8 Antennas

Chapter 8
INTRODUCTION
y Antenna is a device that receives and transmits electromagnetic waves.
y Electromagnetic waves are generally generated by the sources, which
have time-varying changes and currents.
An antenna is also known as a radiator or an aerial.
y It also behaves as a coupler between a guided structure such as
a waveguide or transmission line and space or vice versa.
y It can be said that a antenna is a transducer that mainly converts voltage
or current signals into EM waves or vice-versa.

Figure 8.1: Transmission

Figure 8.2: Reception

y The basic equation of radiation is given by-

di dv
L =Q
dt dt
This equation shows that change in the current flowing in a length (L)
results in the acceleration of radiating charge.
where L = Length of antenna
Rack your Brain
di
= Changing current
dt
Why can’t we use multiple
dv reflectors?
= Accelerated charge
dt
y If a charge is not moving, then the current
must be zero, and hence no radiation will be
there.
Antennas

377.
Chapter 8

And, when a charge is moving with

an uniform velocity, there will be no
radiation if the wire is straight or
infinitely extended.
y If a charge is moving with a uniform
velocity and radiation will occur if the
wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, or
terminated.
And if the charge is oscillating in time-
motion, it must radiates even if the wire
is straight.
y To determine the radiation field
regardless of the type of antenna, the
following steps can be employed-
(i) At first, choose an appropriate Previous Year’s Questions
coordinate system and then evaluate 
 The electric field E and the magnetic
the magnetic vector potential (A) . 
 field H of a short dipole antenna
(ii) Determine H (magnetic field satisfies the condition-
  
intensity) by B = mH = ∇ × A formula. 
 
(A) The r component of E is equal to
(iii) Calculate electric field (E) using
  zero. 
∇ × H = jω ∈ (E) , considering a (B) 
Both r and θ components of E
lossless medium (σ = 0). equal to zero. 
(iv) Find the field and evaluate the time- (C) The θ component of E dominates
average power radiated by using the r component in the far-field
the formula- region. 
  (D) The θ and φ component of H are of
Prad
= ∫s
Pavg ⋅ dS
the same order of magnitude in the
 1   near-field region.
where, =
Pavg Re[E × H* ]
2
y While following these points step by
step and analyzing the antenna radiation
field, we generally-
Consider the spherical coordinate
system as we know that the antenna
radiates in all directions primarily. Thus,
we assume the spherical radiation
symmetry.
Antennas

378.
 Chapter 8
y We usually use Maxwell’s equations
to derive/calculate for free space or Rack your Brain
lossless medium.
y And when it is said that the EM wave What is the condition of radiation by
is transmitted then it mainly refers to the dipole antenna?
power transmitting or power radiating. (A) A charge must be stationary.
y As we know that the direction in which (B) A charge must be moving with
a wave travels is the direction of power an uniform velocity and the wire
flow. Hence, the power radiated is should be straight or infinite.
calculated by the given above formula. (C) A charge must move with a
uniform velocity and the wire
HERTZIAN DIPOLE should be curved.
y The smallest antenna (where the length (D) The charge must oscillate in time
of the conductor is very small) or can motion.
say antenna having infinitesimal small
current element Idl.

λ
i.e. Idl ≤
10

Figure 8.3: Hertzian Dipole

Previous Year’s Questions
y Consider Idl infinitesimal conductor at
the origin. Two isotropic antennas are separated
The axis along which the antenna by a distance of two wavelengths. If
element is placed is considered the both the antennas are fed with currents
antenna axis. of equal phase and magnitude, the
Here, the antenna axis is the z-axis. number of lobes in the radiation in the
y An antenna having its length less than horizontal plane are-
1 (A) 2 (B) 4
or equal to the times of the signal’s
10th (C) 6 (D) 8
wavelength.
Antennas

379.
Chapter 8

λ
i.e., dl ≤
10
Then, that antenna will be considered
as the Hertzian dipole.
Rack your Brain
y The magnetic vector potential can be
expressed as- An antenna a transducer? (Yes/No)
 m [I] dl
Az = ˆz
a
4pr
where [I] is the retarded current and
dl is the length of the current-carrying
conductor/element.
y Let a point ‘P’ which is at ‘r’ distance
from the antenna element.
The line joining ‘P’ and the origin where
the antenna element is placed makes ‘θ’
angle with the z-axis.
y ‘P’ is the point considered here
where the potential radiation is to be
calculated due to the antenna element
at the origin.
y The antenna element is required to
have excitation or in other words, the Previous Year’s Questions
conductor will radiate only when it has
oscillating current or oscillating charges,
Two dissimilar antennas having equal
then only the time-varying current can
maximum directivities, then-
be obtained.
Must have their beamwidths also
(A) 
In this way, a time-varying current is equal.
obtained in the Idl antenna element. (B) 
Cannot have their beam widths
y And the radiation is assumed to be equal because they are dissimilar
calculated at ‘P’ also it will take some antennas.
time to reach point ‘P’. May not necessarily have their
(C) 
maximum power gains equally.
Thus, we will get the radiation after
(D) Must have their effective aperture
some time delay, and the current ‘I’ is
areas (capture areas) also equal.
denoted as [I] and named as retarded
current.
y The retarded current [I] is the current
that takes some time to reach point ‘P’.
Antennas

380.
 Chapter 8
y Hence, the current distribution at point ‘P’ will be evaluated after some
distance distance r
delay i.e., = time or time = = .
speed speed u

y The current distribution at the origin is expressed as-

 r
I I0 cos ω  t − 
=
 u
Since we know that-
Rack your Brain
ω
β= and u is the velocity.
c
In radio wave systems or microwave
 ωr  links, the transmission loss per unit
∴ I I0 cos  ωt −
= 
 u  length decreases with __________
distance.
I = I0 cos (wt – br)

I = I0 Re [ejwt – e–jbr]
y Consider components Ax = Ay = 0 and suppressing the time factor, then
we get-

 mI e− jβr dl
Azs = 0 ˆz
a
4pr
y The required coordinate system is spherical, but the above magnetic
vector potential is expressed in the cartesian system.
Now, converting into a spherical coordinate system, we know that-
Here, ‘s’ in the subscript is used to just denote that the time
factor is suppressed.

 Ars   sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ   A xs 

   cos θ cos φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ  A 
A θ=s    ys 
 A φs   − sin φ cos φ cos φ 0   Azs 
 

y As we know that-
x = r sin θ cos f

y = r sin θ sin f

z = r cos θ.
Axs = Ays = 0 but Azs ≠ 0
Antennas

381.
 Chapter 8

y By solving we get-
Ars = Azs cos q

Aqs = – Azs sin q

Afs = 0
The first step has been followed as spherical coordinate has been
analyzed.  
y Now, calculating H and B as follows-
We know, for free space
  
Bs = m0Hs = ∇ × As

Bs = ˆr + Hθsa
m0 Hrsa ˆ θ + Hφsa
ˆ φ 

aˆr −raˆ θ r sin θa

ˆφ  aˆr −raˆ θ r sin θa
ˆφ 
   
 1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
=Bs =   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
2 
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ  2
r sin θ  ∂r ∂θ ∂φ 
   
Ars rA θs r sin θA φs  Ars rA θs 0 
Since, Afs = 0
y Comparing ‘r’ components on both sides, we get-

1
∂ ∂ 
m0Hrs
= 2  (0) −
r sin θ  ∂θ ∂φ
(rA θs ) =

{
Q A φs 0 }
−1 ∂
m0Hrs
= 2 [ − rAzs sin θ] Gray Matter Alert!!!
r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂  m0I0dle− jβr  In coaxial cables or waveguides,

m0Hrs
= r sin θ 
r2 sin θ ∂φ  4pr  transmission loss per unit length
generally increases with respect to the
m0Hrs = 0 or Hrs = 0 frequency.

y It is concluded that Hrs = 0

Similarly, we will get Hqs and Hfs as well.
y On comparing θ-components, we get-

−r  ∂ ∂ 
m0Hθs
= 2  ∂ (0) − ∂φ (Ars )
r sin θ  r 
Antennas

382.
 Chapter 8
1 ∂
=m0Hθs [Azs cos θ]
r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂  m0I0dle− jβr 
=m0Hθs  cos θ
r sin θ ∂φ  4pr 
Thus, Hqs = 0
y Now, comparing φ-component on both sides, we get-

r sin θ  ∂ ∂ 
m0Hφs
= 2  (rA θs ) − (Ars )
r sin θ  ∂r ∂θ 

1∂ ∂ 
Hφs
m0= ( −rAzs sin θ) − (Azs cos θ)
r  ∂r ∂θ 

1  −∂  m0 I0 dl e− jβr  ∂  m0 I0 dl e− jβr 
=m0Hφs   r sin θ  −  cos θ  
r  ∂r  4pr  ∂θ  4pr  

1  m I dl (− jβ)e− jβr sin θ m0 I0 dl e− jβr sin θ 

m0Hφs =  − 0 0 + 
r 4p 4pr 

m0 I0 dl e− jβr  jβ 1
m0Hφs
=  + 2
4p r r 

m0 I0 dl e− jβr  jβ 1
Hence, Hφs
=  + 2
4p r r 

and Hrs = 0 and Hqs = 0

y The magnetic field at far-field is defined by the above equation while

1
neglecting 2 terms in the above equation.
r
y For calculating electric field components.
Using Ampere’s law, we know that in the spherical coordinate system-
 
∇ × Hs = (σ + jω ∈)Es

Since, σ = 0(lossless)

ˆr + Eθsa
∇ × Hs = jω ∈ Ersa ˆ θ + Eφsa
ˆ φ 
Antennas

383.
Chapter 8

ˆr
a ˆθ
−ra ˆφ
r sin θa
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
ˆr + Eθsa
jω ∈ Ersa ˆ θ + Eφsa
ˆφ  =
 r sin θ ∂r
2 ∂θ ∂φ
Hrs Hθs r sin θHθs

Since we know that, Efs = 0

Hrs = 0 and Hqs = 0 and substituting the value of Hfs, we get-

1 ∂  I dl ⋅ sin θ − jβr  jβ 1 
jω∈0 Ers
= r sin θ 0 e  + 2 
r2 sin θ ∂θ  4p  r r 

1 rI0dl2 sin θ cos θe− jβr  jβ 1 

jω∈0 Ers = 2  + 2
r sin θ 4p  r r 

I0dl cos θe− jβr  jβ 1 

=Ers  + 2 Rack your Brain
2pr( jω∈0 )  r r 

An antenna acts as a sensor of

I0dl cos θe− jβr  1 1 
=Ers ( jβ)  2 +  electromagnetic waves. (Yes/No)
2p( jω∈0 ) r jβr3 

As we know that-

β = ω m0 ∈0

m0
and η =
∈0
Previous Year’s Questions
β ω m0 ∈0
∴ = = ω∈0
η m0 An antenna, when radiating, has a highly
∈0 directional radiation pattern. When
the antenna is receiving, Its radiation
β
or η = pattern-
ω∈0
(A) is more directive
(B) is less directive
y Now substituting the η value in Ers (C) is the same
equation, we get- (D) exhibits no directivity

I0dl cos θe− jβr η  1 1 

=Ers  2 − 3
2p r βr 
Antennas

384.
 Chapter 8
y For deriving Eqs, we compare θ-components and we get-

−1 ∂  I0dl sin θe− jβr  jβ 1 

jω∈0 Eθs
= 2
r r sin θ  + 2 
r sin θ ∂r  4p  r r 

−1 I0dl sin θ ∂  − jβr e− jβr 

Eθs e ( jβ ) + 
( jω ∈0 )r 4p ∂r  r 

−I0dl sin θ   −1  1
=Eθs  − ( jβ × jβ ) e
− jβr
+ e− jβr  2  + ( − jβ ) e− jβr 
( jω∈0 )4pr r  r 
 

−I0dl sin θ e− jβr  2 1 jβ 

=Eθs β − r2 − r 
( jω∈0 )(4pr)  
Rack your Brain
− jβr
−I0dl sin θ e  β  β 1 j
=Eθs   − 3 − 2
4pj  ω∈0   r βr r  Receiving antennas in radio receivers
normally are ferrite or loop antenna.
I dl sin θ e− jβr  jβ j 1 (Yes/No)
η0
Eθs =  − 3 + 2
4p r βr r 

I dl sin θ e− jβr  jβ j 1 
η0
Eθs =  + 2 − 3
4p r r jβ 
y For Hertzian dipole radiation fields are-
Efs = 0, Hrs = 0, Hfs = 0 Previous Year’s Questions

I0dl sin θe− jβr  jβ 1 A transverse electromagnetic wave

=Hφs  r + r2 
4p   with circular polarization is received by
a dipole antenna. Due to polarization
I dl sin θe− jβr  1 j  mismatch, the power transfer efficiency
η0
Ers =  2 − 3
2p r βr  from the wave to the antenna is
reduced to about-
I dl sin θe− jβr  jβ 1 j  (A) 50% (B) 35.3%
η0
Eθs =  + 2 − 3 (C) 25% (D) 0%
4p r r βr 
y For far-field-
 1
(i)   term is called far-field or radiation field.
r 
i.e., if r >> very large.
 1   1 
Antennas

and  2  &  3  will be very small or tends to have zero value.

r  r 

385.
Chapter 8

Thus, above equation will be modified

by applying above given condition of
far-field. Rack your Brain

Therefore, we get-
Does the antenna act as an impedance
Efs = Ers = Hrs = Hqs = 0 matching device?
I0dl sin θe− jβr
and Hφs
= ( jβ)
4pr
I dl sin θe− jβr
η0
and Eθs = ( jβ)
4pr
y Also we know that-
Intrinsic impedance η is expressed as-

Eθs
η=
Hθs
y As we need to draw radiation pattern Rack your Brain
i.e., electric field pattern.
Thus, Eqs equation is considered to be
The units of radiation intensity are
an important equation. ___________.
 1 
(ii) The  2  term is referred to as induction
r 
field.
 1 
(iii) And  3  term is called near-field or
r 
electrostatic field.
(iv) The distance at which magnitude of far-
field and near-field are equal to called
as radian-distance i.e., the magnitude
 1  1 
of   term and magnitude of  3  Previous Year’s Questions
r
  r 
term in equal. A 1 km long microwave link uses two
For this, antennas each having 30 dB gain. If the
power transmitted by one antenna is 1
jβ j
= − W at 3 GHz, the power received by the
r β r3
other antenna is approximately-
(A) 98.6 µW (B) 76.8 µW
β 1
= 3 (C) 63.4 µW (D) 55.2 µW
r βr
Antennas

