductor?

9. A battery with an emf of 12-V supplies a current of 5-A for 2-minutes. How much energy is supplied in this time?

Resistance

• Resistance is the physical property of materials to resist the flow of electrons or electric charge

• Measured in ohms (Ω)

l
R=ρ
A

Resistivities for common materials

Material Resistivity Usage

Silver 1.64x10-8 conductor
Copper 1.72x10-8 conductor
Aluminum 2.8x10-8 conductor
Gold 2.45x10-8 conductor
Carbon 4x10-5 semiconductor
Germanium 47x10-2 semiconductor
Silicon 6.4x102 semiconductor
Paper 1010 insulator
Mica 5x1011 insulator
Glass 1012 insulator
Teflon 3x1012 insulator

10. The resistance of a 2m length of cable is 2.5-Ω. Determine

(a) the resistance of a 7m length of the same cable
(b) the length of the same wire when the resistance is 6.25-Ω.

11. A wire of cross-sectional area 1-mm² has a resistance of 20-Ω. Determine

(a) the resistance of a wire of the same length and material if the cross-sectional area is 4 mm²
(b) the cross-sectional area of a wire of the same length and material if the resistance is 320.

12. A wire of length 5-m and cross-sectional area 2-mm² has a resistance of 0.08-Ω. If the wire is drawn out until its
cross-sectional area is 1-mm², determine the resistance of the wire.

13. Find the resistance of 800 m of copper cable of cross-sectional area 20 mm².

14. Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm², of a piece of aluminium wire 100-m long and having a resistance of
22-Ω.
 PASSIVE ELEMENTS
Resistors

What is a Resistor

• It is a passive element that implements resistance

Resistor Color Coding

Color Significant Figure Multiplier Tolerance

Silver - 10-2 ±10%

Gold - 10-1 ±5%

Black 0 1 -

Brown 1 10 ±1%

Red 2 102 ±2%

Orange 3 103 -

Yellow 4 104 -

Green 5 105 ±0.5%

Blue 6 106 ±0.25%

Violet 7 107 ±0.1%

Grey 8 108 -

White 9 109 -
 None - - ±20%

Resistor Letter Coding

Resistance Value Mark

0.47Ω R47

1Ω 1R0

4.7Ω 4R7

47Ω 47R

100Ω 100R

1kΩ 1K0

10kΩ 10 K

10MΩ 10 M
Tolerance:

F = ±1% G = ±2% J = ±5% K = ±10% M = ±20%

Sample Activity

Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Equivalent Letter Code

Value

Orange Orange Silver Brown

Brown Black Brown -

Green Red Yellow Brown

Orange Green red -

51K ±2%

1M ±10%

47k ±5%

6800
±20
%

Capacitors
What is a Capacitor?

• It is a passive element that implements Capacitance

• Capacitance is the ability to collect and store energy as electrical charge

ε0 εr A
C=
d

Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors in Series

1 1 1 1
= + +
C T =C 1 +C2 +C 3 CT C 1 C2 C 3

Inductors

What is an Inductor?

• It is a passive element that implements inductance

• Capacitance is the ability of a circuit to induce emf when experiencing a change in magnetic flux

Nϕ
L=
I
Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors in Series

1 1 1 1
= + +
L T L1 L2 L3 LT =L1+ L2 + L3
 NETWORK LAWS AND THEOREMS

Series/ Parallel Circuits

Definition of Terms

•Node - connection point between two or more elements

• Loop - any closed path in which no node is encountered more

than once

•Branch- portion of a circuit containing a single element and the

nodes at the end

Additional:

 The ground of the circuit is considered usually found in the node beneath in the circuit.
 The loops of a four small boxes in the one big box is 13 loops.
 The circuit loop should be in closed path.
 You should only pass nodes once to be it considered a loop.

Series / Parallel Connected Sources

• Voltage sources connected in series can be replaced by a single source and values can be combined
algebraically

• Current sources connected in parallel can be replaced by a single source and their values Can be combined
algebraically

Series Circuits

• The current is the same in all parts of the circuit

• The sum of the voltages in each element is equal to the total applied voltage
 V S =V T =V 1 +V 2+ V 3
V =IR
I RT =I R 1+ I R2 + I R3
RT =R1 + R2 + R3

Parallel Circuits

• The voltage is the same in all parts of the circuit

• The sum of the currents in each element is equal to the total circuit current

I s=I t o t a l=I 1+ I 2+ I 3
V
I=
R
V V V V
= + +
R T R1 R2 R 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R T R1 R2 R 3

Determine the following parameters from the circuit:

a. Total resistance

b. Total current

c. Voltage across R1, R2, R3 & R4

d. Current going through R1, R2, R3 & R4

Mesh Analysis

The method of circuit analysis in which the current flowing through a planar circuit is calculated.

This method is based on Kirchoff’s Voltage Law which states that the algebraic sum of voltages around
a loop or mesh is equal to zero.
 N

∑ V n=0
n =1

Procedure for Mesh Analysis

Step 1 − Identify and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.

