Ministry of Education

and Sports

HOME-STUDY
LEARNING
N I
E

5
O
R
S

PHYSICS
Au g ust 2 0 2 0
Published 2020

ISBN: 978-9970-00-192-7

This material has been developed as a home-study intervention for schools during
the lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic to support continuity of learning.

Therefore, this material is restricted from being reproduced for any commercial gains.

National Curriculum Development Centre

P.O. Box 7002,
Kampala- Uganda
www.ncdc.go.ug
 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

FOREWORD

Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, government of Uganda

closed all schools and other educational institutions to minimize the
spread of the coronavirus. This has affected more than 36,314 primary
schools, 3129 secondary schools, 430,778 teachers and 12,777,390
learners.

The COVID-19 outbreak and subsequent closure of all has had drastically
impacted on learning especially curriculum coverage, loss of interest in
education and learner readiness in case schools open. This could result in
massive rates of learner dropouts due to unwanted pregnancies and lack
of school fees among others.

To mitigate the impact of the pandemic on the education system in

Uganda, the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) constituted a
Sector Response Taskforce (SRT) to strengthen the sector’s preparedness
and response measures. The SRT and National Curriculum Development
Centre developed print home-study materials, radio and television scripts
for some selected subjects for all learners from Pre-Primary to Advanced
Level. The materials will enhance continued learning and learning for
progression during this period of the lockdown, and will still be relevant
when schools resume.

The materials focused on critical competences in all subjects in the

curricula to enable the learners to achieve without the teachers’
guidance. Therefore effort should be made for all learners to access and
use these materials during the lockdown. Similarly, teachers are advised
to get these materials in order to plan appropriately for further learning
when schools resume, while parents/guardians need to ensure that their
children access copies of these materials and use them appropriately.
I recognise the effort of National Curriculum Development Centre in
responding to this emergency through appropriate guidance and the
timely development of these home study materials. I recommend them for
use by all learners during the lockdown.

Alex Kakooza
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education and Sports

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) would like to express its

appreciation to all those who worked tirelessly towards the production of
home–study materials for Pre-Primary, Primary and Secondary Levels of
Education during the COVID-19 lockdown in Uganda.

The Centre appreciates the contribution from all those who guided
the development of these materials to make sure they are of quality;
Development partners - SESIL, Save the Children and UNICEF; all the
Panel members of the various subjects; sister institutions - UNEB and DES
for their valuable contributions.

NCDC takes the responsibility for any shortcomings that might be

identified in this publication and welcomes suggestions for improvement.
The comments and suggestions may be communicated to NCDC through
P.O. Box 7002 Kampala or email [email protected] or by visiting our
website at http://ncdc.go.ug/node/13.

Grace K. Baguma
Director,
National Curriculum Development Centre

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

ABOUT THIS BOOKLET

Dear learner, you are welcome to this home-study package. This content
focuses on critical competences in the syllabus.

The content is organised into lesson units. Each unit has lesson activities,
summary notes and assessment activities. Some lessons have projects
that you need to carry out at home during this period. You are free to use
other reference materials to get more information for specific topics.

Seek guidance from people at home who are knowledgeable to clarify in

case of a challenge. The knowledge you can acquire from this content can
be supplemented with other learning options that may be offered on radio,
television, newspaper learning programmes. More learning materials can
also be accessed by visiting our website at www.ncdc.go.ug or
ncdc-go-ug.digital/. You can access the website using an internet enabled
computer or mobile phone.

We encourage you to present your work to your class teacher when

schools resume so that your teacher is able to know what you learned
during the time you have been away from school. This will form part of
your assessment. Your teacher will also assess the assignments you will
have done and do corrections where you might not have done it right.

The content has been developed with full awareness of the home learning
environment without direct supervision of the teacher. The methods,
examples and activities used in the materials have been carefully selected
to facilitate continuity of learning.

You are therefore in charge of your own learning. You need to give
yourself favourable time for learning. This material can as well be used
beyond the home-study situation. Keep it for reference anytime.

Develop your learning timetable to ca ter for continuity of learning and

other responsibilities given to you at home.

Enjoy learning

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

HEAT

TOPIC: THERMOMETRY
OBJECTIVE: By the end of this topic, you should be able to describe different types of
thermometers used in the measurement of temperature.

LESSON 1
SUBTOPIC: TEMPERATURE AND THE SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
OBJECTIVES: By the end of this unit, you should describe how temperature scales are established
and solve related numerical problems

INTRODUCTION
Our interest in heat is because it is the most common form of energy and because changes of
temperature have great effects on our comfort and on the properties of substances that we use every
day.

• Heat is energy transferred due to temperature difference

• Temperature is the degree of hotness of a body or a place

We measure temperature using thermometers on which there are suitable scales.

Thermometers use physical properties of substances called thermometric properties to measure
temperature.
ASSIGNMENT: List some properties of physical quantities you think change with temperature and
are constant at constant temperature.
NOTE: A good thermometric property should vary linearly and continuously with temperature
and each value of thermometric property should correspond to a unique value of
temperature.

SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
A scale of temperature is one that is used to measure the degree of hotness of a body by taking a
thermometric property of a substance.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

THE CENTIGRADE SCALE

This is a type of temperature scale which has the lower fixed point at ice point (00C) and upper fixed
point at steam point (1000C).
ESTABLISHMENT OF CENTIGRADE or CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE
 A thermometric property, x of a substance is selected.
 The property is measured at steam point and ice point and its values x100and x0 respectively are
noted.
 The property is measured at an unknown temperature, Ө and its value be xө, is noted.

Property, X x0 xӨ x100

Temperature Ice point (00C) Unknown (Ө) Steam point (1000C)

The property varies linearly and continuously with temperature. The gradient of the line is the same
for any two points on the line and the unknown temperature on this scale is given by the equation
below.

 x − x0 
θ =  θ  × 100 0 C
 x100 − x0 

LESSON 2
SUBTOPIC: THERMOMETERS
OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, you should

• describe how different types of thermometers are used to measure temperature

• Solve related numerical problems

Temperature is measured using both analog and digital thermometers. Some of the
thermometers are shown in the figure below.

Examples are discussed there under.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

(a) Liquid-in-glass thermometer. The thermometric property, x, in this case is the length, l of
the liquid column.
 l −l 
θ =  θ 0  × 100 0 C
 l100 − l 0 
This is the most common type of thermometer used.
(b) Thermocouple Thermometer. The thermometric property is the e.m.f, E of the
thermocouple.
 E − E0 
θ =  θ  × 100 0 C
 E100 − E 0 
(c) Platinum resistance Thermometer. The thermometric property is the resistance R of
platinum.
 R − R0 
θ =  θ  × 100 0 C
 R100 − R0 
(d) Constant volume gas Thermometer. The thermometric property is the pressure of a fixed
mass of a gas
 P −P 
θ =  θ 0  × 100 0 C
 P100 − P0 

THE THERMODYNAMIC OR KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE

This is a standard temperature scale which uses a fixed point called the triple point of water.
Note: Triple point is the temperature at which pure water, pure ice and pure vapor co-
exist in equilibrium. Triple point of water = 273.16 K.
Note: θ = T - 273.16
θ is the Celsius temperature, T is the Kelvin or absolute temperature?

ESTABLISHING A THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

 The thermometric property, x of a substance is selected.
 The property is measured at the triple point of water and its value xtr is noted.
 The property is measured at unknown temperature, θ and its value be xθ is noted
 The unknown temperature is given as,
x 
θ =  θ  × 273.16 K
 xtr 

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

NOTE: Two different thermometers usually give different values of temperature except at the
fixed points where they must agree and this is due to the difference in variation of the
thermometric properties with temperature.
EXAMPLES

1. If the resistance of the platinum wire on a resistance thermometer is measured at ice point,
steam point and unknown temperature θ as 2.00Ω , 2.760Ω and 2.480Ω respectively.
Determine the unknown temperature θ .
Solution:

Rθ = 2.00Ω , R100 = 2.760 , Rθ = 2.480Ω

 R − R0 
Using; θ =  θ  × 100 0 C
 R100 − R0 

 2.48 − 2.00  0
θ =  × 100 C
 2.76 − 2.00 

θ = 63.2 0 C

2. The resistance Rθ of platinum varies with temperature θ 0 C as measured by a constant volume

gas thermometer according to the equation Rθ = R0 (1 + 800αθ − αθ 2 ) where R0 the resistance
at 0 C and α is a constant. Calculate the temperature on the platinum scale corresponding to
0

400 0 C on this gas scale.