386.
 Chapter 8
1 λ
r
= =
β 2p
λ Previous Year’s Questions
At r  {Q 2p  6}
6
λ For a dipole antenna -
Thus, at r  , far-field and near fields
6 (A) The radiation intensity is maximum
are equal and it is defined as radian along the normal to the dipole axis.
distance. The current distribution along its
(B) 
(v) The boundary between far-field and length is uniform irrespective of
near field is given by- the length.
(C) The effective length equals its
2d2 physical length.
r≥
λ (D) The input impedance is independent
of the location of the feed-point.
 2d2
r >> → Far − field
 λ
or 
2
r < 2d → Near − field
 λ
where, d = largest dimension of the antenna
λ = wavelength
y At far-field,

I dl sin θe− jβr

η0
Eθs = jβ
4pr

Eθs
Hφs =
η
The power radiated will be-
 
Prad
= ∫s
Pavg ⋅ dS

As we know that-
 1   1
Pavg Es × Hs* 
Re=  ˆ ˆ 
=
2   2 Re Eθsa θ × Hφsa φ 
Rack your Brain
 1
ˆ θ × H*φsa
Pavg = Re ηHφsa ˆφ 
2  The effective length of a wire is
always greater than the actual length.
 1 (Yes/No)
Pavg =Re ηHφsH*φs a
ˆθ × a(
ˆφ  )
Antennas

2  

387.
Chapter 8

 1
Pavg
=
2
ˆr      QHφsH*φs = |Hφs |2
η | Hφs |2 a
 { }
Previous Year’s Questions
 
∴ Prad= ∫Ps
avg ⋅ dS A parabolic dish antenna has a conical
beam 2° wide. The directivity of the
1 antenna is approximately-
Prad= ∫s 2
η | Hφs |2 a
ˆr ⋅ r2 sin θ dθ dφ a
ˆr
(A) 20 dB (B) 30 dB
(C) 40 dB (D) 50 dB
1
Prad =
2 s ∫
η | Hφs |2 r2 sin θ dθ dφ

2
1 Eθs 2
Prad =
2
η ∫
s η
r sin θ dθ dφ

η2I02dl 2 sin2 θ β2 2
=Prad ∫ s (4p)2 (r 2 )(2η)
r sin θ dθ dφ

(120p)2 I20dl2β2 2p p
=Prad 2
16p × 2 × 120p = φ 0
dφ
= θ 0 ∫
sin3 θ dθ ∫
120pI02dl2 (2p)2 p/2  2p 
=Prad
16p × 2 ( λ )
2
× 2p × 2 ∫
θ=0
sin3 =
θ dθ Q β
 λ 

2
60p2I02dl 2 (2p)2 2 2 2  dl 
Prad
=  40p I0  
 =
λ2 3 λ

2
 dl 
= 40p2I02  
Prad
λ
where I0 is the peak current.
y Radiation resistance will be expressed as-
Rack your Brain
2
Prad = IrmsRrad
The magnetic field is developed
__________ an antenna.
I20
Prad = Rrad
2

2
2Prad 2  dl 
Prad
= =2 2
40p2I02  
I0 I0 λ
Antennas

388.
 Chapter 8
2
 dl 
∴ Prad =80p2  
λ Rack your Brain
y For Hertzian dipole antenna we know
that the length is- The efficiency of an antenna in terms of
directive and power gains is_________.
 λ 
 dl ≤ 
 10 
λ
If we assume, dl =
20
2
 λ  80p2
= 80p2=
Then, Rrad    2 Ω (Very small value)
 20λ  400
Now, radiated power will be-
2
Prad = IrmsRrad
Previous Year’s Questions
On decreasing radiated resistance, the
radiated power will also decrease. The radiation resistance of a circular
And we know that- loop of one turn is 0.01 Ω. The radiation
resistance of five turns of such a loop
Antenna efficiency, η = Prad will be _______.
Pinput
(A) 0.002 Ω (B) 0.01 Ω
As Prad decreases, the antenna efficiency (C) 0.05 Ω (D) 0.25 Ω
will also decrease.
Thus, because of less efficiency, Hertzian
dipole is not used widely.

Half-wave Dipole Antenna

y The half-wave dipole antenna, as its name implies, has a length equal
to half of its wavelength.
y This antenna is made up of thin wire that is excited in the middle by a
voltage source connected via a transmission line to the antenna.

Figure 8.4: Half-wave dipole antenna

Antennas

389.
Chapter 8

y For half-wave dipole, the magnetic

vector potential is given by-

p 
mI0 cos  cos θ  e− jβr
Azs = 2 
2prβ sin2 θ
y At far-field, the radiation field patterns- Rack your Brain

p  The radiation fields are nothing but

jI0 cos  cos θ  e− jβr
 2  far-fields. (True/ False)
Hθs =
2pr sin θ
and Eqs = ηHqs
y The radiated power is expressed as-

Prad 36.56 × I02

=

And the radiation resistance is given by-

Prad
Rrad
= 2 = 73 Ω (Constant value)
I20

\ (Prad)Half-wave > (Prad)Hertzian

Thus, the more power is radiated by the

half-wave dipole antenna.

QUARTER-WAVE MONOPOLE ANTENNA

y For this type of antenna, the length of Previous Year’s Questions
λ
the element is required to be l = .
4
An antenna in free space receives 2 µW
The source feeding is at the base of the
of power when the incident electric
antenna element.
field is 20 mV/m rms. The effective
aperture of the antenna is-
(A) 0.005 m2 (B) 0.05 m2
(C) 1.885 m2 (D) 3.77 m2

Figure 8.5: Quarter wave monopole antenna

Antennas

390.
 Chapter 8
y Due to the property of perfect conductor
property i.e., the same length of an
antenna placed above perfect conductor
will be formed below it and is referred Rack your Brain
to as an image antenna.
Hence, the total length of the antenna The far-field is implied by the presence
λ of______.
becomes and it behaves as the half-
2
wave dipole antenna.
It can be noted that feeding is at a
center like a half-wave dipole antenna.
Therefore, the quarter-wave monopole
antenna-

Rrad = 36.5 W

and Prad = 36.5I02

SMALL LOOP ANTENNA

y A loop antenna is a RF current carrying
radiating coil with an appropriate cross-
section of one or more radiating loops.
y Loop antennas have an advantage over
other conventional antennas (as they
are small in size) and can be used in
a variety of mobile communication
applications. The loop antenna’s
polarization is identical to that of short
dipole.
y For the far-field, the field pattern
equations are as follows- Previous Year’s Questions

120p2 I0 S Eφs
=Eφs sin θ e− jβr and Hθs = − A transmitting antenna radiates 251
r λ 2
η W isotopically. A receiving antenna,
y The radiation resistance is expressed located 100 m away from the
as- transmitting antenna, has an effective
aperture of 500 cm2. The total power
320p4S2 received by the antenna is-
Rrad =
λ4 (A) 10 µW (B) 1 µW
(C) 20 µW (D) 100 µW
or Rrad ∝ S2
Antennas

391.
Chapter 8

where S = Cross-sectional area

Rack your Brain

What are the applications of the Yagi-

Uda antenna?

Figure 8.6: Small loop antenna

here r0 << radius of the loop (∴ Small

loop)
y For square loop of side ‘a’ -

S = a2

And if loop is having N turns then,

S = Na2

y For the large loop (C ≥ 3.14λ) antenna

C
= 60p2  
Rrad
λ
Radiation resistance of loop antenna:
2
C m 
= 20p2    θ  N2
Rrad
 λ   m0 
Here, C is the circumference of the large
loop (C = 2pr).

Example 1: Rack your Brain

Consider a Hertzian dipole antenna that
has a length of 4.6 mm and carries a 60
The induction-field is demonstrated
MHz frequency and current of 2.8 A. Let the
by the presence of_________.
magnitude of the electric field is determined
at distance ‘x’ from the antenna. Thus, it will
be considered as far-field if the distance x
is equal to-
Antennas

392.
 Chapter 8
(A) 8.3 mm (B) 8.04 mm
(C) 8.4 mm (D) 8 mm

Solution:
The far-field is considered if the distance is
given as-

2d2 Previous Year’s Questions

r≥
λ
Here, given that d = 4.6 mm = 4.6 × 10–3 m λ
If the diameter of a dipole antenna
2
Frequency, f = 60 MHz λ λ
is increased from to , then its-
100 50
Current, I = 2.8 A
By substituting the values, we get- (A) bandwidth increases
(B) bandwidth decreases
2(4.6 × 10−3 )2 (C) gain increases
x≥
 3 × 108  (D) gain decrease
 6 
 60 × 10 

42.32 × 10−6
x≥
5

x ≥ 8.46 × 10–6
Thus, the distance x must be greater or
equal to 8.464 mm.
Hence, the correct option is (C).

Example 2:
If a dipole 5 m long carries a 4A current
and operates at 5MHz. The average radiated
power (in W) is- Rack your Brain

Solution:
The radiation resistance ( Rrad ) of an
Given-
Length, l = 5 m isolated half-wave dipole is_________.

Current, I = 4 A
Frequency, f = 5 MHz
The wavelength (λ) is given by-
Antennas

393.
Chapter 8

c 3 × 108
λ= = = 60m
f 5 × 106
Rack your Brain
λ
Since, l ≤ (for Hertzian dipole)
10
The Hertzian antenna operates on
60
l≤ _____________ of its fundamental
10
frequency.
\ l ≤ 6 m
Given, l = 5 m
∴ Given that the antenna is a Hertzian
dipole antenna.
The power radiated will be-
I02
Prad = Rrad
2
2 2
 dl   5 
= 80p2  
and Rrad 80p2 
= 5.48 Ω
 =
λ  60 

(4)2
Prad
= × 5.48
2
Prad = 43.86 W
Hence, the correct option is (A).
Example 3:
Consider a car’s radio antenna of length 2m
operating in the AM frequency of 2 MHz. The
current required to transmit 3.4 W of power
is-
(A) 4.31 (B) 6.96
(C) 21.13 (D) 48.57

Solution:
The frequency is 2 MHz
Then, the wavelength will be- Rack your Brain
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 150m The radiation resistance of a quarter-
f 2 × 106
wave monopole is ________ ohms.
As the given length l (i.e., 2m) is less than
λ
the . Thus, the given antenna is a Hertzian
10
antenna.
Antennas

394.
 Chapter 8
λ
\ l ≤
10
150
Here, 2m ≤ Rack your Brain
10
2 ≤ 15 (Condition satisfied)
The current distribution in a half-wave
Thus, the given antenna is Hertzian dipole
dipole is_____.
antenna
∴ Radiation resistance (Rrad) is given by-
2
 dl 
2
Rrad
= 80p  
λ

2
 2 
2
80p 
= 0.14Ω
 =
 150 

1 2
Radiating power, Prad = I0Rrad
2

2Prad
Current, I0 = =6.96A
Rrad
Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example 4:
Consider a circular loop antenna with a
mean radius of 1.5 cm and N turns. If this
given antenna is operating at 100 MHz.
How many turns are required to produce a
radiation resistance of 10 Ω?
(A) 230 (B) 228
(C) 520 (D) 200

Solution:
Given that-
The radius of the circular loop = 1.5 cm Rack your Brain

r = 1.5 × 10–2 m
The directive gain decreases as the
Frequency, f = 100 MHz = 100 × 106 Hz antenna length increases. (True/False)
and Rrad = 10 W
The radiation resistance (Rrad) is given as-
Antennas

395.
Chapter 8

320p4S2
Rrad =
λ4
Rack your Brain
For circular loop for N turns,

320p4 (Npr 2 )2 The current distribution in an alternating

Rrad =
λ4 current element is constant. (True/
False)
Rrad × λ4
= N2 p2r4
320p4

Rrad × λ4
N=
320p6r 4
c 3 × 108
and λ= = = 3m
f 100 × 106
By substituting all values, we get -

10 × (3)4
∴N =
320p6 (1.5 × 10−2 )4

10 × 81
N=
320p (1.5 × 10−2 )4
6

N = 228.05 ≈ 228
Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example 5:
If the loop antenna is built of copper wire
with a radius of 5 mm and has loop radius of
0.5 m. The loop radiates at 6 MHz frequency,
a current of 40 A, and conductivity of 5.8 ×
107S. Evaluate the radiation resistance (in Rack your Brain
mΩ), power radiated (in W) and radiation
efficiency (in %) respectively,-
Is the number of nulls in the resultant
(A) 6.14, 2.13, 2.1 (B) 2.46, 4.13, 20.15
pattern is equal to the sum of the nulls
(C) 5.39, 4.312, 37.1 (D) 6.13, 4.312, 30.19
in the individual pattern and array
pattern?
Solution:
Given,
Loop radius = 0.5 m
Copper wire’s radius = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
Antennas

396.
 Chapter 8
Frequency (f) = 6.5 MHz = 6.5 × 106 Hz
Current (I) = 40 A
The radiation resistance is expressed as-

320p4S2
Rrad =
λ4

320 × p4 × p(0.5)2
=
 3 × 108 
 6 
 6.5 × 10 
Rack your Brain
5
320p (0.25)
=
(46.15)4 The radiation patterns of horizontal
and vertical dipoles are identical.
\ Rrad= 5.39 mW
(True/ False)
The power radiated is given by-

I02
Prad = Rrad
2

(40)2
Prad = × 5.39 × 10−3
2

\ Prad = 4.312 W
The radiation efficiency is given by-

Rrad
η=
Rrad + Rl

l pfm0
where Rl =
2pa σ

0.5 p × 6.5 × 106 × 4p × 10−7 1

Rl = = −2
× 6.39 × 10−4
2p × 5 × 10−3 5.8 × 107
2p × 10

Rl = 1.017 × 10–2

5.39 × 10−3
Radiation efficiency, η = = 0.371 = 37.1%
5.39 × 10−3 + 1.017 × 10−2
Hence, the correct option is (C).
Antennas

397.
Chapter 8

Example 6:
If the radiation resistance of a circular loop
is 0.02Ω. Evaluate the radiation resistance Rack your Brain
of seven turns of the same loop will be-
(A) 2 Ω (B) 0.98 Ω Is the dummy antenna a radiating
(C) 0.02 Ω (D) 1 Ω antenna?