Step 2 − Write mesh equations to all meshes by applying KVL first and then Ohm’s law.

Step 3 − Solve the obtained mesh equations in order to get the mesh currents.

V 5 +V 10=12 V
5 I 1 +10(I 1−I 2 )=12V
15 I 1 −10 I 2=12 V
V 10 +V 30=18 V
10(I 2−I 1)+30 I 2=18 V
−10 I 1+ 40 I 2=18 V
I 1=1.32 A
I 2=0.78 A
Nodal Analysis

The mathematical method for calculating the voltage distribution between the circuit nodes.

This method is based on Kirchoff’s Current Law which states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving
(or entering) a node is equal to zero.
M

∑ I m=0
m=1

Procedure for Nodal Analysis

Step 1 − Identify the principal nodes and choose one as reference(ground) node.

Step 2 − Label the node voltages with respect to Ground from all the principal nodes.

Step 3 − Write nodal equations at all the principal nodes by applying KCL first and then Ohm’s law.

Step 4 − Solve the nodal equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the node voltages.
 I 1=I 2+ I 3

12−V 1 V 1 V 1+18
= +
5 10 30

12 V 1 V 1 V 1 18
− = + +
5 5 10 30 30

12 18 V 1 V 1 V 1
− = + +
5 30 10 30 5

V1 9
=
3 5

V 1=5.4 V
 Electric Circuit Theorems

Superposition Theorem

Linearity Property

Linearity refers to how an element’s voltage-current relationship

behavior follows a straight-line pattern. This property is the combination
of two properties; homogeneity property and additivity property.

The homogeneity states that if the input (current) is multiplied by

a certain constant, then the output will be multiplied by the same
constant

iR=v

kv
R=
ki

The additivity property states that when different inputs have their outputs observed separately, the total
output is just the sum of those separate effects.

v 1=i1 R v 2=i 2 R

v T =v 1+ v 2=i 1 R+ i2 R=( i1 +i 2 ) R

Superposition Principle

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is
the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.

Procedure for Superposition

Step 1 − Turn off all independent sources except one source. This can be done by replacing current sources
with an open circuit and voltage sources with a short circuit. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that
active source.

Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

Step 3 − Find the total output (voltage or current) by adding algebraically all the responses caused by the
independent sources.

@node 1
I 1=I 2+ I 3
20−V 1 V 1 V1
= +
5 10 10+20
20 V 1 V1 V1
− = +
5 5 10 30

( 1 1 1
+ +
5 10 30 )
V 1=4
V 1=12 V

V1 12
I 3= =
10+20 30
I 3=0.4
v 20V =I 3
R v 20 V =( 0.4 )( 20 )
v 20V =8 V

10∗5 10
R 5∨¿ R 10= = Ω
10+5 3

R =
( 10
3
+10 )∗20

( 103 + 10)+20
T

¿8Ω

v 4 A =I RT
v 4 A =( 4 )( 8 ) v 4 A =32V

V R 20=¿ v 20V + v 4 A
V R 20=8+32

Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input
or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Procedure to find Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Step 1 − Disconnect the load resistor

Step 2 − Determine the Thevenin’s Voltage VTh across the open terminals of the disconnected element

Step 3 − Determine the Thevenin’s Resistance RTh across the open terminals of the disconnected load resistor
by turning off all independent sources and solving for the equivalent resistance.

Step 4 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting the Thevenin’s voltage VTh in series with the
Thevenin’s resistance RTh and the initially disconnected load resistor

@mesh 1 @mesh 2
V R 5+ V R 10=20 V R 10+V R 10=V Th
5 I 1 +10 ( I 1+ 4 )=¿ 10 ( 4 ) +10 ( I 1 + 4 ) =V Th
2015 I 1=20−40 20
V Th =10( 4− +4 )
−20 5
I 1=
15 200
V Th =
3

RTh = ( 10∗5
10+5 )
+ 10
40
RTh =
3

Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s theorem states that a linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source IN connected in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals
and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Procedure to find Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Step 1 − Disconnect the load resistor

Step 2 − Determine the Norton’s Current IN by replacing the load resistor with a short-circuit

Step 3 − Determine the Norton’s Resistance RN across the open terminals of the disconnected load resistor by
turning off all independent sources and solving for the equivalent resistance.
Step 4 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting the Norton’s Current IN in parallel with the
Norton’s Resistance RN and the initially disconnected load resistor

10∗10
R 10∨¿ R 10= =5 Ω
10+10
RT =5+5=10 Ω
V T 20
I T = = =2 A
R T 10
V R 10=5 I T =5 ( 2 )=10 V
V R 10 10
IN= + 4= + 4=5 A
10 10

R N= ( 10∗5
10+5 )
+10
40
R N=
3

( )
40
3
I R 20=5 =2 A
40
+20
3
V R 20=IR
V R 20=2 ( 20 )=40

Source Transformation

Source transformation is the process of simplifying a circuit by replacing a voltage source Vs in series with a
resistor R by a current source Is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
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