Solution

Rθ = R0 (1 + 800αθ − αθ 2 )

For θ = 100 0 C

R100 = R0 (1 + 800(100)α − (100) 2 α )

R100 = R0 (1 + 80000α − 10000α )

R100 = R0 (1 + 70000α ) …………………………………. (1)

For θ = 400 0 C

R400 = R0 (1 + 800(400)α − (400) 2 α )

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

R400 = R0 (1 + 320000α − 160000α ) ……………………… (2)

On the resistance thermometer,

 R − R0 
θ =  400  × 100 0 C
 R100 − R0 

 R (1 + 160000α ) − R0 
θ =  0  × 100 0 C
 R0 (1 + 70000α ) − R0 

R0  1 + 160000α − 1  0
θ=   × 100 C
R0  1 + 70000α − 1 

 160000α  0
θ =  × 100 C
 70000α 
1600 0
θ= C ; θ = 228.57 0 C
7

ASSIGNMENT
One junction of a thermocouple is placed in melting ice while the other is inserted into a bath
whose temperature as measured by a high temperature mercury in glass thermometer is T.
The following readings were obtained

T(°C) emf, E(mv)

0 0

100 0.64

200 1.44

300 2.32

400 3.25

500 4.32

By graphical method, find

(i) The temperature on the thermocouple scale corresponding to 380° on the Hg­ in glass scale
(ii) The temperature on the mercury ­in glass thermometer corresponding to

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

250°C on the temperature scale

LESSON 3
TOPIC: CALORIMETRY
SUBTOPIC: HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
OBJECTIVE:
• Explain heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
• Measure specific heat capacity using different methods.

INTRODUCTION

Materials differ from one another in the quantity of heat needed to produce a certain rise of
temperature in a given mass.

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• Heat capacity or thermal capacity is the amount or quantity of heat required to

raise the temperature of a substance by one kelvin.
Heat Capacity = mc
m = mass of the substance, c = specific heat capacity of the substance.
• Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram (1kg) mass of a substance by one kelvin.

Note: The amount of heat, H required change the temperature of a body is obtained from:
H = mcθ …………….(i)
Where,
m - mass of the body
c - specific heat capacity
θ - change in temperature
From …..(i)
H
c=
mθ
This means that the specific heat capacity depends on:
• The nature of the substance,
• The mass of the substance and,
• The change in temperature of the substance
Thus, if the temperature of a body of mass 0.5 kg and specific heat capacity 400 J kg-1K-1 rises from
150C to 200C (288 K to 293 K) the heat taken in is:
H = 0.5 kg x 400 J kg-1K-1 x 5 K
H = (0.5 x 400 x 5) kg J kg-1K-1K
H = 1000 J

MEASURING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A SUBSTANCE

a) ELECTRICAL MATHOD
(i) SOLIDS: This method is suitable for metals when used as solids.
 Two holes are drilled into the metal whose specific heat capacity, c is required.
 The mass, m of the metal is measured and initial temperature, θ1 determined.
 The metal is carefully lagged to minimize heat losses.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

 A thermometer is inserted in one of the holes and a heater connected to source of electrical
energy is inserted in the other hole as shown in the figure below.

D.C supply

Voltmeter
A
V

Ammeter Thermometer

Lagging

Heater Solid block

 The heater is switched on for a time t during which temperature of the metal rises to θ2.
 The potential difference, V and current, I during the time, t are determined from the voltmeter
and ammeter respectively.
 Assuming negligible heat losses,
 Electrical energy supplied through the heater = heat energy gained by the metal.

IVt = mc(θ2 - θ1)

IVt
c=
m(θ2 − θ1)

(ii) LIQUIDS
D.C supply Voltmeter

Rheostat
Ammeter A
V
Thermometer

Calorimeter θ 2

Stirrer

Jacket θ1
Heater Stand
Liquid of unknown
specific heat capacity

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

 In the arrangement shown in the figure above, a d.c supply is switched on for a time t, until the
temperature of the liquid and calorimeter changes from θ1 and θ 2 .

 The rheostat is adjusted to get suitable values of I and V and the mixture is stirred to get uniform
values of the temperature.
 Assuming that there is no heat gained by the stirrer and thermometer and no heat lost to the
surroundings then, heat energy supplied by the heater is equal to heat energy gained by the
calorimeter and the liquid.
IVt = mccc(θ2 – θ1) + mlcl(θ2 – θ1)

The mass mc of the calorimeter and its specific heat capacity, cc are known. The mass ml of the
liquid is determined, temperatures θ1 and θ2 are measured, then cl can be determined.

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A LIQUID BY CONTINUOUS FLOW METHOD (CALLENDAR AND
BARNES METHOD)

 A spiral resistance wire carrying a steady current, I heats the liquid until a steady state is
attained.
 At a steady state the inlet temperature, θ1 and outlet temperature, θ2 are recorded by
thermometers, T1 andT2 respectively and the mass rate of flow, m is also measured.
 The current I and the voltage V are measured by ammeter, A and voltmeter, V.
 At steady state, all the heat is used to heat the liquid and upset heat losses.
IV = mc(θ2 - θ1) .........(i)
 The mass collected per second is changed to m1 the current and voltage are adjusted to I1 and
V1 to bring back θ1 and θ2 to the original values such that,
I1V1 = m1c(θ2 - θ1) ......... (ii)

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼−𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼1𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼1
Combining (i) and (ii) gives 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
(θ2 − θ1)(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀−𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀1)

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

ADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS FLOW METHOD

• Temperatures θ1 and θ 2 to be measured are steady and therefore can be determined accurately

by using platinum resistance thermometers.

• The specific heat capacity of the apparatus is not required since at a steady state the apparatus
absorbs no more heat.
• Heat losses by conduction and radiation are accounted for by repeating the experiment and heat
losses by convection is prevented by vacuum.
However it cannot be used to determine specific heat capacity of solid and volatile liquids.

LESSON 4
TOPIC: COOLING LAWS AND TEMPERATURE FALL
OBJECTIVE: By the end of this unit, you should state the cooling laws and describe how to verify
Newton’s laws of cooling.

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

It states that under conditions of forced convection e.g. in a steady draught the rate of heat
loss of a body is proportional to the excess temperature over the surrounding.

∂Q θ R - Room temperature
i.e. α (θ − θ R ) , Where,
∂t θ - temperature of the body

Note: When a body losses heat, its temperature falls and this means that also rate of fall is directly
∂Q
proportional to (θ − θ R ) , i.e α (θ − θ R )
∂t

VERIFICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

Thermometer

Body in boiling water

insulating stand

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

• A body is heated in boiling water up to a temperature θ .

• It is then transferred to the environment whose room temperature is θ R .
• Different values of temperature θ at corresponding time intervals t are tabulated
• The cooling curve (temperature against time) plotted as shown below.

Temp/ 0 C

θ1 G1
θ2 G2

θ3 G3
Room temperature
θR

0 Time/min

dθ
G= .
dt

• Different rates of the temperature fall, G 1 , G 2 and G 3 at different temperatures θ1 , θ 2 and

θ 3 respectively are determined and tabulated.
• A graph of rate of temperature fall against excess temperature is plotted a
• A straight line is obtained implying that the rate of fall of temperature is proportional to
excess temperature over the surrounding and this verifies Newton’s law of cooling.
Rate of temperature fall Excess temperature
G1 θ1 − θ R
G2 θ2 −θR
G3 θ3 − θ R

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Rate of temp
fall (Ks -1 )

Excess temp/ 0 C

HEAT LOSS AND TEMPERATURE FALL

Apart from excess temperature (θ − θ R ) , the rate of heat loss depends on the surface area S of the

body and the nature of the surface of the body. For example; a dull surface loses heat faster than a
shiny one. Hence, for a body having uniform surface area S and uniform temperature distribution,
Newton’s law becomes
dQ dQ
α (θ − θ R ) But; αS
dt dt
dQ
α S (θ − θ R )
dt
dQ
= −k S (θ − θ R )
dt
Where k is a constant of proportionality and depends on the nature of the body’s surface. But
Q = mcθ , Where m – mass and c – Specific heat capacity.

d
(mcθ ) = −kS(θ - θ R )
dt
dθ
mc = −kS(θ - θ R ) Where the negative sign implies temperature fall
dt
dθ kS dθ k S
= (θ - θ R ) , But m = ρ × V , Where ρ − density , V - volume = (θ − θ R ) ,
dt mc dt ρc V
dθ λS k
= , λ = (θ − θ R )
dt V ρc
dθ S
α
dt V

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

dθ 1
α
dt any linear dimension

This means that a smaller body cools faster than a large one i.e. a temperature of a small body falls
faster.

Note In laboratory experiment the use of large apparatus minimizes errors due to heat losses in a
given time.

LESSON 5
TOPIC: LATENT HEAT
OBJECTIVE: By the end of this unit, you should describe simple experiments to determine latent
heat of fusion and vaporization.