Solution:
Given,
The radiation resistance of a circular loop
(Rrad) = 0.02 Ω
As we know that, Rrad ∝ N2
2
(Rrad )1  N1 
= 
(Rrad )2  N2 

2
0.02 1
=   (Given N2=7)
(Rrad )2  7 

(Rrad)2 = 0.98 Ω
Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example 7:
A wave radio transmitter operating at a
wavelength of 479 m has a tower antenna
of height 120 m. Determine the radiation
resistance of the antenna.
(A) 36.5 Ω (B) 73 Ω
(C) 37 Ω (D) 30.5 Ω

Solution:
Given- Rack your Brain
Wavelength (λ) = 479 m
Length of antenna, l = 120 m
The current distribution in very short
λ 479 dipoles is triangular. (True/ False)
and here, l  =  120m
4 4
Thus, given antenna is a quarter-wave
antenna.
The radiation resistance of this antenna will
be-
Antennas

398.
 Chapter 8
Rrad = 36.5 Ω (constant value)
Hence, the correct option is (A).

Example 8:
If a person with the receiver is 6 km away
from the transmitter. Upto what distance
this person should move so as to detect a
3dB decrease in signal strength?
(A) 2131 m (B) 2000 m
(C) 2936 m (D) 2485.28 m

Solution:

Rack your Brain

As we know that-

E0 Patterns of Half-wave dipole and

= −3 dB quarter-wave monopole are identical.
2
(True/ False)
1
20log = −3 dB
2
1
and for far-field, E ∝
r
E1 r
= 2
E2 r1

E0 r2 6000 + x
= =
(E0 / 2) r1 6000
Distance, x = 2485.28 m

Example 9:
For an antenna radiating in free space,
the electric field at a distance of 2 km is
found to be 14 mV/m. The magnitude of
average power density due to this antenna
at a distance of 4 km from the antenna is
________.
Antennas

399.
Chapter 8

Solution:
Given, Rack your Brain
Distance d1 = 2 km
Electric field, E1 = 14 mV/m Radiation resistance of short monopole
is______________Ω.
Distance d2 = 3 km
The power density is given by-
Power 1 2
Power density
= = E0
Area 2η
1
Since, E ∝
r

E1 r
= 2
E2 r1

E2 = 7 mV/m
∴ Power density at distance 4 km will be-

1
= × (7 × 10−3 )2 = 6.49 × 10–8 = 0.649
2 × 120p
nW/m2

ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Radiation Pattern
y When the amplitude of a specified
component of an electric field is plotted
then, it is called field pattern or voltage
pattern.
y As we know that radiation from the
antenna can occur in all directions.
Hence, it follows a spherical symmetry.
y An antenna following a spherical Previous Year’s Questions
symmetry for radiation pattern will have
3 components i.e., (r, θ, φ ) components. The half-power beam widths (HPBW)
Thus, an electric field will have r, θ and φ of an antenna in the two orthogonal
planes are 100° and 60° respectively.
to make a radiation pattern for the
The directivity of the antenna is
antenna.
approximately equal to-
y When the square of the amplitude of
(A) 2 dB (B) 5 dB
the electric field is plotted, then it is
(C) 8 dB (D) 12 dB
called a power pattern.
Antennas

400.
 Chapter 8
y Normalized electric field versus θ for constant φ is referred to as E-plane
pattern (vertical pattern).
p
y Normalized electric field versus φ for θ = is referred as H-plane
2
pattern (or azimuthal or horizontal pattern).
y Antenna pattern /Radiation pattern is a 3-D plot of its radiation at the
far-field.
Here, far-field means when an electric field or magnetic field is having
 1
only   components or is inversely proportional to r.
r 

E0
eg : Eθ = (Far-field)
4pr

Figure 8.7: (a) E-plane (x-z plane) (b) E-plane (y-z plane)

y For the E-plane pattern, the z-axis should be there as θ = 0° at the z-

axis.
or
As θ is determined from the z-axis and on varying θ and plot the electric
field, that pattern is called the E-plane pattern.
y For θ= 90° H-plane is in z-direction and the plane will be x-y plane.

Figure 8.8: H-plane (x-y plane)

In this case, varying φ in H-plane and φ is measured from the x-axis.

Antennas

401.
Chapter 8

Note:
We know that, we take the z-axis for Previous Year’s Questions
the E-plane whereas for the H-plane,
we take x-axis as the principal axis. The
For an 8 feet (2.4 m) parabolic dish
y-axis is taken as the dummy axis.
antenna operating at 4 GHz, the
y For normalizing the electric field –
minimum distance required for far-

E field measurement is closest to-
Enorm =  (A) 7.5 m (B) 15 m
E
max (C) 20 m (D) 150 m
 
where E is the magnitude of E .

y E-plane and H-plane are generally

orthogonal.

Gain
y Gain is closely associated with directivity
and directivity itself is dependent
entirely upon the shape of the radiation
pattern.
y Gain of Antenna may be defined as “The
ratio of maximum radiation intensity
in a given direction to the maximum
radiation intensity from a reference
antenna, produced in the same direction
with the same power input where the
effect of losses are involved in both test
and reference antenna”.
y When the reference antenna is taken as
an isotropic antenna (100% efficiency).
y Gain of the subject antenna is denoted
by G0 and is known as gain with respect Rack your Brain
to an isotropic antenna.
The radiated fields in the z-direction
U' of the half-wave dipole consist of
G0 = max
U0 Eθ ,Er ,Hθ terms only. (True/ False)
U'max = Maximum radiation from the
test antenna
U0 = Radiation intensity from lossless
antenna
Antennas

402.
 Chapter 8
y Gain equals to directivity only when the antenna’s efficiency is 100%.

y The gain in a direction from which the radiation intensity (U) is maximum
may be designated by specifying the angle φ at which it is measured.

Umax
G0 (θ, φ) =G0
U
Umax = Maximum radiation intensity
U = Radiation intensity in direction of θ and φ
y Signal power received by a receiver at a distant point in the direction of
maximum radiation, then the gain is defined as-
Maximum power received from gain antenna(P1 )
Gain(G)=
Maximum power received from reference antenna(P2 )

P1
G=
P2

Directive Gain
y The concentration of radiated power in any particular direction is
defined as directive gain.
y Mathematically-

4pU ( θ, φ )
GD ( θ, φ ) =
Prad

4pr2 Pavg
GD ( θ, φ ) = Rack your Brain
Prad

GD ( θ, φ ) Prad “The directivity of an antenna is

\ Pavg =
4pr2 determined by the beamwidth”. (True/
 E2  False)
4pr2  0 
GD ( θ, φ ) =  2η 
Prad

4pr2E20
GD ( θ, φ ) =
Prad ( 2η)

GD ( θ, φ ) Prad ( 2η)
E0 =
4pr2
y In terms of decibels, we get-
GD (dB) = 10log10 GD (θ, φ)
Antennas

403.
Chapter 8

y Directive gain depends upon the

distribution of radiated power in space. Previous Year’s Questions
It does not depend on the input power
of an antenna, antenna losses or power
A person with the receiver is 5 km
consumed in terminating resistance.
away from the transmitter. What is the
y Directive gain of an antenna in particular
distance that this must move further
direction is defined as “the ratio of
to detect a 3-dB decrease in signal
power density in a particular direction
strength?
at a given distance to the power density
(A) 942 m (B) 2070 m
that would be radiated at the same
(C) 4978 m (D) 5320 m
distance by an isotropic antenna.

Power Gain
y Power gain is the gain in which the ohmic
loss is associated with the material.

4p U(θ, φ)
GP (θ, φ) =
Pin

where, P=
in Prad + Ploss

2 2
=Pin IrmsRrad + IrmsRloss

I02
=Pin (Rrad + Rloss )
2

And we know that, Loss resistance (Rl)

is given by-

l pfm l
R=
loss = × Rs
2pa σ 2pa
Rack your Brain
where a = Radius of the conductor
L = length of the conductor If a current element is placed in the
Rs = Surface resistance. x-direction, the magnetic vector
y In terms of power input, the power gain potential will be in the ____ direction.
is defined as-
Gp (dB) = 10log10 Gp

P1
Gp (dB) = 10log 10
P2
Antennas

404.
 Chapter 8
Directivity
y It is defined as the maximum value of
directive gain and denoted by D.
In particular direction, the directivity (D) Rack your Brain
is a constant.
y Ratio of the maximum radiation intensity dBm means power gain in dB compared
to its average radiation intensity is to ________.
known as directivity.
Mathematically-

U(θ, φ)max
D=
Uavg
y Directivity is also expressed by the
ratio of maximum radiation intensity of
subject antenna to radiation intensity
of an isotropic or reference antenna
(radiating the same total power).

Umax
D=
U0

U (θ, φ)max (Test Antenna)

D=
U (φ0 ) (Isotropic Antenna)

4p Umax
D=
Prad
y Average ṛadiation intensity (Uavg) is
obtained by dividing total power radiated
by 4π radians.

U(θ, φ)max
D=
Prad /4p
Previous Year’s Questions
4p U(θ, φ)max
D=
Pr ad A medium wave radio transmitter
Umax = Maximum radiation intensity operating at a wavelength of 492 m has
U = Radiation intensity in direction of θ a tower antenna of height 124m, the
and φ radiation resistance of the antenna is
y In decibels: D(dB) = 10log10D (A) 25 Ω (B) 36.5 Ω
For isotropic antenna, D = 1 (C) 50 Ω (D) 73 Ω
For Hertzian dipole antenna, D = 1.5
Antennas

405.
Chapter 8

For half-wave dipole antenna, D = 1.64

41253 Previous Year’s Questions
Also, D = °
θE × θH°
where, θE° = HPBW in E-plane Two identical antennas are placed
and θH° = HPBW in H-plane. in the θ = π/2 plane as shown in
the figure. The elements have equal
Radiation Efficiency amplitude excitation with 180° polarity
The ratio of power radiated to total input difference, operating at a wavelength
power supplied to an antenna is termed as λ. The correct value of the magnitude
radiation efficiency of an antenna and it is of the far-zone resultant electric
denoted by η or K. field, strength normalized with that
of a single element, both computed
Power Radiated for φ = 0° is-
η=
Total Input Power

Prad Prad
=η =
PTotal Prad + Ploss
where, Prad = Power radiated, Ploss = Ohmic
losses.
If the current flowing in the antenna is I,
then-

I2  2pS   2pS 
Rrad (A) 2 cos   (B) 2 sin  
η= 2  λ   λ 
I2
(Rrad + Rloss )  pS   pS 
2 (C) 2 cos   (D) 2 sin  
Rrad  λ   λ 
η=
Rrad + Rloss

where, Rrad = Radiation resistance

Rloss = Ohmic loss of antenna conductor

\ Rrad + Rloss = Total effective resistance

y ‘η’ represents a fraction of total energy
supplied to an antenna which is
converted into electromagnetic waves.
y Antenna overall efficiency can be
obtained as follows-

(
e0 ecd 1 − Γ
= =
2
) GP
GD
Antennas

406.
 Chapter 8
Reflection efficiency, er = (1 − Γ )
2

Zin − Z0
And, Γ =
Zin + Z0
where Zin= Input impedance of the antenna.
Zo= Characteristics impedance of transmission line.
y The gain of the antenna is given as-

(
GP ecd 1 − Γ
=
2
)GD

y If the antenna is lossless, Rloss= 0 then, ecd= 1.

y If transmission line and the antenna are perfectly matched, i.e. Zin = Z0
then Γ =0 .
And we can say that the power gain and directive gain will be the same
i.e. GP = GD .
If these conditions are not given, then by default we assume perfectly
matched conditions.

Antenna Bandwidth
y Bandwidth (BW) over which gain is higher than some acceptable value.
y Bandwidth over which given front to back ratio (FBR) is achieved as-

Power radiated in desired direction

FBR =
Power radiated in opposite direction
y Antenna bandwidth is a range of frequency above which the antenna
maintains certain required characteristics like gain, FBR or SWR pattern
(shape or direction), polarization and impedance.
Basically, bandwidth of antenna depends on impedance and pattern.
Let two frequency limits (i.e., ω1 and ω2)
Dω = ω2 – ω1
Prad
BW =
Q
Prad
Dω =
Q
Prad = 2pfrad
f
Df =rad
Q
Antennas

407.
Chapter 8

1
Df ∝
Q Previous Year’s Questions
where frad = Centre / resonant / design
frequency.
A mast antenna consisting of a 50
y The lower the ‘Q’ of the antenna, the
meter long vertical conductor operates
higher the BW and vice versa.
over a perfectly conducting ground
y Frequency-independent antennas
plane. It is base fed at a frequency of
like log-periodic antennas (which has
600 kHz. The radiation resistance of
unlimited bandwidth) where lower
the antenna in ohms is-
and upper frequencies limits are
specified independently. In those cases, 2p2 p2
(A) (B)
bandwidth is represented by the 5 5
ratio of the highest to the lowest 4p2
(C) (D) 20p2
operating frequency. 5
y Bandwidth (BW) is generally of low and
moderate values are expressed in terms
of the percentage of the center frequency.
Operating range
=BW % × 100
Centre frequency
Antenna Beamwidth
y Antenna beamwidth is a measure of the
directivity of an antenna.
y Antenna beamwidth is an angular width
(in degrees) measured on radiation
pattern (major lobe) between points
where radiated power has fallen to half
of its maximum value.
y This is termed as beamwidth between
half-power points or half-power
beamwidth (HPBW) because the power
at half-power points is just half of its Rack your Brain
maximum value.
y HPBW is also known as 3dB beamwidth For a 200Ω antenna operating with
because, at half power points, power 4A of current, the radiated power is
is 3dB down of the maximum power _________. W
value of the major lobe.
y Half-power points the field intensity
(i.e., voltage) equals 1/ 2 or 0.707 times
its maximum value or 3dB down from
maximum value.
Antennas

408.
 Chapter 8
y Consider the radiation pattern in the
below figure 8.9 and let P1 and P2 be the Rack your Brain
half-power points, the angle between P1
and P2 is the beamwidth of the antenna. The effective area of the antenna is a
y The antenna beamwidth can be function frequency. (True/ False)
expressed as “the angular width (in
degrees) of the major lobe between the
two directions at which the radiated or
received power is one-half the maximum
power”.

Figure 8.9: Beamwidth Angle P1OP2

y Radiation pattern of an angular width

between first nulls or first side lobes,
known as beamwidth between first
nulls which is abbreviated as (BWFN) or
beam width-10 dB down from maximum
pattern.
y Directivity (D) is related to beam solid
angle (ΩA) (or beam area (BA)) as follows:
Previous Year’s Questions
4p
D=
ΩA At 20 GHz, the gain of parabolic dish
antenna of 1m diameter and 70%
y Radiation pattern or lobe is a
efficiency is-
3-dimensional, that has major lobe area
(A) 15 dB (B) 25 dB
given by the product of beamwidth in
(C) 35 dB (D) 45 dB
horizontal and vertical planes or E-plane
and H-planes i.e.,
BA  (HPBW) in Horizontal plane ×
(HPBW) in the vertical plane (Radians)2.
BA  (HPBW) in E Plane × (HPBW) in H
plane.
BA  θE × θH (Radians)2
Antennas

409.
Chapter 8

4p
D= (Radians)2 Rack your Brain
θE × θH

4p × (57.3)2
D= (degree)2 What is a Whip antenna?
θ° × θ°
E H

{ 1 rad = 57.3°}

y Factor affecting beamwidth of an

antenna are-
(i) Shape of the radiation patterns
(ii) Wavelengths
(iii) Dimensions (e.g. radius of aperture)
y The beamwidth of the antenna is
given in two planes perpendicular to
each other when the beam is linearly
polarized, E-plane and H-plane are
used, called E-plane beamwidth and
H-plane beamwidth.

Antenna Beam efficiency (BE)

y Antenna Beam efficiency is frequently
used to judge the quality of transmitting
& receiving antennas.
y Mathematically-
2p θ

∫ ∫ U(θ, φ) sin θdθdφ

0 0
BE = 2p p
Previous Year’s Questions
∫ ∫ U(θ, φ) sin θdθdφ
0 0

here θ = Half-angle of the cone The radiation pattern of an antenna in

within which the percentage of total spherical coordinates is given by-
power is to be found.
y Beam efficiency (εM) is defined as the
( θ ) cos4 θ; 0 ≤ θ ≤ p / 2
F=
ratio of main beam area (ΩM) to the
The directivity of the antenna is-
total beam area (ΩA).
(A) 10 dB (B) 12.6 dB
ΩM Main beam area (C) 11.5 dB (D) 18 dB
BE ( eM )= =
ΩA Total beam area
Total beam area (ΩA) = Main beam area
(ΩM) + Minor lobe area (Ωm)
Antennas

410.
 Chapter 8
i.e., ΩA = ΩM + Ωm

Divide above equation by ΩA -

ΩM Ωm
=1 +
ΩA ΩA
Rack your Brain
1 + eM = em
The signal level is 1 mW, the power gain
Since we know that- will be ________ (dBm).

Minor lobe area

Stray Factor (em ) =
Total beam area
Ωm
∴ em =
ΩA
Therefore, the main beam efficiency,
Ω
eM = M
ΩA

Antenna Beam Area (BA) or Beam Solid

Angle (ΩA)
y Antenna Beam Area is an area (ds) of
the surface of the sphere seen from the
center of sphere that subtends solid
angle ΩA.
y The total solid angle subtended by the
sphere is 4π steradians (Sr)

Rack your Brain

Figure 8.10: Solid Angle WA subtended by Area s

The physical length of the Marconi
antenna is _______.
As we know that-
ds = (r sin θ dφ) (rdθ)
Antennas

411.
Chapter 8

= r2sinθ dθ dφ

ds = r2 · dΩA m2
where, dΩA = solid angle subtended by area ds

ds
dΩA =2 sr
r
Thus, we get-

4pr2
dΩA = 2
r

dΩA = 4π

Also, we know that-

dΩA Solid angle of sphere

1 steradian
= =
4p 4p
2
 180°  2 2
=1 sr 1=
(radian)   (degrees)
 p 
Rack your Brain
180 × 180
1 sr = (Degrees)2
3.14 × 3.14 The effective area of a Hertzian dipole
operating at 100 MHz is 1.07 m2
32400
1 sr = (Degrees)2
3.14 × 3.14
1 sr = 3282.8 (Degrees)2
y Beam Area (or beam Solid Angle) ΩA for the antenna is given by integral
of normalized power pattern over a sphere (4π sr)-
2p p
=
ΩA ∫ ∫ P (θ, φ)dΩ
0 0
n
Sr

2p p
=
ΩA ∫ ∫ P (θ, φ) sin θdθ dφ
0 0
n
Sr

where Pn(θ, φ) = Normalized Power Pattern

P(θ, φ)
Pn (θ, φ) =
P(θ, φ)max
Antennas

412.
 Chapter 8
y Solid Angle is described in terms of
angles subtended by Half-power-points
of main lobe in principal planes as-
ΩA = θE × θH (Sr)

θE = HPBW in E-plane or θ plane

θH = HPBW in H-plane or φ plane Rack your Brain

Effective aperture area The directional pattern of a short

y It is defined as the ratio of power dipole in the horizontal plane is a
received to the time average poynting circle. (True/ False)
vector of the incident wave.

Pr
Ae =
(Pavg )incident
y Relation between Ae and power gain is
given as-

λ2 λ2
Ae
= =
4p
GP
4p
(
2
ecd 1 − Γ GD )
ANTENNA ARRAY

Figure 8.11: Antenna array

y Generally, we use an array of antenna

elements in order to maximize the
directivity.
y Consider a single dipole placed along
the z-axis and at the origin.
Antennas

413.
Chapter 8

y Antenna array is the group of radiating elements designed in order to

achieve the desired directivity in a particular direction only.
y In the figure, consider a point P at distance ‘r’ and making an angle ‘θ’
with the z-axis. As dl<<<r, Thus the condition is of far-field.
y At point P, the radiation field are given as-

η I0 dl sin θ e− jβr ( jβ)

Eθs =
4pr
Eθs
and Hφs =
η
Also, Ers = Efs = Hrs = Hθs = 0
y Considering the case of antenna array where the antenna element is
placed horizontally unlike the prior case and is parallel to the y-axis.

Figure 8.12

y In the above considered case at far-field, the radiation field will be-

η I0 dl sin(θ + 90°) e− jβr ( jβ) E

Eθs = and Hφs = θs
4pr η
Also, Ers = Efs = Hrs = Hθs = 0

η I0 dl cos θ e− jβr ( jβ)

Eθs =
4pr
y Radiations from single dipoles like Hertzian dipole or Half-wave dipole
are not sufficient to cover the desired directions.
Thus, the idea of using multiple radiating elements is designed and
called as an antenna array.
y This technique of using multiple elements is required to achieve
the radiations in a desired direction or to get the desired radiation
characteristics.
Antennas

414.
 Chapter 8
Figure 8.13: Two antenna element array

y Now, considering two antenna elements placed horizontally as shown

in the figure above.
y The point ‘P’ is very far (dl <<< r1) and (dl <<< r2) or (r >>> d).
y Let for excitation of an antenna element-1, I0 current is required with a
phase shift of ∠ α° and for antenna element-2, the current will be the
same I0 but the phase shift will be ∠0°.
y Considering θ1 and θ2 angles are made by the given antenna elements
with respect to the z-axis that are placed at ‘r1’ and ‘r2’ distance from
point ‘P’.
y The distance between two antenna elements is assumed as ‘d’.
y At point ‘P’ , θ1 θ θ2 or we can say that the lines joining will become
parallel to the z-axis.
d
r1 =
r − cos θ
2

d
Similarly, r2 =
r + cos θ2
2
(Q θ = θ2 )

d
∴ r2 =r + cos θ
2
Antennas

415.
 Chapter 8

These distance r1 or r2 doesn’t affect the amplitude but have a significant

change in the phase.

It can be said that there is negligible change in amplitude of radiation

because of distance (r1, r or r2).

But there is a significant change in the phase of radiation due to ‘r1’ and
‘r2’.
y For amplitude, r1  r  r2 is required but in the case of phase shift, ‘r1’
and ‘r2’ are defined, as it is in the above equations.

η I0 dl cos θ e− jβr ( jβ)

Eθs =
4pr
Here, e–jbr represents a phase and the remaining terms in the above
equation represents the amplitude part.

y The sum of electric fields / radiations at point ‘P’ due to antenna

element-1 and antenna element-2 will be a reference to as total
radiation.
Mathematically-
Enet = E1 + E2

η I0 dl cos θ1 e− jβr1 η I dl cos θ2 e− jβr2 ( jβ)

=Enet jβe ja + 0
4pr1 4pr2

 d   d 
− jβ r − cos θ  − jβ r + cos θ 
η I dl cos θ e  2  jβ e ja η I dl cos θ e  2 
( jβ)
Enet = 0 + 0
4pr 4pr
{Q θ1 = θ = θ2 and r1 = r = r2 for amplitude part only}

η I0 dl cos θ( jβ) e− jβr  ja jβ d cos θ d

− jβ cos θ 
=Enet e e 2 +e 2 
4pr  
 

η I0 dl cos θ e− jβr ( jβ) j 2

a  j a jβ d cos θ −j
a d
− jβ cos θ 
Enet e e e2 2 +e e 2
2 
4pr  
 

η I0 dl cos θ e− jβr j
a  j a+βdcos θ   a+βdcos θ  
− j 
e  2 2 
Enet = ( jβ)e 2 
+e 
4pr  
 
a
η I0 dl cos θ e− jβr j  a + β dcos θ 
=Enet ( jβ)e 2 2 cos  
4pr  2 
Antennas

416.
 Chapter 8
As we know that-

I dl cos θ e− jβr
η0
Eθs = jβ
4pr
It is applicable when the antenna is placed horizontally at the origin only.

Thus,

− jβr a
η I0dl cos θe
j  a + βdcos θ 
( jβ)
Enet = e 2 2 cos  
4pr
  2 

↓ ↓
Radiation due to single Array factor
Hertzian dipole placed at
origin (parallel to y − axis)

y Resultant electric field = Field due to single dipole antenna placed at origin
multiplied with array factor.
Resultant electric field = Field due to single dipole antenna × Array factor.
y Now to draw the radiation pattern of the electric field, we determine the
normalized value.
Therefore, the normalized value of Enet will give the resultant radiation
pattern for the antenna array with two elements.
Resultant radiation Radiation pattern due to sin gle Pattern due to
=
   × 
 pattern of an array   antenna placed at origin   array factor 
This above equation defines a law called pattern multiplication.
y The radiation pattern due to a single antenna place at origin is referred to
as the unit pattern.
And the pattern due to the array factor is referred to as a group pattern.
Thus, the pattern multiplication can also be described as-
Resultant radiation pattern = Unit pattern × Group pattern
y For unit pattern (E1)

η I0 dl cos θe− jβr jβ

E1 =
4pr
η I0 dl cos θ β
| E1 | =
4pr
η I0 dl β
| E1 |max =
4pr
| E1 |
Enorm
= = cos θ
| E1 |max
Antennas

417.
Chapter 8

The normalized value will be-

|Enorm| = |cosθ|
Previous Year’s Questions

Now plotting the radiation pattern The far-zone power density radiated by
a helical antenna is approximated as-
  1
= ˆr C0 cos4 θ
Wrad Waverage  a
r2
The radiated power density is
symmetrical with respect to φ and
exists only in the upper hemisphere:
p
0 ≤ θ ≤ ; 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2p; C0 is a constant.
2
The power radiated by the antenna (in
watts) and the maximum directivity of
the antenna, respectively, are-
(A) 1.5 C0, 10 dB (B) 1.256 C0, 10 dB
Figure 8.14: Unit Pattern
(C) 1.256 C0, 12 dB (D) 1.5 C0, 12 dB

y Group Pattern-

a
Case I: When α = 0 and d =
2
a
−j  a + βdcos a 
Array factor, AF = e 2 2 cos  
 2 

For normalization, we determine-

 a + βdcos θ 
| AF | = 2 cos  
 2 
And |AF|max = 2

| AF |  a + βdcos θ 
Thus, |=
AF |norm = cos  
| AF |max  2 
Rack your Brain
a
Substituting values of α = 0 & d =
2 The Effective area of and isotropic
antenna is__________.
 2p λ 
 0 + λ × 2 cos θ 
| AF |norm = cos  
2
 
Antennas

 

418.
 Chapter 8
p 
| AF | norm cos  cos θ 
=
2 

Previous Year’s Questions

For an antenna radiating in free space,

the electric field at a distance of 1 km
is found to be 12 m V/m. Given that the
intrinsic impedance of the free space
is 120π Ω, the magnitude of average
power density due to this antenna at
a distance of 2 km from the antenna
(in nW/m2) is ______.
Figure 8.15: Group Pattern

θ |AF|norm

0 0

45° 0.44

90° 1

135° 0.44

180° 1
Table 8.1: Normalized array factor

y For resultant pattern-

Rack your Brain

The effective area of an infinitesimal

Figure 8.16(a): Unit Pattern dipole is__________.
Antennas

419.
Chapter 8

Rack your Brain

The gain of infinitesimal dipole

Figure 8.16(b): Group Pattern
is______________.

Figure 8.16(c): Resultant Pattern

y This radiation pattern is made in an

E-plane pattern.
Note: The H-plane consists of x-y plane.

d λ
Case 2: When a = and d =
2 4

 a + βdcos θ 
| AF |norm = cos  
 2 
Previous Year’s Questions
Substituting values-

 p 2p λ  A half-wave dipole is kept in the x-y

 2 + λ × 4 cos θ  plane and oriented along 45° from the
| AF |norm = cos  
 2  x-axis. Determine the direction of null
  in the radiation pattern for 0 ≤ φ ≤ p .
Here the angle θ ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ p ) is measured
p p  from the z-axis, and the angle
| AF |norm= cos  + cos θ 
4 4  φ ( 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2p ) is measured from the
|AF|norm = cos(45° + 45° cosθ) x-axis in the x-y plane.
(A) θ = 90°, φ = 45°
(B) θ = 45°, φ = 90°
(C) θ = 90°, φ = 135°
(D) θ = 45°, φ = 135°
Antennas

420.
 Chapter 8
Previous Year’s Questions

Match column A with column B

Column A
1. Point electromagnetic source
2. Dish antenna
3. Yagi-Uda antenna
Figure 8.17: Group Pattern Column B
P. Highly directional
Q. End fire
θ |AF|norm
R. Isotropic
(A) 1→R 2→Q 3→P
0 0
(B) 1→Q 2→P 3→R
45° 0.228 (C) 1→R 2→P 3→Q
(D) 1→P 2→Q 3→R
90° 0.707

135° 0.978

180° 1

Table 8.2: Normalized array factor

Rack your Brain

Figure 8.18(a): Unit Pattern The effective area of optimum horn

whose mouth area is Ae is___________.

Figure 8.18(b): Group Pattern

Antennas

421.
Chapter 8

Figure 8.18(c): Resultant Pattern

Uniform Linear Array

Figure 8.19

y Consider N-number of antenna elements placed along the z-axis at ‘d’

distance apart from each other and making θ angle with the z-axis.
The point ’P’ is at a far distance with respect to each antenna element.

y The excitation of each element is having phase shift as I0 ∠ 0°, I0 ∠ α,

I0 ∠ 2α ….… I0 ∠ (N-1) α for element 1, 2, 3 …… N, respectively.

y According to the earlier derivation we calculate net electric field

combining all respective electric fields due to each element.