Consider the illustrations below:

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

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SELF-STUDY LEARNING

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Latent heat is the hidden heat which when supplied to the body causes its change of state or phase
at constant temperature i.e.

heat heat

Solid Liquid Vapour

absorbed given out
(latent heat of fusion) (latent heat of vaporization)

When melting a solid latent heat of fusion is absorbed to break the intermolecular forces between
the solid molecules and to raise their potential energy since it allows molecules to move apart.
When evaporating a liquid latent heat of vaporization is absorbed to break the intermolecular
forces between liquid molecules and to raise their potential energy by high amounts since the
molecules become widely spaced when they are in vapour state.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (LF)

It is the amount of heat required to change one kilogram of a solid into a liquid at the
same temperature. SI unit is Jkg-1.
surroundings.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (L V)

This is the amount of heat required to change one kilogram of a substance from liquid
state to vapour state at the same temperature. SI unit is also Jkg-1.

ASSIGNMENT: Which of the specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of
vaporization is greater? Explain why?

DETERMINATIONOF LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF A LIQUID BY ELECTRICAL METHOD

(CONTINUOUS FLOW METHOD, DEWAR FLASK METHOD)

• A liquid is heated in a Dewar flask up to its boiling point.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

• After the liquid has been boiling for some time it becomes surrounded by a jacket of vapour and
eventually a new state is attained meaning that the heat supplied by the heater is used in
evaporating the liquid and offsetting the heat losses and in this case the rate of evaporation is
equal to the rate of condensation.
• At a steady state values of current I, and voltage V and mass collected per second, m, are
measured.

I
A

Dewar flask

H H Vapour acting
Boiling liquid whose L v
as a jacket
is to be determined
Condenser
Water out

Water in

Mass of the liquid

H - Holes through which the
collected per second
vapour passes to the condenser

IV = mL v + h .......................................(1)

h - heat lost per second

With a different rate of evaporation,

I ' V ' = m ' L v + h .......................................(2)

These are measured in the same time as in part one, then

IV - I' V' = (m - m ' )L v
IV - I' V'
Lv = ................................................ ⊗
m - m'
mass
Note : Mass rate of flow =
time

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

EXAMPLE: When electrical energy is supplied at a rate of 12.0 watts to a boiling liquid, 1 x 10-2
kg of the liquid evaporates in 30 min. On reducing the power to 7.0 watts, 5 × 10 -3 kg of liquid
evaporates in same time. Calculate:
(a) The latent heat of vaporization.
(b) The power loss to the surroundings.
Power IV = 12, Mass = 1.0 × 10 -2 kg
1 × 10 -2
m=
1800

m = 5.56 × 10 -6 kgs -1
Using IV = mL v + h
12 = (5.6 × 10 -6 )L v + h
Case II
I ' V ' = 7.0w, mass = 5.6 × 10 -2 kg time = 1800 s
'5 × 10 −3
m =
1800

m ' = 2.78 × 10 −6 kgs -1

Using V ' I ' = m ' L v + h ..................................................................(2)

7 = (2.7 × 10 6 )L v + h

(i) - (ii)

5 = (5.56 - 2.78) × 10 -6 L v
5
LV =
2.78 × 10 − 6

L v = 1.799 × 10 6 J/kg

(iii) using (1)

12 = 5.56 × 10 -6 × 7.99 × 10 6 + h

h = 2 Js -1

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ASSIGNMENT: In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of vaporization by

electrical method the following results were obtained.

Ammeter reading (A) Voltmeter reading (V) Mass of a liquid in vapour at 100 0C/g

1.00 5.0 0.8

2.00 5.4 3.6

3.00 7.0 6.0

2.63 8.0 8.4

Plot a suitable graph and use it to determine;

(a) The specific latent heat of vaporization.

(b) The rate of loss of heat
DETERMINATION OF LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF A LIQUID BY THE METHOD OF
MIXTURES
Stream trap

thermometer
Stirrer

Vapour Calorimeter

θ2
Lagging

θ1
Boiling liquid
of unknown L v Heat shield
Heat

• A calorimeter of known mass mc is half-filled with water.

• The mass mw of water is determined.
• The temperature θ i of water is measured, after thorough stirring.
• The calorimeter is placed in a constant temperature jacket as shown above. The
temperature θ s of the steam is recorded.
• Steam is blown onto the surface of the water in the calorimeter until a temperature rise of
0
about 30 C is obtained.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

• The temperature θ f of the water is measured after thorough stirring. The calorimeter and the
contents are weighed again to determine the mass of steam condensed.

Heat lost by steam in condensing and cooling to a temperature θ f is

= m s L v + m s c w (θ b − θ f ) , where θ b the boiling point of water is.

Heat gained by the calorimeter and water is = (m c c c + m w c w )(θ f − θ i )

Where c c , c w are the specific heat capacities of the calorimeter and water respectively?

Assuming no heat losses to the surroundings,

(m c c c + m w c w )(θ f − θ i ) = m s L v + m s c w (θ b − θ f )

(m c c c + m w c w )(θ f − θ i ) − m s c w (θ b − θ f )
⇒ Lv =
ms

DETERMINATION OF LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE BY ELECTRICAL METHOD

I
A

Heater

Lumps of dry
ice in a funnel

Water from
melted ice whose
mass rate is determined

• A rheostat R is adjusted until suitable values of I and V are obtained

• Water from melted ice is collected and its mass rate m is determined.
• This means that heat supplied by the heater per second (power) plus heat absorbed by ice from
the surrounding per second is equal to latent heat absorbed in melting ice.

IV + h = mL f ......................................(1)

where h - heat absorbed by ice from the surroundings per second.

• The experiment is repeated with values I ' and V ' and mass rate m ' determined in the same time.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

I ' V ' + h = m ' L F ...............................................................(2)

(1) - (2)

IV - I ' V ' = (m - m ' )L f

IV - I ' V '
Lf =
(m - m ' )

Hence, L f is determined from the above equation.

LESSON 6
TOPIC: GAS LAWS
OBJECTIVE: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe and verify gas laws and solve
related numerical problems.

INTRODUCTION
Like other forms of matter, gases change in volume when heated. The change in volume occurs
either at constant temperature or at constant pressure.

BOYLE’S LAW

This states that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is inversely
proportional to its volume.

1
Pα
V
k
P=
V

Where k – constant of proportionality

PV = k - constant

CHARLES’ LAW

It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Vα T
V = kT
V
=k
T

THE PRESSURE LAW

It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume is directly
proportional to absolute temperature.

P α T, P = kT = Constant

SUMMARY
PV = Constant - Boyle's Law
V
= Constant - Charles' Law
T
P
= Constant - Pressure Law
T
Combining all the three laws, we obtain;
PV
= Constant = nR ..................................... ⊗
T
-1
Where n is the number of moles of the gas and R is the molar gas constant ( R = 8.314 Jmol )
Equation ⊗ is called the ideal gas equation or the equation of state.

EQUATION OF STATE

(i) (ii)
Suppose a gas is initially at P1 , V1 and T1 and then finally P2 , V2 and T2 .
P1 , V1 , T1 P1 , V′, T2 P2 , V2 , T2
In stage (i)
The pressure P1 is kept constant and the final volume V ′ can be got by Charles’ law,
V
= Constant
T
V1 V ′
=
T1 T2

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

V1T2
V′ = ..........................................E
T1
In stage (ii)
T2 is kept constant and the pressure changed. This means that the final volume can be got by Boyle’s
law,
PV = Constant
P1 V ′ = P2 V2
P2 V2
V′ = .................................................S
P1
Equation E = S
V1T2 P2 V2
=
T1 P1
V1 P1 T 2 P2 V2
= × P1
T1 P1

V1P1 T 2
= P2 V2
T1

V1 P1 P2 V2
=
T1 T1
PV
= Constant = nR
T
PV = nRT ................................................ ⊕
Where n – moles of a gas
R – Molar gas constant (R = 8.314 Jmol -1K -1 )
Equation ⊕ is called the equation of state or ideal gas equation.
The molar gas constant R depends on:
(a) The nature of the gas

(b) The number of moles or mass of the gas.

For 1 mole of the gas, n = 1
Equation ⊕ becomes;
PV = RT
Note
m
n=
MR

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Where m is the given mass and M R is the relative molecular mass.

Note
An ideal gas is that gas with no intermolecular forces.
Example: Helium gas occupies a volume of 0.04 m3 at a pressure of 2 × 10 5 Nm -2 and temperature of
300 K. Determination the mass of helium. (R = 8.314 Jmol -1K -1 )
Solution
Using, PV = nRT
(2 × 10 5 )(0.04) = n × 8.314 × 300
(2 × 10 5 )(0.04)
n=
(8 × 3.14)(300)

n = 3.21 moles

m
But n =
MR

m
3.21 =
4

m = 12.84 g
or
m = 12.84 × 10 -3 kg

LESSON 7

TOPIC: KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

OBJECTIVE: By the end of this lesson, you should derive expression for pressure exerted by a gas
in a container.