Enet = E1 + E2 + E3, …… EN

r1 = r–dcosθ, r2 = r–2dcosθ
Antennas

422.
 Chapter 8
Mathematically, we describe it as-
ηI0dl e− jβr jβ cos θ ηI0dl cos θ e− jβ(r −dcos θ)e ja ( jβ)
Enet = +
4pr 4pr

ηI0dl cos θ e2ae− jβ(r −2cos θ) ( jβ) ηI dle− j(N−1)a sin θ e− jβ[r −(N−1)dcos θ] ( jβ )
+ …… 0
4pr 4pr

ηI0dl cos θ e− jβr ( jβ ) j2a

Enet [1 + e jae jβdcos θ +e e jβ2dcos θ ............. + e j(N−1)ae jβ(N−1)dcos θ ]
4pr
ηI0dl cos θ e− jβr ( jβ )
Enet [1 + e j( a+βdcos θ) +e j2( a+βdcos θ) .............. + e j(N−1)( a+βdcos θ) ]
4pr

ηI0dl sin θ e− jβr ( jβ )

Let, E0 =
4pr Previous Year’s Questions
and ψ = α + βdcosθ
An antenna with a directive gain of 6 dB
∴ Enet = E0[1 + ejψ + ej2ψ + ……+ ej(N-1)ψ] is radiating a total power of 16 kW. The
amplitude of electric field in free space
E0 (1 − e jψN )
Enet = at a distance of 8 km from the antenna
1 − e jψ
in the direction of 6 dB gain is
j
Nψ  − jNψ j
Nψ  (Round off to 3 decimal places)
e 2
e 2 − e 2  _____V/m.
Enet = E0  
j
ψ  − jψ j 
ψ
e 2
e 2 − e 2 
 
Now, dividing by 2j in numerator and denominator, we get-

  Nψ  
j(N− 1)
ψ  sin  2  
Enet = E0 e 2   
 sin  ψ  
   
 2 

where E0 = electric field due to single dipole/ Hertzian dipole placed at the
origin.
ψ
j(N−1)
Phase = e 2

 Nψ 
sin  
Array factor, |AF| =  2 
ψ
sin  
2
Antennas

423.
Chapter 8

(i) For maximum radiation (or principal beam)

Put ψ = 0
∴ α + βd cosθm = 0 Previous Year’s Questions
where-
θm = Angle at which we get maximum The radiation resistance of a small
radiation dipole current element of length l
βd cosθm = –α at a frequency of 3 GHz is 3 ohms. If
the length is changed by 1%. Then the
−a percentage change in the radiation
cos θm = resistance rounded off to two decimal
βd
places, is _________%
 −a 
θm =cos−1  
 βd 
a
θm =cos−1  
 βd 
\ Array factor (AF) is expressed as-

 Nψ 
sin  
=|AF| =  2  0
ψ 0
sin  
2
 
Thus, by L’Hospital Rule, we get-

N Nψ
cos
=|AF|max lim
= 2 2 , |AF| N
max
ψ→0 1 ψ
cos
2 2
 Nψ 
sin  
| AF |  2 
and |=
AF |norm =
| AF |max ψ
Nsin  
2
where, N = Number of radiating elements. Rack your Brain
(ii) Null will occur, when |AF| = 0.
The directional characteristics of
 Nψ 
i.e., sin  =  sin(mp) center-fed 2λ dipole is______.
 2 
 Nψ 
sin  =0
 2 
Antennas

424.
 Chapter 8
Nψ
=± mp
2
N Rack your Brain
(a + βdcos θN ) = ± mp
2
θN = Angle at which null will occur. For the broadside array, the excitation
phase should be ________.
If ψ <<< 1,
ψ ψ
Then, sin ≈
2 2

 Nψ 
sin  
| AF |norm =  2 
Nψ
2
y For two elements in an array- Previous Year’s Questions

N=2
An array of 10 isotropic elements is
ψ ψ λ
2 sin cos placed along the z-axis at distance .
sin ψ 2 2 4
| AF
= |norm =
2 sin ψ ψ Assume the uniform distribution for a
2 sin
2 broad-side array.
and also, we know that- Calculate beamwidth first Null (BWFN)
(in degree) and directivity (in dB).
ψ  a + βdcos θ  (A) 45.83; 6.98 (B) 45; 6
| AF
= |norm cos
= cos  
2  2  (C) 46.98; 10 (D) 45.13; 20
(iii) For Broadside Array:
It is the array in which maximum radiation
occurs in the direction perpendicular to
the antenna axis (z-axis).
Then,
ψ = 0 and θm = 90°
∴ α + βcosθm = 0
α = 0 (progressive phase shift) Rack your Brain
(iv) End-fire array:
It is an array where maximum radiation φ-polarization is synonymous with
occurs in direction of the array axis horizontal polarization.
(z-axis).
Maximum radiation occurs at-
ψ=0
∴ α + βdcosθ
Antennas

425.
Chapter 8

α = –βd cosθ

θ = 0 ; a = −βd
if  m
θm = 180° ; a = βd
∴ α = ± βd

Figure 8.20

y Calculation of HPBW and BWFN for antenna arrays-

Figure 8.21

As we know that Half power beam width is-

HPBW = 2|θm – θH| Rack your Brain

and Beamwidth between first null is-

For the end-fire array, the progressive
BWFN = 2|θm – θN| phase shift should be equal to
For Hertzian dipole-
θm = 90° and θN = 0
∴ BWFN = 2(90°) = 180° and HPBW = 90°
where θN = Angle where main beam radiation is zero.
Antennas

426.
 Chapter 8
(i) Broadside array (α = 0):-
As we know that-

 a 
θm =cos−1  
 βd 
θH = Angle at which array factor |AF|norm becomes 0.707
|AF|norm = 0.707
Nψ Rack your Brain
or = ±1.391
2
N(α + βdcosθH) = ± 2.782 The effect of the earth on vertical
patterns is that the directivity
2.782
βdcos θH = ± −a increases and the radiation is in the
N
upper hemisphere. (True/False)
−a 2.782
cos θH= ±
βd βdN

 −aλ 2.782λ   2p 
=θH cos−1  ± = Qβ
 2pd 2pdN   λ 
y Now, HPBW is given as-
HPBW = 2|θm – θH|

 a  −1  −aλ 2.782λ 
HPBW = cos−1   − cos  ± 
 βd   2pd 2pNd 

y For broad side array (α = 0)

p  2.782λ 
HPBW =2 − cos−1  ± 
2  2pNd 

 2.782  −1  0.44λ 
HPBW 2 sin−1  ±
=  = 2 sin  
 2pNd   Nd 
y For a large value of d >>> λ

 0.44λ 
HPBW = 2  
 Nd 

0.88λ
HPBW =
Nd
where, N = Number of radiating.
Antennas

427.
Chapter 8

d = spacing between two elements.

λ = wavelength.

y Beamwidth between first null (BWFN) for broadside array will be-
As we know-
N
(α + βdcosθN) = ± mπ
2
2mp
α + βdcosθN = ±
N
2mp a
cos θN =± −
Nβd βd
Rack your Brain
 a 2mp 
θN cos−1  −
= ±  Does an ungrounded antenna near the
 βd Nβd 
ground act as an antenna array?
Thus, we know-
BWFN = 2|θM – θN|

 λ 
and θm =cos−1  
 βd 
Substituting the values in BWFN we get-

  λ  −1  a 2mp  
BWFN 2 cos−1 
=  − cos  − ± 
  βd   βd Nβd  
where, m = integer

y For broadside array (α = 0) Rack your Brain

p  2mp λ  The sidelobe level of a binomial array

∴ BWFN
= 2 − cos−1  
2  N2pd  is__________.
 mλ 
BWFN 2 sin−1  ±
= 
 Nd 
We get first null at m = 1 and d >>> λ

2λ
∴ BWFN =
Nd
y Directivity for broadside array will be-
2Nd
Directivity =
λ
Antennas

428.
 Chapter 8
Parameter Broadside Endfire array

HPBW 0.88λ 0.88λ

2
Nd Nd

BWFN 2λ 2λ
2
Nd Nd

Directivity 2Nd 4Nd

λ λ
Table 8.3: Formulas for Broadside and Endfire Antennas

Example 10:
 5 sin 2θ − jβr
In a free space, an antenna has a far-zone field given by Es = e ˆr V/ m .
a
r
Find the radiated power.

Solution:
The electric field for an antenna in free space is given by-
 5 sin 2θ − jβr
Es = e ˆr V/ m
a
r
And the radiated power is determined by-
  Rack your Brain
Prad
= ∫s
Pavg ⋅ ds

The beamwidth of a binomial array is

 E02  greater than that of a uniform linear
Pavg
= ˆr and
a = ˆr r2 sin θdφ
ds a
2η array. (True/False)
2
  5 sin 2θ  1 ˆ 25 sin2 2θ
=Pavg =  ar ˆr
a
 r  2η r2
Since, (sin2θ = 2sinθ cosθ)

 25(2 sin θ cos θ)2 100 sin2 θ cos2 θ 50 sin2 θ cos2 θ

∴ Pavg == = âr
r2 (2η) r2 (2η) r2η
Antennas

429.
Chapter 8

Now,
 
Prad
= ∫ s
Pavg ⋅ ds

50 sin2 θ cos2 θ
=Prad ∫s ηr2
a ˆr r2 sin θdθdφ
ˆr ⋅ a

50
=Prad ∫ s 120p
sin3 θ cos2 θdθdφ {For free space, h = 120p}

50 p 2p
=Prad
=
sin3 θ cos2 θdθ
120p θ 0 =φ 0 ∫ dφ ∫
100 p/2 2p 5  2×1 
=Prad
120p ∫
0
sin3 θ cos2 θ=∫
dθ dφ
φ=0
  × 1 × 2p
6p  5 × 3 × 1 

2
Prad= = 222.2mW
9

Since, this property we get-

p/2 [(m − 1)(m − 3) … (2 or 1)][(n − 1)(n − 3) … (2 or 1)]
∫0
sinm θ cosn θ dθ =
[(m + n)(m + n − 2) … (m + n − 4) … (2 or 1)]

 p
K = ; if both m & n are even Rack your Brain
where  2
K = 1 ; otherwise
The radiation resistance of a dipole
The above formula is applicable for-
due to the earth effect is ___________.
p
0<θ<
2
Example 11:
At the far-field, an antenna produces
 2 sin θ cos φ
Pavg = ˆr W/ m2
a
r2
p
where, 0 < θ < π and 0 < φ <
2
Evaluate the directive gain and directivity of the
antenna.
Antennas

430.
 Chapter 8
Solution:
Given, the time average pointing vector is- Gray Matter Alert!!!

 2 sin θ cos φ
Pavg = ˆr W/ m2
a The standard reference antenna for
2
r directive gain is the isotropic antenna.
and the power radiated is given by-
 
Prad
= ∫ s
Pavg ⋅ ds

p p/2
2 sin θ cos φ 2
Prad ∫ ∫
θ= 0 φ= 0
r 2
r sin θdθdφ =

p/2 p

∫ ∫ 2 sin
2
cos φdφ θ dθ
=φ 0 =θ 0

2 × (2 − 1) p 
[ sin φ]0p/2 × 2 ×
Prad =+ × 
 2 2
∴Prad = π

The directive gain will be-

2 sin θ cos φ × 4p
GD (θ, φ) =
p

GD(θ, φ) = 8sinθ cosφ

Thus, the directivity will be-
D = max[GD(θ, φ)]
Directivity = 8

Example 12:
A microwave antenna has a power gain of
15dB at 9 GHz. Determine its effective area.
Rack your Brain
Solution:
Given that- θ polarization is synonymous with
vertical polarization. (True/False)
Power gain (GP)dB = 10logGP = 15dB
∴ 15 = 10logGp
GP = 101.5 = 31.62
Antennas

431.
Chapter 8

Effective area is given by-

λ2 Rack your Brain

Ae = GP
4p
Since, f = 9 × 109 Hz The radiation patterns of terminated
and non-terminated antennas are the
c 3 × 108 3 1
∴ λ= = 9
= = not same. (True/False)
f 9 × 10 90 30

2
λ2  1  1
A=
e × G=
P   × × 31.62
4p  30  4p

1 1
Ae = × × 31.62 = 2.75 m
900 4p

Example 13:
Calculate Uavg, Umax and D if-
(A) U(θ, φ) = sin2θ {0<θ<π ; 0<φ<2π}

(B) U(θ, φ) = 2sin2θsin2φ {0<θ<π ; 0<φ<2π}

Solution:
(A) Given radiation intensity –
U(θ, φ) = sin2θ {0<θ<π ; 0<φ<2π}
Maximum radiation intensity, Umax = 1
Prad
And Uavg =
4p
Prad
= ∫s
U(θ, φ) sin θdθdφ

2p p

∫ ∫ (2 sin θ cos θ)
2
=Prad sin θ dθ
φ= 0 φ= 0
Gray Matter Alert!!!
p
Prad = 2p × 4 ∫
0
sin3 θ cos2 θ dθ
The effective area of a Hertzian dipole
p/2 operating at 100 MHz is 1.07 m2
Prad = 16p ∫0
sin3 θ cos2 θ dθ

2×1
Prad= 16p
5×3×1
Antennas

432.
 Chapter 8
32p
\ Prad = Rack your Brain
15
\ The average value- Basic transmission loss between two
32p 8 antennas depends on which of the
Uavg
= = = 0.533 following factors-
15 × 4p 15
(A) frequency
and the directivity will be- (B) distance
(C) frequency and distance
4pUmax 4p × 1 × 15
=D = (D) gain of antennas.
Prad 32p

15
D
\ = = 1.875
8

(B) Given radiation intensity–

U(θ, φ) = 2sin2θsin2φ {0<θ<π ; 0<φ<2π}
Here, Maximum radiation intensity is Umax = 2

and Prad
= ∫ s
U(θ, φ) sin θ dθ dφ

= ∫s
2 sin3 θ sin2 φ dθ dφ

p p p/2 p/2

∫ 2 sin2 φ dφ ∫ sin3 θ dθ = 8 ∫ sin2 φ dφ ∫ sin

3
Prad
= θ dθ
=φ 0 =θ 0 =φ 0 =θ 0

 1 p 2 
Prad 8  ×  
= 
2 23× 1

4p
\ Prad =
3

Prad 1 Rack your Brain

and U=
avg =
4p 3
Actual transmission loss between two
Umax 2 antennas depends on what factors?
Directivity,
= D =
Uavg 1/3

\ D = 6
Antennas

433.
Chapter 8

Example 14:
An antenna radiates a field in the free space at far-field-

0.4 cos2 θ − jβr

Eφs = e kV/ m
4pr
Rack your Brain
Evaluate-

(A) Total radiated power Antenna temperature is the temperature

(B) The directive gain at θ = 60° of the antenna. (Yes/No)

Solution:
(A) The given far-field of an antenna is-

0.4 cos2 θ − jβr

Eφs = e kV/ m
4pr
Rack your Brain
The radiated power will be-
  When the sidelobe level increases,
Prad
= ∫ s
Pavg ⋅ ds
beam width also increases in general.
2 (True/False)
 0.4 cos2 θ  1
=Prad ∫ s

 4pr
 ×
 2η
a ˆr r2 sin θdθdφ
ˆr ⋅ a

2p p
0.16 × 1 × 106
=Prad ∫
s
× ∫
(4p)r2 (240p) =φ 0 =θ 0 ∫
dφ cos4 θ sin θ dθ

0.16 × 106 2p × 3 × 1 16 × 4p × 106 4

=Prad 2
× 2p × = 3 2
× 104
16p × 240p 5 × 3 × 1 16p × 5 × 240 × 100 5p 240

\ Prad= 3.37 W

(B) The directive gain at θ = 60° will be-

4p U(θ, φ)
GD(θ, φ) =
Prad

2
 0.4 cos2 θ 
2
4pr  
 4pr 4
 = 4p × 0.16(cos 60°)
GD(θ, φ) =
3.77 × 240p (4p)2 × 3.37 × 240p

GD(θ, φ) = 3.313
Antennas

434.
 Chapter 8
FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION

Figure 8.22: Friis Space Transmission

y Consider the distance between transmitting antenna and receiving

antenna as ‘d’.
Let the gain of transmitting antenna as Gt and effective aperture area
as Aet.
Similarly, assume for receiving antenna, the power gain will be Gr and
the effective aperture area will be Aer.
y Assuming, Zg ≠ Z0 and power transmitting Pt are being generated and
there will be reflection coefficient at transmitting side as Γt.
∴ The power transmitted will be-

Pt(1 – |Γt|)2

y The power transmitted from the antenna is Pt(1 – |Γt|2).Gt

y The power density at distance ‘d’ is-
2
Power Pt (1− | Γ t | )Gt W
= =
Area 4pd2 m2
Since transmitting antenna is radiating a spherical symmetry.
Hence, the area of a sphere = 4πd2, where d is the distance.
y Now at receiving end, the area on which the transmitted signal is
intercepted and absorbed will be referred to as the effective aperture
area (Aer).
And the power received at distance ‘d’ is-

Pt [1 − | Γ t |2 ]Gt Aer
Pr =
4pd2
y Power delivered to the load will be-

Pt [1− | Γ t |2 ][1 − | Γr |2 ]Gt Aer

PL =
4pd2
Antennas

435.
Chapter 8

y We know that-
Effective aperture area is-
λ2
Ae = G
4p
2 2
 λ2Gr  1 − | Γ t |  1 − | Γr | 
Thus, PL = PtGt  
 4p 4pd2
 
2
 λ   2 2
=PL Pt Gt Gr   1 − | Γ t |  1 − | Γr | 
 4pd  

y For perfectly matched condition: -

Zg = Z0 and ZL = Z0

ZL − Z0 Rack your Brain

=Γr = 0
ZL + Z0
Zg − Z0 The relation between effective noise
=Γt = 0 temperature and noise figure is
Zg + Z0
___________.
Therefore, for perfectly matched
conditions-
2
 λ 
PL = Pt Gt Gr  
 4pd 

Example 15:

Consider a radar system where the distance between the transmitting

antenna and target is ‘d’ and the same distance ‘d’ is from the target
and receiving antenna. Assume reflections efficiency is 0 percent here.
Determine the power received by the transmitting antenna.
Antennas

436.
 Chapter 8
Solution:
Let the power transmitted = Pt Gray Matter Alert!!!
and distance antenna gain = Gt
The power received will be-
dBi means the power gain of the
Pt Gt σ 1 antenna in dB relative to an isotropic
Pr = × × Aer
4pd 2
4pd2 antenna.

Pt Gt Aer σ
Pt =
(4pd2 )2
Pt Gt σ  Gr λ2 
=Pt ×   is the required power received.
(4pd2 )2  4p 
Example 16:
The electric field strength incident on a Half-wave dipole is 4.6 m V/m at
50MHz. The maximum power received by the antenna will be ________.
[Assume the directivity of the Half-wave dipole as 1.64]

Solution:
The electric field strength of a given Half-wave dipole = 4.6m V/m.
Frequency = 50MHz
Gain = 1.64
The effective aperture area of an antenna is-

Pr
Ae =
(Pavg )incident wave

λ2 E2
Pr = Ae (Pavg )incident = ×G× 0
4p 2η

 3 × 108  1 (4.6 × 10−3 )2

=Pr  6  × 1.64 ×
 50 × 10  4p 2 × 120p
Rack your Brain
36 × 1 21.16 × 10−6
Pr = × 1.64 ×
4p 240p The beamwidth between first null
Pr = 131.85nW is ____________ the half-power
beamwidth.
Hence, the maximum power received by the
antenna will be 131.85 nW.
Antennas

437.
Chapter 8

Example 17:
Consider a synchronous orbit satellite antenna. The power transmitted by
the satellite antenna is 425W. If the antenna has a gain of 45dB. Determine
the power received by another antenna with a gain of 20dB at the range of
30,000km at a frequency of 15GHz.

Solution:
The power received will be-
2
 λ 
Pr = Pt Gt Gr  
 4pd 

2
4.5  2 3 × 108 
Pr = 425 × 10 × 10  9 3
 15 × 10 × 4p × 30, 000 × 10 

 1 
Pr = 1343968005.58  2
× 10−16 
 3600p 

Pr = 3.782 pW

Polarization Loss Factor (PLF)

y Generally, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same
as the polarization of the incoming (incident) wave.
This phenomenon is generally referred to as ‘polarization mismatch’.
y The amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming signal
will be maximum because of the polarization losses.
y Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave as-

E=i ˆw
Ei ρ

where, ρ̂w is the unit vector of the wave.

y The polarization of the antenna and the polarization of the wave must
be the same so as to get the maximum amount of power that can be
extracted from the incident wave by the antenna.
y The polarization of the electric field of the receiving antenna is given
by-

E=a ˆa
Ea ρ

here, ρ̂a is the unit vector of the polarization vector Ea .
Antennas

438.
 Chapter 8
y The polarization loss can be understood
by considering a polarization loss factor Rack your Brain
(PLF).
What are the disadvantages of side
y PLF can be defined as below based on
lobes?
the polarization of the antenna in its
transmitting-

ˆa |2 = | cos ψP |2
ˆw ⋅ ρ
PLF = | ρ

y In other words, PLF is the square of the

magnitude of the dot product of ρ̂w

(unit vector of Ei ) and ρ̂a (unit vector of

Ea .

y PLF is a dimensionless quantity and ψp

is defined as the angle between the unit
vector ρ̂w and ρ̂a .

Figure 8.23

Example 18:
The directive gain of an antenna is 30dB.
If the antenna radiates 6.45kW. Calculate
the time-average power density at that
distance. Gray Matter Alert!!!

Solution: Arrays are generally used to increase

Given- the gain just like cascaded amplifiers
Directive gain GD(θ, φ) = 30dB = 103 and are also used to increase the
Power radiated = 6.45kW = 6.45 × 103 W gain. Arrays are also used to increase
Distance, r = 45km. = 45 × 103 m directivity and reduce beamwidth.
The time-average power density will be-

GD (θ, φ) × Prad
Pavg =
4pr2
Antennas

439.
Chapter 8

4pU(θ, φ)
As we know, GD (θ, φ) = Rack your Brain
Prad
4pr2 Pavg
GD (θ, φ) = The number of sources required in
Prad
a uniform array of 10 elements is
________.
GD (θ, φ) × Prad
∴ Pavg =
4pr2

103 × 6.45 × 103 6.45 × 106

Pavg = =
4p(45 × 103 )2 4px x106

Pavg = 2.534 × 10–4 = 0.253×10–3 W/m2

Pavg = 0.253 mW/m2

Example 19:
Consider two identical antennas in an anechoic chamber that are separated
by 10m and are oriented for maximum directive gain. The frequency is 6GHz
and the power received by one is 40dB down from that transmitted by the
other. Determine the gain of the antenna in dB.

Solution:
Given that-
The power received is 40dB down from transmitted power is expressed as-
Pt
Pr =
10000

2
 λ 
Pr = Pt Gt Gr  
 4pd 

2 Gray Matter Alert!!!

Pt  3 × 108 
= Pt G2  9 
10000  6 × 10 × 4p × 10  When the transmitting antenna is
Since, for identical antenna, G= G= G excited by an alternating voltage, the
t r
initial motion is started by the balanced
2
Pt  1  charges movements in the antenna.
= Pt G2  
10000  800p  Resonant oscillations are produced by
the supplied energy.
640000p2
= G2
10000
Antennas

440.
 Chapter 8
64π2 = G2

G = 8π = 25.13

Gain (in dB) = 10log(25.13)  14dB

Example 20:
Determine the maximum power that can be received over the 2km distance
in the free space with a 2.2GHz circuit consisting of a transmitting antenna
with a gain of 20dB and a receiving antenna with a gain of 30dB. And the
transmitted power is 300W.

Solution:
Given-
Rack your Brain
Transmitting antenna gain, Gt = 20dB
Receiving antenna gain, Gr = 30dB The number of sources required
Transmitted power, Pt = 300W in a binomial array of 11 elements
is___________.
Distance, d = 2km.
The maximum power received will be-

2 2
 λ  2 3
 3 × 108 
Pr = Pt Gt Gr   = 300 × 10 × 10  9 3 

 4pd   2.2 × 10 × p × 2 × 10 

Pr = 3 × 107 × 4.71 × 10–10

Pr = 0.0141W = 14.1 mW

Example 21:
An antenna receives 2.5µW power from a radio station. The effective area
(in m2) if the antenna is located in the far zone of the station where E is
60m V/m will be-
(A) 0.5241 (B) 0.623
(C) 0.231 (D) 0.713

Solution:
Given-
Power received, Pr = 2.5µW
Electric field = 60m V/m
Input power density will be-
Antennas

441.
Chapter 8

E2 (60 × 10−3 )2
P
=in = Rack your Brain
2η 2 × 120p

0.0036 The Rrad of an antenna radiating 10 kW

Pin
= = 4.77 × 10−6 W
240p of power and is fed at 10 amps is
__________.
Effective aperture area is given by-

Pr 2.5 × 10−6
=Ae =
(Pavg )in 4.77 × 10−6

Ae = 0.5241 m2

Example 22:
A transmitting antenna with a 700MHz of carrier frequency produces 78W
of power. The power received by another antenna at a free space of 1.5km
will be-
(A) 0.0403 mW (B) 0.403 mW
(C) 4.032 mW (D) 0.0403 mW
[Let both the antennas has unity gain]

Solution:
Given-
Frequency, f = 700MHz = 700 × 106Hz
Transmitting power = 78W
Distance, d = 1.5km
Gain of transmitting antenna = Gain of receiving antenna i.e., Gt = Gr = 1
∴ The power received is given by-
2
 λ 
Pr = Pt Gt Gr  
 4pd 
Rack your Brain
2
 3 × 108 
P=
r 78 × 1 
 700 × 106 × 4p × 1.5 × 103  What will be the directivity of a
  broadside array of 10λ length?
Pr = 4.032 × 10–8 = 0.0403µW

Example 23:
The two lossless X-band horn antennas are separated by a distance of 180λ.
The amplitude reflection coefficients at the terminals of the transmitting
and receiving antenna are 0.18 and 0.20 respectively. The maximum
Antennas

442.
 Chapter 8
directivities are 20dB and 25dB of transmitting and receiving antenna
respectively (Over an isotropic antenna). Consider that the input power in
the lossless transmission time connected to the antenna is 2.4W and the
antennas are perfectly aligned and matched polarized. Calculate the power
(in mW) delivered to the load at the receiver-
(A) 15 (B) 2.98
(C) 13 (D) 13.7

Solution:
Given that-
The reflection coefficient of transmitter antenna (Γt) = 0.18
The reflection coefficient of receiving antenna (Γr) = 0.20.
Here, given that antennas are lossless RL = 0
Maximum directive gain of transmitter antenna (Gt) = 20dB & Gr = 25dB
Distance, d = 180λ

Pinput = 2.4 W

The power received will be-

2
 λ  2 2
Pr = PtGtGr   [1 – |Γt| ] [1 – |Γr| ] ηr ηt (PLF)
 4pd 
here, PLF is 1 for perfectly matched polarized.
and for lossless transmission ηr, ηr = 1
2
 λ 
  1 − (0.18)  [1 – (0.2)2]
2
Pr = 2.4 × 102 × 102.5 ×
 4 × 180λ 
Pr = 240 × 102.5 × 1.95 × 10–7 × (0.9676) (0.96)

\ Pr = 13.7 mW

Example 24:
The electric field of a uniform plane wave traveling along the negative
z-direction is expressed as-

=Ei E0 e− jkz a (
ˆ x + ja
ˆy )
This wave is incident upon a receiving antenna placed at the origin and
where radiated electric field towards the incident wave is given by-
 1
=Ea El e− jkr a
r
ˆ x + 2a
ˆy ( )
Antennas

443.
Chapter 8

The polarization of the incident wave, the

polarization of the antenna and lossless Rack your Brain
due to the polarization mismatch are,
respectively- Directivity of an end-fire antenna array
(A) Linear, circular (clockwise), –5dB of 10λ length is_________.
(B) Circular (clockwise), linear, –3dB
(C) Linear, circular (clockwise), –5dB
(D) Circular (anti-clockwise), linear, –3dB

Solution:
The electric field of the incident wave is-

=Ei E0 e jβz (a
ˆ x + ja
ˆy )

Q E0x = E0y , δ = φy – φz = 90° – 0° = 90°

ˆk = −a
a ˆz

Since the amplitude is the same (E0x = E0y)

Therefore, it is circular.
And due to wave traveling in the negative
z-direction. By right-hand rule, we can
conclude the rotation is clockwise rotation.
Hence, it is observed that polarization is
circular and is rotating clockwise.
Also, for polarization of antenna, the electric Gray Matter Alert!!!
field is given as-
 1 When the charges around the antenna
=Ea El e− jkr (a ˆ x + 2a
ˆy )
are set in motion, the other charges
r
are separated from the antenna, and
here E0x ≠ E0y (Amplitude) they are also set in motion. The electric
and magnetic fields so produced are
Phase difference δ = φy – φx = 0
perpendicular to each other.
δ = nπ
Antennas