NTRODUCTION
Gases are composed of molecules. If we could see the molecules in a gas, we would see that they
are separated from one another by distances which are large compared with their actual sizes. Their
speeds differ and they move about in random directions. They continually collide with one another
and with the container walls.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

We make assumptions in the simple kinetic theory when deriving pressure of a gas.

• The intermolecular forces between the molecules are negligible except during a collision.
• The volume of molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas.
• The molecules are perfectly elastic spheres so that after collision with the walls of the container,
there is no energy lost that is; kinetic energy is conserved.
• The duration of a collision is negligible compared to the time between collisions.

DERIVATION OF THE PRESSURE EXERTED BY A GAS

We consider a cube of side, l, containing n molecules of a gas each of mass m. Suppose, c is the
velocity of a molecule at any instant such the u, v and w are components of c in ox, oy and oz
respectively as shown below;
2 2 2 2
i.e. c = u + v + w

wall x
mu

wall x
w c l
- mu
o u
x
v l
l
y

Considering a molecule colliding with wall x, with a velocity u.

Change in momentum = mu – (-mu) = 2 mu.

2l
Time taken for the molecule to move to the opposite face and back to x = .
u
2l mu 2
Rate of change of momentum = 2 mu ÷ =
u l
mu 2
∴ Force exerted = ,
l
From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, rate of change of momentum = Force applied.
Force
From Pressure = ,
Area
mu 2 2
⇒ Pressure P = ÷l
l

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

mu 2
Pressure P = 3
l
For N molecules moving with different speeds; u 1 , u 2 , ..., u N the total pressure is;
2 2 2
mu mu mu
P = 31 + 3 2 + ... + 3N
l l l
m 2 2 2
P= 3
(u 1 + u 2 + ... + u N ) .................................... ⊗
l
2
Suppose u is the mean value of all the squares of velocities along the ox direction, then;
2 2 2
u 1 + u 2 + ... + u N
u2 =
N
2 2 2
⇒ u 1 + u 2 + ... + u N = u 2 N
Substituting in equation ⊗
m
P = 3 Nu 2
l
mNu 2
P = 3 .................................................1
l
For molecules in random motion and with no preferred direction, then;
u 2 = v2 = w 2
but c 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w 2
⇒ c2 = u 2 + v2 + w 2
2 2 2
But for u = v = w
⇒ u 2 = v2 = w 2
⇒ c2 = u2 + u2 + u2
⇒ c 2 = 3u 2
⇒ u 2 = 13 c 2
Substituting this in equation 1 above, we obtain;
Nm
P = 13 3 c 2 ; Where N is the number of molecules and m is the mass of a molecule.
l
l 3 − is the volume v of the cube or gas.
Nm 2
⇒ P = 13 c ; Where Nm is Total mass.
v
Nm
− density = ρ
v
⇒ P = 13 ρ c 2 ......................... ⊗

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

LESSON 8
OBJECTIVE: By the end of this lesson, you should derive the relationship between kinetic energy
(mean kinetic energy) of molecules of an ideal gas and temperature using kinetic theory.

From the kinetic theory;

P = 13 ρ c 2
Nm
ρ=
v
1  Nm  2
P=  c
3 v 
1
Pv = Nmc 2
3
2 1
Pv = ( Nmc 2 ) .....................................2
3 2
From the equation of state;
Pv = nRT ............................3
Where n is the number of molecules of a gas.
From 2 and 3;
2 1
Pv = ( Nmc 2 ) = nRT
3 2
1 3
Nmc 2 = nRT ...................................... ⊕
2 2
1 2 3
Where Nmc = nRT is the mean translational kinetic energy of molecules for n moles of a gas.
2 2
Using equation ⊕ we can get the mean kinetic energy of a molecule by dividing through by N.
1 2 3
From Nmc = nRT , dividing through by N gives;
2 2
1 2 3n
mc = RT ......................................w
2 2N
1
Where mc 2 is the mean kinetic energy of a molecule.
2
N
− is the number of molecules per mole
n
N
= N A is called the Avogadro's number and it is a constant.
n
n 1
⇒ =
N NA

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Equation w becomes;
1 2 3 1 1 3 R
mc = RT ∴ Mean kinetic energy of a molecule is mc 2 = T ................................z
2 2 NA 2 2 NA
R
But is a constant = K B
NA
K B is called Boltzmann's constant
Equation z becomes;
1 2 3
mc = K B T ...................................................s
2 2
R 8.31
Where K B = =
N A 6.02 × 10 23
K B = 1.38 × 10 −13 JK -1
3
⇒ K B is a constant
2
1 
⇒ Mean translational kinetic energy =  mc 2  α absolute temperature
2 

LESSON 9

SUBTOPIC: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE.

OBJECTIVE: By end of this lesson you should derive the expression for relating pressure of a
mixture of gases and state Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

INTRODUCTION
The figure below shows an apparatus with which we can study the pressure of a mixture of gases. A
is a bulb of volume V, containing air at atmospheric pressure, P1. C is another bulb of volume V2,
containing carbon dioxide at a pressure P2. The pressure P2 is measured on the manometer M.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of
the partial pressures of the individual gases.

Partial pressure of a gas is the pressure the gas would have if it occupied the whole volume of the
mixture alone.

EXAMPLE
Two bulbs A of volume 100 cm3 and B of volume 50 cm3 are connected to a tap, T which enables them
to be connected with each other after being filled with gas or evacuated.

A B
T

Initially bulb A is filled with an ideal gas at 100 C to a pressure of 3.0 x 105 Pa and bulb B is filled with
an ideal gas at 1000 C to a pressure of 1.0 x 105 Pa. The two bulbs are connected with A maintained
at 100 C and B at 1000 C until equilibrium is established. The volume of the tubes is negligible.
Calculate the pressure at equilibrium.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

ASSIGNMENT
1. Two cylinders A and B of volumes v and 3v respectively are separated and filled with a gas.
They are then connected as shown in the figure below with the tap closed

Tap

A B

The pressures of the gas in A and B are P and 4P respectively. When the tap is opened, the
common pressure becomes 60 Pa. Assuming isothermal conditions, find the value of P. (
P = 18.46 Pa )

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

LESSON 10
TOPIC: THERMODYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, you

• should state the laws of thermodynamics

• Derive the expression for the work done when a gas expands

INTRODUCTION
Let us now deal with the relation between work and heat energy. This branch of Physics, called
thermodynamics, is widely used by engineers in their researches and studies into engines. The word
‘thermodynamics’ is composed of two words, namely ‘Thermo’ and ‘dynamics’. ‘Thermo’ stands for
heat while ‘dynamics’ is used in connection with mechanical motion which involves
‘work’ done. Thus, thermodynamics is the branch of physics which deals with process involving heat,
work and internal energy.

FIRST LAW

It states that heat supplied to a system is equal to the increase in internal energy plus the
external work done by the system to the surrounding. i.e.

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W

For any three bodies A, B and C arranged as shown below,

A B C
B C

If A is in thermodynamic equilibrium with B and B is in thermodynamic equilibrium with C, it implies

that A is in thermodynamic equilibrium with C. This is the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Note

• The internal energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the
molecules of the system.
• From the first law of thermodynamics; ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W , If ∆Q is positive, the system gains heat
and if ∆Q is negative, the system loses heat.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

• If ∆U is positive, there is increase in internal energy. If it is negative then there is a decrease in

internal energy.
• If ∆W is positive, the system does work against the surroundings (i.e. it expands).
• If ∆W is negative, work is done on the system (i.e. compressed).
For real gases, the internal energy consists of kinetic energy due to the motion of its molecules and
potential energy due to the intermolecular forces.

For ideal gases the internal energy consists of only the kinetic energy of its molecules and there is
no potential energy since there are no intermolecular forces, i.e. for an ideal gas;

∆U = transitional (mean) kinetic energy

3
∆U = nRT
2

WORK DONE BY A GAS, ∆W WHEN EXPANDING

Consider a mass of a gas at a pressure, P and volume, v enclosed in a cylinder by a frictionless piston
of cross-sectional area A, under a force F on the piston.

Frictionless piston

F = PA

∂x

Suppose the gas expands and pushes the piston through a distance ∂x such that the volume
increases by ∂v , then,

∂A = A∂x

Since ∂x is so small, then the pressure is considered to remain constant.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

Therefore, work done by the gas is;

∂W = F∂x

⇒ ∂W = PA∂x

∂W = P∂v, since A∂x = ∂v

The total work done, W in changing the volume of the gas from v1 to v 2 is given by,

V2

∫ dW = ∫ Pdv
V1

V2

W = P ∫ dv
V1

W = P[v 2 − v1 ] ..................................... ⊕

Equation ⊕ is the expression of work done by the gas if P is constant.

Work done W is the same as the area under a P-v curve from v1 to v 2 . i.e.

v1 v2 v

If the pressure P is not constant, then we use the equation of state, Pv = nRT

nRT
⇒P=
v

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

V2

From; W = ∫ Pdv
V1

V2
nRT
⇒W= ∫ v dv
V1

V2
1
W = nRT ∫ dv
V1
v

W = nRT[lnv]V12
V

W = nRT[lnv 2 − lnv1 ]

v 
W = nRTln  2  ......................... ⊗
 v1 

Equation ⊗ is the external work done by the gas if P is not constant.

LESSON 11

SUBTOPIC: MOLAR HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES

OBJECTIVE

By end of this lesson, you should define molar heat capacities derive a relation between the molar
heat capacities

Molar heat capacity at constant volume ( C V )

It is heat energy required to change the temperature of one mole of a gas by one kelvin at constant
volume.

Molar heat capacity at constant pressure ( C P )

It is heat energy required to change the temperature of one mole of a gas by one kelvin at constant
pressure.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

Note

For one kilogram of a gas, the heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume are called
specific heat capacities. i.e.

CV
Specific heat capacity at constant volume c V = ,
m
Cp
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, c P = , where m is the mass of 1 mole.
m
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CP AND CV
Consider one mole of an ideal gas in a cylinder. Let a quantity of heat, δQ be supplied to the gas which
is allowed to expand reversibly at constant pressure, p.
Suppose the volume of the gas increases from v to v + δv and the temperature from T to T + δT.
From the first law of thermodynamics, δQ = δU + δW ..........(i)
At constant pressure, δQ =CpδT ..........(ii)
The increase of internal energy, δU for an ideal gas at constant
volume by a temperature, δT is given by δU =CvδT .........(iii)
The external work done by the gas is given by δW = p δv ..........(iv)

Combining equations (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) gives

CpδT =CvδT+ p δv ......(m)
For one mole of an ideal gas, pv= RT ..........(v)
And p (v + δv) = R (T + δT)
pv + p δv = RT + R δT .....(vi)
Combining (v) and (vi) gives p δv = R δT........(viii)
Combining (viii) and (m) gives CPδT =CvδT+ R δT
Which gives CP -Cv = R

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Alternatively;

Fixed piston

v2
v1 T → T +1 v1 T → T +1

2
1

1 mole of a gas warmed at 1 mole of a gas warmed at

Constant volume by 1 K (Cv) constant pressure by 1 K (Cp)
In the first case, we consider 1 mole of a gas warmed at a constant volume through 1K such that the
heat required is Cvwhich is used only to increase the internal energy ∂U of the gas. (No external
work done since volume is constant i.e. ∂W = 0 )
⇒ C V = ∂U ..............................1

Secondly, we consider one mole of a gas warmed at a constant pressure through 1 K such that its
volume increases from v1 to v 2 and the heat supplied is CP which is used to increase the internal
energy ∂U and also do external work, ∂W .

⇒ C P = ∂U + ∂W, for P = constant

∂W = P[v 2 − v1 ]

C P = ∂U + P[v 2 − v1 ]

From equation 1;

C V = ∂U

⇒ C p = C V + Pv 2 − Pv1 ...............................2

Using the equation of state for one mole, n = 1

⇒ Pv = RT

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

Suppose v1 and T1 are the values of volume and temperature before warming and v 2 and T2 being
the values after warming.

⇒ T1 = T2

Equation of state becomes

Pv1 = RT1 ...................................... ⊗

And,

Pv 2 = RT2 ......................................#

But T2 = T1 + 1

⇒ Pv 2 = R(T1 + 1)

⇒ Pv 2 = RT1 + R

Pv 2 = RT1 + R ............................... ⊗ ⊗

Substituting ⊗ and ⊗ ⊗ in 2, we obtain;

C P = C V + RT1 + R - RT1

CP = CV + R

CP – CV = R

C P is greater than C V . This is because when the gas is at constant volume, the heat required C V is
used to increase the internal energy only but when the gas is heated at a constant pressure, the
heat supplied C P is used to increase the internal energy and do external work since there is an
increase in volume.

LESSON 12
TOPIC: HEAT TRANSFER (THERMAL CONDUCTION)
OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, you should:

• Describe the mechanism of conduction in solids.

• Describe experiments to determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a
material.

37
 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

INTRODUCTION
METALS are good conductors of heat and electricity. The reason is the presence of electrons inside
the metal. At absolute zero, these electrons are attached to individual atoms in the outer shells. When
the metal is supplied with energy to raise its temperature above absolute zero, the outer electrons of
each atom break free as the atoms vibrate. Therefore, any metal above absolute zero contains lots of
free electrons moving about inside the metal in a haphazard way. Free electrons collide with one
another and with the atoms of the metal as they move about. Therefore energy is transmitted through
the metal by movement of free electrons even though the electrons only travel short distances.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

THE COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Consider a uniform bar which is insulated along its sides. Suppose one end is at a constant
temperature θ1 and the other end at a lower constant temperature θ2. Heat is conducted from the
hotter end to the other end at a steady rate. Because the sides are perfectly insulated, the heat
energy per second reaching the cold end is equal to the heat energy per second from the hot end.
Therefore, the heat energy per second passing any position along the bar is the same.

The temperature varies along the bar as shown below. The temperature fall per unit length along
the bar is the same from one end to the other.

The temperature gradient at any position along the bar is defined as the change of temperature
per unit distance along the bar. Considering a conductor of length, l and cross sectional area A,
having temperatures θ1 and θ 2 at its ends with θ 2  θ1 as shown below.
θ2 θ1
dq
dt

l
θ 2 − θ1 Cross sectional area A
The temperature gradient is given by ( )
l

dq
The rate of heat flow along the bar depends on:
dt

• The cross sectional area, A,

θ 2 − θ1
• The temperature gradient, ( )
l

39
 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

• The nature of the material.

dq dq θ − θ
Therefore, α A …….(i) And α ( 2 1 ) ……(ii)
dt dt l

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃2 − 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃1

Combining (i) and (ii) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � � . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Where k is a constant of a given material, which depends on the nature of the material and it is
called thermal conductivity or coefficient of thermal conductivity.

Definition of k (thermal conductivity)

From equation (iii)

dq
k= dt
θ 2 − θ1
A( )
l

dq
Where - rate of heat flow per second
dt

A – unit cross sectional area

θ 2 − θ1
( ) - unit temperature gradient.
l

Units of k

dq
dt Js -1 Js -1
k= = = = Js -1m -1k -1
θ 2 − θ1 k mk
A( ) m2
l m

Js -1 -1 -1 -1
k= Js m k , but Js -1 = watts
mk

k = wm -1 k -1

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

EXAMPLE

An aluminum plate of area 300 cm2 and thickness 5.0 cm has one side maintained at 1000C by steam
and another side at 300C. Energy passes through the plate at a rate of 9 kw. Calculate the coefficient
of thermal conductivity of aluminum.

Solution

θ 2 = 1000 C θ1 = 300 C
dq
= 9000 w
dt A = 300 × 10 -4 m 2

l = 5 ×10 −2

100 - 30
9000 = k(3 × 10 -2 )( )
5 × 10 -2

dq
Using = kA(θ 2 - θ1 ) , 450 = k(3 × 10 -2 )(70)
dt

k = 214.3 Js -1 m -1 k -1

HEAT FLOW THROUGH SEVERAL PLATES

(a) Plates in series

Consider three plates A, B and C of thermal conduct ivies, k1, k2 and k3 respectively whose ends are
maintained at temperatures θ1, θ 2 , θ 3 and θ 4 as shown below:

θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
dq
A, k1 B, k 2 C, k 3
dt

l1 l2 l3
Note:

θ1 > θ 2 > θ 3 > θ 4 .

In this case we assume that the cross sectional area, A is constant and the rate of heat flow through
the plates is the same.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

dq dq θ −θ
for A, = k 1 A( 1 2 )
dt dt l1

dq dq θ −θ
for B, = k 2 B( 2 3 )
dt dt l2

dq dq θ −θ
for C, = kC( 3 4 )
dt dt l3

dq
Since is the same throughout
dt

θ −θ θ −θ θ −θ
k 1 A( 1 2 ) = k 2 B( 2 3 ) = k 3 C( 3 4 )
l1 l2 l3

EXAMPLE

Heat is conducted through a wall consisting 5 mm thickness of copper and 10 mm thickness of

aluminium. The temperature of 1000 C and 800 C are maintained on the outside of copper and
aluminium respectively.