444.
 Chapter 8
∴ It is linearly polarized.
Now, the losses due to polarization mismatch is given by-

ˆa |2
ˆw ⋅ ρ
PLF = | ρ
As we know that-
Vector
Unit vector =
Magnitude

Ei (a ˆ y )E0 e− jβz
ˆ x + ja
ˆ w=  =
ρ
|Ei | E0 e− jkz 12 + 12
Gray Matter Alert!!!
a ˆ x + ja
ˆy 
ˆw =
ρ  
 2  The gain of a single antenna element
1 is not sufficient in most applications.
 El e− jkr (a
ˆ x + 2a
ˆy )
Ea r Hence, the use of antenna arrays
ˆa
=
ρ  = −
| Ea | 1 fulfills the requirements.
El e− jkr 12 + 22
r
(aˆ x + 2a
ˆy )
ˆa =
ρ
5

ˆa |2
ˆw ⋅ ρ
∴ PLF = | ρ
2 2
aˆ + ja
ˆy  aˆ + 2a
ˆy  1 2j 5 1
=PLF  x ⋅ x  = + = =

 2  
  5 
 10 10 10 2

\ PLF (dB) = 10log (1/2) = –3dB

Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example 25:
λ
If an array of 12 isotropic elements is placed along the z-axis at distance .
4
Assuming inform distribution, for an end-fire array. Calculate the following:
(i) Progressive phase shift (radians)
(ii) Half power beamwidth (degree)
(iii) Beamwidth between first null (degree)
(iv) Directivity (dB).
Antennas

445.
Chapter 8

Solution:
(i) The progressive phase shift (λ) is expressed as–

± 2p λ ± p
a = ±βd = × = radians
p 4 2
(ii) The half-power beamwidth is expressed as-

0.88λ
HPBW = 2
Nd

0.88λ × 4
HPBW = 2
12 × λ

HPBW = 1.08 radian or 62.06°

(iii) The beamwidth between first nulls is given by-

2λ
BWFN = 2
Nd

2×λ×4 8 Rack your Brain

BWFN = 2 =2
12 × λ 12

BWFN = 1.632 or 93.56° B.W.F.N. of broadside array of length

10λ is__________.
(iv) Directivity will be–

4Nd 4 × 12 × λ
=D =
λ 4×λ

D = 12
In decibels (dB)-

(D)dB = 10log 12 = 10.79 dB

Example 26:
The broadside array of 18 isotropic antenna elements which are equally
λ
separated by distance and then the beamwidth between the first null
2
will be–
(A) 11.46° (B) 12.60°
(C) 12.13° (D) 13.16°
Antennas

446.
 Chapter 8
Solution:
For broadside-array, the beamwidth between the first null is expressed as-

2p
BWFN =
Nd
λ
Here, N = no. of elements = 18 and d = Rack your Brain
2
2λ × 2 4λ
∴ BWFN = = radian HPBW of the end-fire antenna array of
18 × λ 18λ
length 10% is 0.894
BWFN = 0.22 rad or 12.60°
Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example 27:
A lossless antenna with an 8 dB of directive gain is considered.
If 2mW of power is fed, then the total power radiated will be–
(A) 12.61 mW (B) 13 mW
(C) 12 mW (D) 14.18 mW

Solution:
Given that D = 8 dB &
Power input (Pinput) = 2mW = 2 × 10–3 W
As we know that-
Power Gain (GP) is expressed as-

GP= (1 − Γ ) η × D
2

Given, that the antenna is lossless.

i.e., Rl = 0 and η =1 Gray Matter Alert!!!

Assuming matched condition i.e., reflection

Electromagnetic waves carry infor-
is negligible.
mation signals from the transmitter to
or Γ =0
the receiver. There is no communication
And GP = D
system without only one type of
P antenna or the other.
or D = rad
Pinput
Prad= D × Pinput

Prad = 100.8 × 2 × 10–3 = 12.61 mW

Hence, the correct option is (A).
Antennas

447.
Chapter 8

Example 28:
A transmission line is feeding 1.5W of power to a horn antenna. The antenna
is matched to a transmission line and the gain of the horn antenna is 8 dB.
The total power radiated by the horn antenna into the free space will be–
(A) 10 W (B) 9.46 W
(C) 9 W (D) 8.46 W

Solution:
Given that –
Rack your Brain
Gp = 8 dB
Power input = 1.5W
Given that the antenna is matched. The number of secondary lobes mainly
Thus, there will be no reflections ( Γ =0 ) depends on the number of nulls in the
resultant pattern. (True/False)
and assuming lossless antenna,
Rl = 0
∴ η =1

Thus, the Power gain = Directivity

and Radiated power (Prad) will be-
Rack your Brain
Prad = Pin × GP

Prad = 1.5 × 100.8 = 9.46 W Antenna wires are associated with

electric and magnetic fields?
Hence, the correct option is (B).
Example 29:
Consider a uniform linear array consisting of 4 isotropic radiating elements
λ
separated distance apart.
6
The progressive phase shift between the elements for forming the main
beam at 60° for the end-fire array is–
p −p
(A) rad (B) rad
6 6
−p p
(C) rad (D) rad
4 6

Solution:
Given–
Number of elements, N=4
λ
Distance between elements, d =
6
and θ = 60°
Antennas

448.
 Chapter 8
As the mean beam is forming then there will be maximum radiation.
Thus, ψ =0

∴ a + βdcos θ = 0

a = −βdcos 60°

Rack your Brain

2p λ
a=− × × cos 60°
λ 6
The top-loading is sometimes used
with an antenna to increase its
−p −p
=a cos 60°
= rad bandwidth.
3 6

Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example 30:
λ
The two identical and parallel dipole antennas are spaced by distance in
4
the H-plane.

They are fed with equal currents but the right most antenna has a phase
shift of +90°. The radiation pattern is given as–

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Solution:
As we have studied earlier that if antenna array elements are placed
horizontally at the z-axis and parallel to the y-axis.
Antennas

449.
Chapter 8

The progressive phase shift from the rightmost antenna or topmost antenna
to the next antenna.

∴a −0 = a

Now, according to the given question, the plane is H-plane.

Given that the phase shift of the right most antenna is 90°.

The progressive phase shift = 90°-0°

\ α = 90°

The array factor (AF) will be - Rack your Brain

ψ  a + βdcos φ 
AF
= norm
c=
os cos   In a dipole antenna, the two ends are
2  2 
at equal ____________with respect to
the mid-point.
 p 2p λ 
 2 + λ × 4 cos φ 
AF norm = cos  
 2 
 

p p 
AF norm = cos  + cos φ 
 4 4 
Antennas

450.
 Chapter 8
After pattern multiplication,
The radiation pattern will be –

Hence, the correct option is (B).

PRACTICAL ANTENNAS
y As we know that the half-wave dipole and other has a radiation pattern
distributed in all directions (isotropic) or in the form of a donut.
y But we don’t always require this complete horizontal pattern distributed/
covered in all directions.
y Sometimes we required the radiation pattern in a particular direction
and this focused approach of the radiation pattern is achieved in Yagi-
Uda antenna, Parabolic-reflector antenna, etc.
y The salient features of the Yagi-Uda antenna are–
(i) It is used as a TV reception antenna. It has the capability of
capturing signals in a particular direction only.
(ii) High focus or directivity in a required particular direction.
(iii) Yagi-Uda antenna used in folded dipole antenna characteristics.
(iv) For achieving high directivity, some of the parasitic elements are
required elements.
y Yagi–Uda were the two Japanese scientists named Shintaro Uda and
his colleague Hidetsugu Yagi who invented and designed this antenna
in 1926.
Antennas

451.
Chapter 8

Yagi–Uda antenna is generally coined as the directional antenna which

consists of two or more resonant array elements in an end-fire array.
y Earlier when TV was not broadcasted by satellite, in that era the Yagi-
Uda antenna was designed and widely used.
This antenna has to look in the direction of the TV for getting high signal.
y The elements on Yagi-Uda are active elements which are usually metal
rods behaving like half-wave dipoles.
y The Yagi-Uda antenna consists of a dipole as the main radiating (or
driven element) to which the power is directly applied from the feeder.

Figure 8.24: Basic concept of Yagi-Uda Antenna

y In other words, Yagi-Uda antennas include a single driven element that

is usually connected to a radio transmitter and/or receiver through
the transmission line and “parasitic elements” with no electrical
connections, including reflectors and any number of directors.
y The active element is used connected with the TV.
Since, it has radiation patterns in all directions which is not needed.
Thus, we install reflectors elements in the antenna design.
y Reflector elements were used usually only one and are slightly greater
in size from driven dipole and are generally placed behind the driven
element
y Reflectors are generally placed in the opposite directions of the required
transmission.
Antennas

Figure 8.25

452.
 Chapter 8
y The reflectors are placed near the
active/ driven element (λ/2 length). A
transmission line, open-circuited and Rack your Brain
with 5% longer in length and a closed
λ In coaxial cables or waveguides, the
spacing of .
10 transmission loss per unit length is
λ dependent on the distance. (True/
y The longer length reflector and
10 False)
spacing is required as it helps in the
cancellation of the radiation on the side
facing driven element and provides
unidirectionality.
y If the half-wave dipole act as a resonant
LC circuit, the reflector behaves as an
inductive in nature having 90° lead or
lag phase shift.
y So, the radiation coming into half-wave
dipole will be in oscillatory condition
and the radiation coming to reflector
will be leading or lagging.
y And this leading or lagging in reflector
causes cancellation of both radiation
patterns.
y Thus, we get a smaller radiation pattern
on the left side of the driven element
and a larger radiation pattern on the
other half side of the driven element.

Rack your Brain

In an end-fire array, there exists no

radiation at ______ angle to the axis of
the array.

Figure 8.26

Hence, because of the reflector, the

half-wave dipole radiates only in one
direction.
Antennas

453.
Chapter 8

y The reflector has a 90° phase shift and the arrays always have a nature
of cancellation depending upon the phase angle and spacing.
y Now, to improve efficiency further the directors are added to this
antenna design.
y These directors are generally placed on the right side of the driven
element and are 5% lesser in length.
y And if the reflectors have 90° phase shift in it, then the director will
have –90° phase–shift in it with capacitive nature.

Figure 8.27: Radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda antenna

y The capacitive nature of a director helps in increasing the directivity &

adds to the radiation and hence called a director.
y Using multiple directors helps in increasing radiation in the required
direction. Since, it enhances the directivity.

Figure 8.28: Antenna elements

Antennas

454.
 Chapter 8
Figure 8.29: Yagi-Uda Antenna

y It is noted that resonant circuit has LC circuits producing oscillations,

longer length transmission line.
y It can be noted that resonant circuit has LC-LC oscillations producing
radiation, longer line length has inductive has capacitive dominance.
Thus, array factor or radiation gets added on one side and cancelled on
another side.
These are referred to as parasitic array and depends on induction fields.
y Reflectors and directors are included in the parasitic elements category.
Because they are not connected to the transmission line but are located
close enough that induction fields work on them.
y This influence of induction fields allows to cancel the radiation on one
side of the driven (active) element and adds on to the other side.
Thus, it behaves like a directional antenna.
y Parasitic elements can be related as they persist in parasitic behavior.
These elements are not connected to the feed but vanishing the
radiation of the active element on one side of the antenna.

Radiation Pattern of Yagi–Uda Antenna

Figure 8.30
Antennas

455.
Chapter 8

Figure 8.31

y Multiple directors can be used to achieve the narrow beam in radiation

pattern or to increase gain.
So, according to the application of antenna number of directors are
installed.

Optical Model of Yagi-Uda Antenna

Figure 8.32: Optical Model of Yagi-Uda Antenna

y The optical model helps us to understand the concept of the Yagi-Uda

antenna
Here, the reflector acts as the mirror while the directors act as the lens
Mirror works the same as reflectors by reflecting back the radiation / or
majority canceling the radiation.
The lens acting like directors helps the radiation to be more focused in
a particular direction.
y If we increase the number of parasitic elements (or directors) reduced
radiation is caused because the power is mainly wasted in inducing the
side-by elements rather than radiating into the sky.
Hence, radiation gets lost due to the increasing number of parasitic
elements.
Antennas

456.
 Chapter 8
y If we use 73 Ω and λ/2 dipole the radiation resistance drops to 23 Ω or
radiated power gets reduced.
To overcome this problem, we use folded dipole antenna.

Folded dipole antenna

y A folded antenna consists of two conductors connected on both sides.
y It is folded in such a way to form a cylindrical closed shape.
y The feed is given at the center of the dipole. And the length of the
dipole is half of the wavelength.
y The folded dipole antenna has bi-directional directivity. And the input
impedance is higher. The frequency range is 3 kHz to 300 GHz and is
widely used in television receivers.
y The folded dipole antenna is used to increase the radiation resistance
to a moderate level.

Figure 8.33

y Advantages of Half-wave folded dipole-

(i) Good reception of the balanced signal
(ii) This receives a particular signal from a band of frequencies without
losing the quality.
(iii) It maximizes the signal strength.

Microwave Dipole Antenna

y Microwave antennas are used to broadcast microwave transmission
between two or more locations
y Microwave antennas can transmit few GHz frequencies
y These antennas have a length in centimeters wavelength.
y The range of operation is thousands of kilometers instead of being in
small size.
Antennas

457.
Chapter 8

Antenna Type
Reflector types-Parabolic antenna
y The parabolic antenna uses parabola-shaped reflectors (curved surface
with the cross-sectional of a parabola) to direct the radio waves.
Generally, the diameter of this antenna ranges from 6" to 12' , depending
upon the requirement of the user.

Figure 8.34

y Parabolic dish antenna has a circular mouth and 3D parabolic reflector

which is huge with a large capturing area to get more focus.
y On increasing the capturing area, the range of operation is also increased.

Figure 8.35: Parabolic Dish

Horn antenna
y It consists of a horn-shaped metal waveguide to direct radio waves into
a beam.
y A horn antenna may be regarded as a flared-out (or opened-out)
waveguide.
Antennas

458.
 Chapter 8
y The main function of the horn shape is to provide a uniform phase front
with a larger aperture than that of the waveguide and hence greater
directivity.
y Jagadish Chandra Bose constructed a pyramidal horn in 1897.
y For UHF and microwave frequencies greater than 300 MHz, horn
antennas are generally used.
y The wire-antennas (monopole or dipole) are usually involved in the
category of resonant antennas.
y The main reason behind the popularity of horn antenna is its ease of
fabrication as it can be fabricated using a section of the rectangular
metallic waveguide by simply flaring its outer edges.
y Another reason for wider practical usage of horn antenna is their higher
directivity, low loss, and their effective usage at the transmitter side for
high-power applications.
y The electromagnetic horns are also practically used for various other
applications such as the communication system, the radio astronomy,
microwave imaging and non-destructive testing, etc.
y The electromagnetic horn provides a smooth transition between the
rectangular waveguide supporting the dominant TE10 mode and the free
space impedance by flaring the waveguide.
y The horn utilizing rectangular waveguide geometry are classified into
three categories namely, the E-plane sectoral horn, the H-plane sectoral
horn, and the pyramidal horn antenna (as shown in the figure).