(a) Determine the temperature between the copper and aluminium junction.
(b) Determine the rate of heat flow through the wall if it’s cross sectional area is 20 cm2.
(Thermal conductivities of copper and aluminium are 100 wm-1k-1 and 200 wm-1k-1 respectively.)

SOLUTION
1000 C θ 800 C
dq Copper Aluminium
dt
l1 l2

Let the temperature of the junction be θ

l1 = 5 × 10 −3 m
dq 100 - θ
For copper; = k cu A( )
dt −3 l1
l 2 = 10 × 10 m

dq θ - 80 0
For Aluminium, = k Al A( )
dt l2

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

dq dq
( ) cu = ( ) Al , since Copper and Aluminium are in series.
dt dt

100 - θ θ - 80
k cu A( ) = k Al A( )
l1 l2

100 - θ θ - 80
100( -3
) = 200( )
5 × 10 10 × 10 -3

θ = 90 0 C

(b) For plates in parallel

For plates in parallel the rates of heat flow are different and the total heat flowing per second is
equal to the sum of the individual rates of heat.

DETERMINING COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A GOOD CONDUCTOR

Experiment for determining thermal conductivity of a metal of a good conductor using

Searle’s apparatus

θ4 θ3

H 2O out H 2 O in
θ2 θ1

dq  θ −θ 
l
= kA 2 1 
dt  l 
X Y

Heating coil
dq
= m w c w (θ 4 − θ 3 )
Lagging dt
Bar of a good conductor

• The conductor is heated by steam or heating coil H and cooled by circulating water.
• It is also heavily lagged to prevent heat losses to the surroundings.
• When the apparatus has been running for some time, a steady state is attained where
temperatures θ1, θ 2 , θ 3 and θ 4 become steady and they are recorded.
• A distance between X and Y is measured and the mass rate of flow mw is determined.
• If A is the cross sectional area of the bar, then the rate of heat flow throughout is given by;

43
 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

dq θ −θ 
= kA 2 1  .......................................(1)
dt  l 

• The heat in equation (1) is carried away by the cooling water per second.
• If cw is the specific heat capacity of water then the heat carried away by water per second is;

dq
= m w c w (θ 4 − θ 3 ) .......................................(2)
dt

Therefore,

θ −θ 
kA 2 1  = m w c w (θ 4 − θ 3 ) ............................................. ⊗
 l 

And thermal conductivity, k, can be determined from equation ⊗ .

Note. When determining the thermal conductivity of a metal by this method the following
conditions are necessary:

(a) Heat flow through the conductor should be steady.

(b) The temperature gradient should be steep.
A steady heat flow can be obtained by lagging the conductor and the problem of getting a steep
temperature gradient can be solved by using a bar which is long compared to its diameter.

DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A POOR CONDUCTOR E.G. GLASS

Let X and Y be brass slabs.

Steam in

C Steam chest

Steam out
X θ2 dQ  θ −θ 
= kA 2 1 
l dt  l 
Y θ1

Poor conductor

• X and Y are brass slabs.

• A thin sample of known diameter, d1 and thickness l is placed between two brass slabs X and Y

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

• Steam is passed through the chest C until the temperature θ1 and θ 2 are steady. θ1 and θ 2 are
recorded.
• A poor conductor is removed and Y is heated directly by steam chest until temperature rises by
about 100C above θ1 .
• A lagging is put on top of Y and a temperature of Y is recorded every after suitable time interval
until it falls by about 100C below θ1 .
Lagging

θ
Y

• A cooling curve is plotted and its gradient, S of the tangent to the curve at θ1 is formed.

Temp/ 0 C

a
Slope, S =
b
a
mc 
b
θ1
a

Time/s
Then thermal conductivity k can be determined from;

θ −θ  a
kA 2 1  = mc 
 l  b

Where,

m - mass of Y
c - specific heat capacity of Y
A - cross sectional area of Y

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Temperature distribution along an unlagged bar

For an unlagged bar temperature falls less and less steeply from the hot end to the cold end as
shown in the figure below. This is because if the bar is unlagge , heat escapes from sides to the
surroundings.

Hot Cold

Temp/ 0 C

falls less steeply

0
Distance along the bar

ASSIGNMENT
A sheet of rubber and a sheet of cardboard each 2 mm thick are pressed together and their outer
faces are maintained respectively at 00 C and 250 C. If the thermal conductivities of rubber and the
cardboard are respectively0.13 and 0.05 Wm-1k-1, find the quantity of heat which flows in one hour
across the composite sheet of area 100 cm2.

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LESSON 13

TOPIC: THERMAL RADIATION

OBJECTIVES: By end of this lesson, you should describe radiation as a means of heat transfer
and solve related numerical problems.

INTRODUCTION
All objects emit thermal radiation. The hotter an object is, the more energy per second is carried
away from it by thermal radiation. Thermal radiation consists of electromagnetic waves with a
range of wave length covering the infra-red and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
When thermal radiation is directed at a surface, some of the radiation is absorbed by the surface
and some is reflected. Some of the radiation may pass through the surface and be transmitted
through the material to pass out through the side. Shiny silvered surfaces are the best reflectors,
whereas dull black surfaces are very good absorbers. Surfaces which appear black daylight do not
reflect any light. They absorb all the light which falls on them. Such surfaces are good absorbers of
radiation.

Detection of infra-red

This can be done by using a thermopile as shown below;

Infra red DC Millivoltmeter

A B mV
A

Constantan

Metal cone A - hot junction (Blackened)

with a polished B - cold junction
surface

A metal cone concentrates the infra-red radiation onto the blackened metal junctions, A which get
warmed up. As a result an e.m.f is set up between the hot and cold junctions and can be measured by
a mill voltmeter. The magnitude of e.m.f depends on the intensity of incident radiation.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

BLACK BODY RADIATION

An object with surfaces which absorb thermal radiation of all wave lengths is called a black body
because it reflects no light. A black body is defined as a body which absorbs all incident radiation
falling on it and reflects none.

APPROXIMATION OF A BLACK BODY

All radiation is
Incident radiation
finally absorbed
after multiple
reflections
Small hole

Cone to prevent
direct reflection Inner dull
of incident black surface

radiation

The absorber which approximates to a black body is made by punching a very small hole in an
enclosure e.g. a tin whose inside walls are rough and blackened. All the radiation is finally absorbed
and none is reflected after undergoing multiple reflections.

STEFAN’S LAW
This states that the total energy E, radiated per unit surface area per unit time is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature T of the black body.

i.e. 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 4 . Hence 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 4

Were, is Stefan’s constant,

E = σT 4 σ = 5.7 × 10 -8 Wm -2 K -4

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 4
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Power radiated by the black body = AσT 4

Where; A is the surface area of the body.

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Note. For a non-black body, we consider; E = εσT 4 where; ε is the emissivity of the non- black
body.

EXAMPLE.A cylinder has a radius of 10-2 m and a height of 0.75 mm. Calculate the temperature of
the cylinder if it’s assumed to be a lamp of power 1 KW and acting as a black body. (Stefan’s
constant σ = 5.7 × 10 -8 Wm -2 K -4 )

Solution

Shaded area does not

radiate energy
h = 0.75 × 10-3 m
Surface area A = π rh

For two surfaces; A = 2π r h

Power radiated by the black body = AσT 4

(1 × 10 3 ) = (2π rh)σT 4

1000 1000
T4 = =
2π rhσ 2 × 3.14 × 10 -2 × 0.75 × 10 −3

T 4 = 3.7248 × 1014

T = 4393.2 K

PREVOST’S THEORY OF HEAT EXCHANGE

Prevost’s theory of heat exchange states that a body emits radiation at a rate which depends on the
nature of its surface and its temperature and absorbs heat at a rate which is determined by the
nature of its surface and the temperature of the surrounding. Hence a body at the same
temperature as that of the surroundings is in the state of thermodynamic equilibrium with its
surroundings.

Note: From the above theory we deduce that a good absorber of radiation must also be a good
emitter of radiation. Experiments show that a dull black surface is a good absorber and emitter of
radiation while a shiny surface is a poor absorber and emitter of radiation.

If a black body of surface area A is at absolute temperature, T in an environment which is at a lower

temperature T0, then the body emits heat to the surrounding environment.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Enviroment
Body

T0

T - temperature of the body

T0 - temperature of the enviroment

T  Power
Using, T0 radiated by the black body = AσT 4

4 4
Net power radiated = Aσ (T − T0 )

EXAMPLE.A solid copper sphere of diameter 10 mm is cooled to a temperature of 150 K and then
placed in an enclosure maintained at 290 K. Assuming that all interchange of heat is by radiation,
calculate the initial rate of rise of temperature of the sphere. The sphere may be assumed as a black
body. (Density of copper = 8.9 × 10 3 kg/m 3 , specific heat capacity of copper = 3.7 × 10 2 J/kg/K,
Stefan’s constant σ = 5.7 × 10 −8 W/m2/K)

SOLUTION
4 4
Net power radiated = Aσ (T − T0 ) , Surface area of a sphere A = 4π r 2
2 4 4
Net power radiated = 4π r (T - T0 )σ , Net power radiated 0.1176 W
θ 
But heat energy = mcθ , Power absorbed = mc 
t
θ 
Power absorbed = (density × volume) × c ×  
t
4π r 3 θ 
Power absorbed = ρ × ×c× 
3 t
4π θ
Power absorbed = 0.1176 = (8.9 × 10 3 × × 3.7 × 10 2 ) ×
3 t
θ 3 × 0.1176
=
t 10
4 × 4π × 8.9 × 10 3 × ( × 10 −3 ) 3 (3.7 × 10 2 )
2
θ
= 0.068 Ks -1
t

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ASSIGNMENT. A metal sphere of diameter 1 × 10 -2 m at a temperature of 240 K is placed in an

enclosure at a temperature of 100 K. Assuming that all interchange of heat is by radiation. Calculate
the initial rate of temperature rise of the sphere if it is assumed to behave like a black body.
(Density of the sphere = 7.2 × 10 3 kg/m 3 , specific heat capacity of the sphere = 3.5 × 10 2 J/kg/K ,
Stefan' s constant σ = 5.7 × 10 -8 Wm -2 K -1 )

ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN A SPECTRUM OF A BLACK BODY

The spectral curves show the variation of relative intensity (energy distribution) emitted by a black
body with wave length as temperature rises.

Relative
T3  T2  T1
intensity E λ

E λMax T3
T2
T1

Visible
spectrum λMax Wave length
As the temperature rises the intensity of every wavelength increases. At a particular temperature
there is a wavelength which is more intensely emitted than all the others.
As the temperature rises, the intensity of shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly. This is why
when the temperature of the source is progressively raised, the radiation is first red, becomes less
red, tending to white.

SOLAR CONSTANT

Solar constant is the energy per unit area per second incident on the earth’s surface from the sun
i.e.
Earth

r R

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

4
Total energy per second (power) radiated by the sun = A SσTS

Where, A S − Surface area of the sun = 4π r 2

TS = Surface temperature of the sun

2 4
Solar energy = 4π r σTS

4
4π r 2σTS
Energy arriving per square metre per second on the earth (solar constant) =
4πR 2
4
r σTS
Energy constant = .
R2

Where, r – radius of the sun

R – Radius of the Earth.

RADIATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SUN AND THE EARTH

Sun Rays from the sun

Te
Earth

rS re

Effective area
TS R (circular) on which
4
Power radiated from the sun = A SσTS sun' s radiation is
2 4
incident normally
= 4π rS σTS

π r e2
× power radiated by the Sun
4π R2
Power received by the Earth
2
Where, 4π R is the total area available over which the sun radiates at a distance R from the earth.
4
Power radiated by the Earth = A eσTe , Where, Ae is the surface area of the effective part of the Earth
that radiates.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

2
A e = 4π re

2 4
Power radiated by the Earth = 4π re σTe

Assuming radiative equilibrium;

Power radiated by the Earth = Power recieved by the Earth

π re 2
×
4π R2
2 4 2 4
4π re σTe = (4π rS σTS )

 rS 2 
Te = TS ×  2 
4 4

 4R 

Note. We assumed that the sun and Earth are black bodies.

ASSIGNMENT

(a) Explain the mechanism of heat conduction in solids.

(b) Describe a method of determining the thermal conductivity of cork in the form of a thin sheet.

(c) A window of height 1.0m and width 1.5m contains a double glazed unit consisting of two single
glass panes, each of thickness 4.0mm separated by an air gap of 2.0 mm. Calculate the rate at
which heat is conducted through the window if the temperatures of the external surfaces of
glass are 200C and 300C respectively. [Thermal conductivities of glass and air are 0.72 Wm-1K-
1
and 0.025Wm-1K-1 respectively]

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

OPTICS AND WAVES

TOPIC: LIGHT
SUB-TOPIC: REFLECTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE SURFACES
LESSON 1
AIM: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Show that light moves in a straight line

 State the laws of reflection of light.

Introduction
Look around you and identify any five objects. How were you able to tell that this is a cup, tree, hen,
basin, etc.? Now, close your eyes. Can you still identify any object(s)? Why is it so?

Activity one

Materials you need

 Box  Thread
 Candle/torch  Mathematical set
 Razor blade/ knife

Procedures
1. Cut out three rectangular pieces, the size of half a foolscap, from the box. Fold one end of each
piece so that it can stand without support.
2. Cut a tiny hole in each of the pieces, about 4cm from the top. The hole should be at the same
position in each of the pieces.
3. Place the pieces in a straight line. Pass a thread through the holes to ensure they are in the
same line.
4. Place a burning candle, torch or any other source of light on one side and observe from the
opposite side.

5. Change the position of the candle to where you are and observe from the side where the
candle was initially. What do you notice?

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6. Displace one of the cutouts so that its hole is no longer in the same line with the rest of the holes. Do
you still see the light?

Light is a form of energy which travels in a straight line. This is evidenced by the straight edges of a
shadow. The direction along which this energy travels is a ray. A ray is illustrated with a straight line
bearing an arrow pointing in the direction of travel of light. A collection of light rays is a beam. If the
direction is reversed, light travels along its original path (as seen in procedure 5 above). This is the
principle of reversibility of light.

Activity two

Materials needed

 Plane mirror  White sheet of paper

 Cello tape  Torch
 Mathematical set  Razor blade/ knife
 box
Procedures
1. Draw a line AB on the white piece of paper. Place the plane mirror vertically on the line.
2. Cut a piece from the box, just enough to cover the front of the torch. Make a tiny hole from a
piece of box and use it to cover the torch using cellotape. (do this with care lest you cut
yourself)

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

3. Switch on the torch and direct the light ray at an angle towards the mirror as shown in figure
1.

4. Using a pencil or pen, draw two small dots along each light ray.

5. Remove the mirror and the torch. Using a ruler, connect the dots with straight lines to meet
line AB at N.
6. Draw a normal at N and measure the angle of incidence,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and the angle of reflection, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟.
What is the relationship between 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and r?

Try out the above procedures by directing the light from the torch to the mirror at different
angles.

What conclusions do you draw from the measurements above?

When light is incident on a surface, it is reflected in accordance with the laws of reflection of light.
These are:

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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LESSON 2
AIM: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe formation of an image by a plane mirror.

 Distinguish between regular and diffuse reflection.

Activity

Materials needed

 Plane mirror  Piece of charcoal/ chalk

 Tape measure/ meter rule  Object e.g. cup, stone, bottle, etc.

Procedures
1. Place a plane mirror vertically on the floor or on the table. You can lean the mirror on the wall.
2. Using a piece of chalk, make two lines in front of the mirror, one at 30 cm and the other at 50
cm from the mirror. Label them A and B respectively.
3. Get any object for example cup, stone or bottle. Place the object on line A and observe its
image in the mirror. Thereafter, shift the object to line B and observe the shift in the image.
Now, take back the object to line A.
What conclusion can you make about the distance of the object and the distance of the image
from the mirror?
4. Face the mirror and touch your left ear as you look at your image. Is your image also touching
the left ear? What else can you say about the nature of the image formed?

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, light from it is reflected off the mirror to
the eyes of the observer. Since light moves in a straight line, the reflected rays appear to be
coming from some point, 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 inside the mirror. It is that point that the image is formed. The
image has the following characteristics.
• It is virtual
• It is laterally inverted
• It is upright
• It is of the same size as the object
• It is the same distance from the
mirror as the object.

When you look around you, you see objects of varying shapes and size. There are flat objects, curved
ones and those whose shape you may not tell. When light falls on those objects, it is reflected. Light
reflected from these objects enables us to tell their shape, size and what type of objects they are.
There are two forms of reflection: regular reflection and irregular/diffuse reflection.

Regular reflection is the type of reflection where a parallel beam of light incident on a smooth reflecting
surface is reflected as a parallel beam. On the other hand, diffuse reflection is the type of reflection
where a parallel beam of light incident on a rough reflecting surface is scattered in different directions
after reflection.

Regular reflection Irregular/ diffuse reflection

 It takes place on a smooth surface  It takes place on a rough surface
 It has all the reflected rays in parallel  Reflected rays are not parallel
 Reflected rays are in one direction  Reflected rays are scattered in different
direction

Can you tell the difference between regular and diffuse reflection?