Figure 8.36(a): Rectangular horn antenna (E-plane)

Antennas

459.
Chapter 8

Figure 8.36(b): Rectangular horn antenna (H-plane)

Figure 8.36(c): Pyramidal horn antenna

y It is to be noted that for the rectangular

waveguide operating in the TE10 mode,
the E-plane contains the vertical narrow
wall because the maximum electric field
is oriented along the vertical y-axis.
y Similarly, the H-plane for the feeding
rectangular waveguide in the present Rack your Brain
situation contains the horizontal
broader wall due to the orientation of
The antenna radiates maximum when
the maximum magnetic field in this
it is in perfect resonant condition.
plane.
(True/False)
y If the horn is flared along the E-plane,
keeping the broader dimension of
the feeding rectangular waveguide
unchanged, then it is known as the
E-plane sectoral horn antenna as shown
in figure 8.37 (a).
Antennas

460.
 Chapter 8
y For the H-plane sectoral horn antenna depicted in Figure 8.37
(b), the flaring is done along the H-plane, keeping the dimension
b of the rectangular waveguide constant. In the case of the
pyramidal horn, the flaring is done along both the planes as
illustrated in Figure 8.37 (c), and hence its characteristics
are the combination of E-plane and H-plane sectoral horn
antennas.
y Out of these three horn structures, the pyramidal horn antenna is the
most popular one.

Figure 8.37: Pyramidal horn antenna

y The cross-section of a typical pyramidal

horn antenna, which may be applied to
both the E-plane and the H-plane by
changing the flare angle and the aperture
dimension ‘A’ , is shown in Figure 8.37.
y From this figure, it may be clearly
observed that the phase at the edge of Rack your Brain
the horn aperture will not be the same
that at the center of the horn aperture.
Where an electric field is developed at
This is because the wave travels different
the ends of an antenna?
distances along the side and at the
center axis of the horn, thus creating the
path difference ‘A’ as shown in this figure.
The geometrical cross-section provided
in the Figure 8.37 may be approximated
by two triangles at the upper half and the
lower half, thus providing the following
simplified relationship-
Antennas

461.
Chapter 8

θ L
cos =
2 L+D

θ A
tan =
2 2L
where-
θ = Flare angle ( θe for E-plane and θh
for H-plane) Rack your Brain
A = Aperture dimension (‘b’ for E-plane
and ‘a’ for H-plane). The grounded vertical antenna of
length λ/4 is an antenna that radiates
L = Horn length equally in all directions. (True/False)
y For the practical realization of the horn
antenna, ‘A’ is usually chosen to be
equal to 0.25λ or less in the E-plane.
However, the value of ‘A’ is usually taken
to be larger in the H-plane with its
approximate value given by 0.4 λ.
y It is noted that the gain of the horn
antenna can be enhanced by increasing
the aperture dimension ‘A’ for a
pyramidal horn of length ‘L’.
Antennas

462.
 Chapter 8
CHAPTER SUMMARY

Š Radiation field equations are given by-

I0dl  jβ 1
H=
φs sin θ  + 2  e− jβr
4p r r 
Hrs = 0 = Hqs

ηI0dl 1 j 
Ers
= cos θ  2 − 3  e− jβr
2p r βr 

ηI0dl  jβ 1 j 
Eθs
= sin θ  + 2 − 3  e− jβr
4p r r βr 

Efs = 0

1
1. term is called the far-field or radiation field because it is the only term that
r
remains at the far zone.
1
2. term is called the induction field.
r2
1
3. term is called the electrostatic field.
r3
1
Š At far field r >>
β
jI0βdl
Hφr = sin θe− jβr , Eθr =
ηHφr
4pr
Antennas

463.
Chapter 8

Hrs = Hqs = Ers = Efs = 0

Š Radiation resistance is given by -

2
 dl 
= 80p2  
Rrad
λ
Š The distance at which induction field and radiation field have equal amplitude
is -

λ
r=
2p
Half wave dipole antenna (l = λ / 2)

Š It is a center-fed antenna and horizontally installed so that the electric field

vector is always parallel to the surface of the earth.
Š Non-uniform current distribution along its length and hence effective length
depends upon the type of current distribution.
Š At the far-field,
p 
jI0e− jβr cos  cos θ 
 2  , E = ηH
Hφs = θs φs
2pr sin θ
Š Radiation resistance is approximate-

Rrad = 73 Ω
Antennas

464.
 Chapter 8
Quarter-wave monopole antenna

Š It consists of half of a half-wave dipole antenna located on a conducting ground

plane.
Š It is a vertically polarized antenna so that the electric field vector is always
perpendicular to the surface of the earth.
Š It is end fed antenna.
Š Using image theory, we replace the infinite perfectly conducting plane with the
image of the monopole, hence it produces the same far-field that of half-wave
dipole (Above the ground).
Š Radiation resistance is given by -
Rrad = 36.5 Ω
Š At far-field,
p 
jI0e− jβr cos  cos θ 
=Hφs 2 , 0≤ θ≤ p
2pr sin θ 2

Hrs = Hfs = Ers = Eqs = 0

Antennas

465.
Chapter 8

Antenna Parameters:

S.No. Parameters Definition Formula

1. Antenna It is defined as the ratio Vi

impedance of input voltage to the Z=
a = Ra + jXa
Ii
input current.
Ra = Rr + RL
Rr = Radiation Resistance
RL = Loss radiation

2. Radiation It is defined as fictitious Prad

resistance or hypothetical Rrad =
2
resistance that would Irms
dissipate an amount of
power equal to radiated
power.

3. Radiation It is the strength of the Radiated Power

intensity power of a radiated U ( θ, φ ) =
direction
electromagnetic wave in
any direction from the P
U ( θ, φ ) = rad W / Sr
antenna. dΩ

4. Directive Directive gain is defined U ( θ, φ )

gain as the ratio of radiation Gd ( θ, φ ) =
Uavg ( θ, φ )
intensity in that direction
to the average radiation
intensity. 4pU ( θ, φ )
Gd =
p 2p

∫ ∫ U ( θ, φ) sin θdθdφ
θ= 0 φ= 0

5. Directivity The directivity of the U ( θ, φ )

max
antenna is the ratio = D = Gdmax
of maximum radiation U avg ( θ , φ)
intensity to average
radiation intensity.
Antennas

466.
 Chapter 8
S.No. Parameters Definition Formula

6. Power gain Power gain is the ratio of 4pU ( θ, φ )

radiation power intensity GP ( θ, φ ) =
Pin
to the input power.

7. Front to FBR is defined as the Pr in desired direction

back ratio ratio of radiated power FBR =
Pr in opposite direction
(FBR) in the desired direction
to the radiated power in
the opposite direction.

8. Antenna Antenna beamwidth 4p 4p

beamwidth is the measure of D
= =
ΩA B
the directivity of the
antenna. where-
D = directivity
ΩA = Solid angle
B = Beam area

Š An antenna array is a system of similar antennas oriented serially to get greater

directivity in the desired direction.
Š An antenna array is a group of radiating elements arranged to produce particular
radiation characteristics.
Š In a uniform linear array, the elements are fed with a current of equal magnitude
& having a uniform progressive phase shift along the line.
Š Types of antenna array:
(a) Broadside array (b) End fire array
Š Array factor is the value of normalized electric field intensity.
It is defined as
ET
AF =
ET max
Š The antenna array factor of the two-point sources is given by :
 βdcos θ + a 
AF = cos  
 2 
Antennas

467.
Chapter 8

S.No. Parameters Broadside array End fire array

1. Definition An arrangement in An arrangement in

which the principal which the principal
direction radiation is direction of radiation
perpendicular to the coincides with the
array axis and also to direction of the array
the plane containing axis.
the array element.

2. Maximum radiation Perpendicular to the Along the axis of the

occurs array axis i.e., at 90° array i.e., at 0°

3. Progressive phase α = 0° α = ±bd

shift

Pattern multiplication
Š Pattern multiplication describes the resultant field pattern.
Š The pattern multiplication rule only applies to an array consisting of identical
elements.
Š Resultant pattern = Unit pattern × Array pattern (also called as group pattern)

 βdcos θ + a 
= ( sin θ or cos θ ) × cos  
 2 E −plane

Š Radiation pattern due to array factor is known as a group pattern.

Š Pattern multiplication is useful for designing an array.
Antennas

468.
 Chapter 8
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q1 If the BWFN of a uniform linear array of N equally distanced (d) elements

which are equally excited antenna elements is determined by-
(A) N only but not on d.
(B) d only but not N.
(C) the ratio of N and d.
(D) Product of N and d.

Q2 If the two half-wave dipole antennas are shown in the figure. The antennas
are excited by sinusoidal varying currents of frequency 4 MHz; with a phase
p
shift of between then, the element at the origin and E-field at point P in
2
the x-y plane occurs at the 60°.

(A) 37.5 m
(B) 38.5 m
(C) 36.5 m
(D) 34.5 m
Antennas

469.
Chapter 8

p d
Q3 A
2
dipole is kept horizontally at a height
2
above a perfect conducting

infinite around the plane. The radiation pattern in the plane of the dipole
(E-plane) looks approximately as

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q4 The resultant pattern of an array of two-directional but point sources short

collinear dipoles.

Figure: An array of short collinear dipoles.

(A) (B)
Antennas

470.
 Chapter 8
(C) (D)

Q5 Determine the gain of a two-element broadside array having a spacing of λ/2

distance between them.
1
(A) 2 (B) 0.5 (C) 4 (D)
4

Q6 The power radiated by a quarter wave dipole having a current of Irms will be-
(A) I2 0.609η/π (B) I2 0.609η/2π
(C) I2 0.609π/η (D) I2 0.609π/2η

Q7 Which of the following antennas can be considered to have a uniform cur-

rent flowing along its length?
(A) Antenna with length 3m at 50MHz
(B) Antenna with a radiation resistance of 30Ω
(C) Wire antenna with a radiation resistance of 1Ω
(D) A perfectly resonant wire antenna

Q8 The ratio of the effective length to the physical length will be minimum in
the case of-
(A) Half-wave dipoles.
(B) Hertzian dipoles.
(C) Vertically grounded Marconi antenna.
(D) Antenna with the linear current along its length.
Antennas

471.
Chapter 8

Q9 The ratio of effective length to the wavelength will be smallest for-

(A) Hertzian dipole.
(B) Half-wave dipole.
(C) Vertically grounded quarter-wave monopole antenna.
(D) Antenna with the linear current along its length.

Q10 An antenna has a directive gain of 6dB and it is radiating 200mW into a
receiving system directed towards the principal maximal of this antenna.
What is the power induced in the same receiving system if the antenna is
replaced by an isotropic antenna with the same input power?
(A) 50mW (B) 60mW (C) 45mW (D) 50W

Q11 The electric-field plot (vertical pattern) of a wire antenna is found to be

majority focused on the direction of from 30° to 90° with its axis. Consider
the horizontal pattern is isotropic. Then the antenna’s gain will be ____.
(A) 1.91 (B) 4.1 (C) 2.32 (D) 0.91

Q12 The beam angle of a microwave satellite high gain parabolic antenna de-
pends on which of the following options?
(A) Ratio of frequency to diameter mouth.
(B) Product of frequency and diameter of the mouth.
(C) Inverse to the product of frequency and diameter of the mouth.
(D) Diameter to the frequency.

Q13 The directive gain function of wire antenna depends on θ (angle with dipole
axis) when it is vertically placed on conducting earth and given as 5sin2θ
p
with 0 < θ < . Determine the received electric field strength at a 5km
2
distance in the direction of half-power point if transmitted power is 1kw.
(A) 30 (B) 3 (C) 0.030 (D) 1.5
Antennas

472.
 Chapter 8
Q14 Determine the beam solid angle of spacing distance and currents has a
phase shift of 90°.
3 p
(A) π rad (B) π rad (C) 2π rad (D) rad
2 2

Q15 If the two dipoles of gain 1.64 each are used for transmitting and receiving
antenna purposes. The distance between these two dipoles is 12 m and the
radiated power by the transmitting antenna is 20 W at the frequency of 50
MHz.
Evaluate the receiving power.
(A) 40.12 mW (B) 63.87 mW (C) 30.13 mW (D) 85.16 mW

Q16 Calculate the Null-to-Null beamwidth of an end-fire array when array length
is 8λ and N = 20.
(A) 0.232 radian (B) 0.081 radian
(C) 0.223 radian (D) 0.314 radian

Q17 An array of isotropic radiators is operated at a frequency of 5 GHz and is re-

quired to produce a broadside beam.
The beam width between first nulls for the array length of 12 m is given as-
(A) 1 radian, 4 (B) 0.01 radian, 400
(C) 400 radian, 0.01 (D) 4 radian, 0.04

Q18 If a uniform linear array is required to produce an end-fire beam when it is

operated at a frequency of 8 GHz. It contains 40 radiators and are placed at
0.75λ distance apart. The progressive phase shift required to produce the
end-fire beam and the array length will be -
(A) 1.5 π rad, 1.125 m (B) 0.5 π rad, 1.6 m
(C) 0.5 π rad, 1.125 m (D) 1.5 π rad, 2.175 m
Antennas

473.
Chapter 8

Q19 An antenna whose radiation resistance is 40 Ω operates at a frequency of 2

GHz with 3.5 A of current flowing in it. The power radiated is _______ W.
(A) 4900 (B) 4000 (C) 4131 (D) 5000

Q20 A circular loop antenna has a 1.25 of diameter. The directivity and radiation
resistance are -
(A) 2.656, 2325 Ω (B) 3.131, 2000 Ω
(C) 2.31, 2131 Ω (D) 2.05, 3121 Ω

Answer Key:
1. (D) 2. (A) 3. (B) 4. (A) 5. (A)
6. (B) 7. (C) 8. (D) 9. (A) 10. (A)
11. (C) 12. (C) 13. (C) 14. (C) 15. (D)
16. (C) 17. (B) 18. (A) 19. (A) 20. (A)
Antennas

474.