LESSON 3
AIM: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Derive the relationship between the angle of deviation and the glancing angle for a
plane mirror.
 Derive the relationship between the angle of rotation of plane mirror and angle of
rotation of reflected ray.

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

Consider the figure 3.1. If the mirror DE were not

there, the ray would have taken the path ABF.
However, light is reflected off the mirror. So, the ray
takes the path BC. This means that the direction of
the ray is changed through an angle 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿. This is the
angle of deviation. The angle 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃is the glancing angle.
Since the angle of incidence 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, is equal to the angle
of reflection 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, angle EBC is equal to the glancing
angle 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃. But angle ABD is equal to angle FBE
(vertically opposite angles). Therefore,
Figure 3.1
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
This implies that when light is reflected in a plane mirror, the angle of deviation of a ray is
twice the glancing angle.

From figure 3.2, when a ray PQ is incident on a plane mirror MN, it is reflected in the direction
QR1. The ray is deviated through an angle𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 which is twice the glancing angle𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼. i.e. 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 2𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼.

If the direction of the incident ray is not changed and the mirror is rotated through an angle
𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 to a new position M’N’, the reflected ray changes position to QR2. The glancing angle is now
(𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 + 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃). This means that the angle of deviation𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿1 ,is
2(𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 + 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃). The reflected ray is rotated through an
angle R1QR2. This angle is the difference between 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿1
and 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿. Therefore, the angle of

rotation of the reflected ray is given by 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿1 − 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 =

2(𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 + 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) − 2𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃.

This shows that when a plane mirror is rotated through an angle keeping the direction of the
incident ray unchanged, the reflected ray is rotated through twice that angle. This has an
application in a sextant and an optical lever mirror galvanometer.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

SUB-TOPIC: REFLECTION OF LIGHT AT A CURVED SURFACE

LESSON 1
AIM: By the end of the lesson, you should be able:

 identify the types of curved mirrors

 describe how images are formed in curved mirrors

A spoon has two curved surfaces. If light is reflected from the inner surface, it is a concave mirror. In
case the light is reflected from the outer surface, it is a convex mirror. So, there are two types of
curved mirrors: a concave mirror and a convex mirror. A concave mirror reflects light to the same
point. A convex mirror reflects light in such a way that the reflected rays appear to originate from the
same point.

The size of the reflecting surface of a curved

mirror is its aperture. If a concave mirror has a
wide aperture, all rays parallel to the principal
focus are not brought to the same focus. Only
rays close to the principal axis (paraxial rays) are
reflected through the principal focus. This leads
to formation of a bright surface known as a
Concave mirror Convex mirror
caustic surface is formed. The image formed from
such reflection is not clear (blurred).

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 SELF-STUDY LEARNING

This condition is referred to as spherical aberration. This problem is overcome by using a parabolic
mirror. Such a mirror has a property that all rays parallel to the principal axis are reflected through the
principal focus. If a source of light is placed at the principal focus of a parabolic mirror, all rays are
reflected parallel to the principal axis. Such mirrors are used as reflectors in flashlights and car head
lamps.

Formation of caustic curve

Activity

Materials needed

 Paper  Pair of compasses

 Pencil  Eraser
 Ruler
Procedures

1. Draw a circle and mark its center as C.

2. Draw a line through the center of the circle and mark a point P, where the line touches the
circle.
3. Cut off some section of the circle to remain with part that represents the curved mirror.
4. Obtain the midpoint of the line PC and label it F.
5. Measure length PC and call it r.
6. Measure the length FP and call it f.
7. Establish the relationship between r and f.

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

Formation of images in curved mirrors

While locating images formed in curved mirrors, the following rules are considered.

When an object is placed in front of a curved mirror, it will form an image. In a concave mirror, the
image formed depends on the position of the object on the principal axis. For a convex mirror, no
matter the position of the object, the image will always have the same characteristics.

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Practice on formation of images in

curved mirrors using guidance of the
pictures shown and in each, state the
characteristics of the image formed.

Assignment

You will look around for a boda boda

motorcycle and check the words written
on the side mirror. Are they similar to
those in the photo? Do the words make
any sense to you? Ask any motorcyclist if
the words make sense to them. Why do
you think they were written?

LESSON 2

AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 State and use the mirror formula in solving numerical problems.

 Explain the applications of curved mirrors

In the previous lesson, we looked at how curved mirrors form images. The distance of the object from
the mirror is the object distance. This we shall represent with letter, 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢. The distance of the image from
the mirror, image distance, we shall represent by letter 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. These two distances have a relationship
1 1 1
with the focal length, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 of the mirror. This relationship is the equation + = .
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

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 PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

The mirror formula can be used to find any of the unknowns𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 and 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓. However, this should be done
with care. Distances of real objects and images are positive. Distances of virtual objects and images are
negative. A concave mirror has a real principal focus hence a positive focal length. A convex mirror has a
virtual principal focus hence a negative focal length. Let us look at some examples.

Example 1: An object is placed 10cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15cm. Find the
image position. What is the nature of the image formed?

SOLUTION

u=+10 cm (real object)

f=+15cm (a concave mirror has a real principal focus hence positive focal length)

v=?
1 1 1
Substituting in + =
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = , = − =−
10 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 15 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 15 10 30
∴ 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = −30

Activity

Discuss with fellow students on the derivation of the mirror formula for both concave and
convex mirror. Make use of available physics textbooks.

Since 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 is negative, the image is virtual (formed 30cm behind the mirror)

The image formed in a mirror may be smaller than the object, bigger than the object or even the same
size as the object.

Magnification is the ratio of the image height to the object height. It can also be defined as the ratio of
image distance to object distance.
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 30
In example 1, the magnification is,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = =3
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 10

This means that the image is three times the size of the object i.e. it is magnified

Example2. The image of an object in a convex mirror is 4cm from the mirror. If the focal length of the
mirror is 12cm. find the object position and the magnification of the image.

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Solution

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣=-4 cm (image in convex mirror is always virtual), 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓=-12 cm (convex mirror has a virtual focal point)

𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢=?

Try out!

The image of an object in a convex mirror is 4 cm from the mirror. If the mirror has a radius of
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
curvature of 24 cm, find the object position and the magnification. (𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = )
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

1 1 1
Substituting these in + = ,
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

1 1 1 1
= − =
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 −12 −4 6
∴ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 6𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(real object)
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 4 2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = What conclusion can you draw from the value of the magnification?
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 6 3

Applications for curved mirrors

Curved mirrors find numerous applications in the life of mankind. Use the pictures below to identify
and describe these applications.

Are there any other applications not shown in the pictures? Mention them!

SUB-TOPIC: REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE SURFACES

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Are there any other applications not shown in the pictures? Mention them!
PHYSICS | SENIOR FIVE

SUB-TOPIC: REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE SURFACES

LESSON 1
Aim: The learner should be able to:

 demonstrate refraction
 state the laws of refraction

When a stick or pencil is placed in a glass of water, it appears bent. This and many other phenomena
are used to explain another property of light: refraction. The next activity will help us to demonstrate
refraction of light.

Activity

Materials needed

 Water  White sheet of paper

 Glass  Pen/marker
 Pencil/stick

Instructions
1. Make an arrow, big enough, on a white sheet of paper using a pen or a marker
2. Pour water in a glass. Look at the arrow through the glass of water as shown in the figure
below.

You will notice that when you look at the arrow through the glass, it changes direction. What makes
the arrow change direction?

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When light travels from one optical medium to another, it suffers a change of direction at the surface
of separation of the two media. This is referred to as refraction of light.
The laws of refraction are:
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for
a pair of media.
Care has to be taken when spelling the words ‘reflection’ and ‘refraction’ as they seem to look and
sound alike. The same care should be taken when stating the laws of reflection and refraction as the
first law is almost similar.

LESSON 2
AIM: the learner should be able to derive the relation between the refractive indicies of different
media.

Think of different transparent materials: water, kerosene, glass, etc. As light moves from one medium
to another, its direction changes. Consequently, the speed of light changes.
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
From the second law of refraction, the constant ratio is known as the refractive index for the two
sin 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
media. For example, if light is travelling from water to glass, the refractive index is denoted as
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

If the first medium is a vacuum, the refractive index is known as the the absolute refractive index, ∩.
Alternatively, the absolute refractive index is given by
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
∩=
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Consider a ray of light travelling from glass to air. The refractive index from glass to air is given by
sin 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = . From the principle of
sin 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
reversibility of light discussed earlier,
if the ray is reversed to move from
from air to glass, it will take the same
path. In that case, the refractive index
from air to glass is given by 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
sin 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
. Therefore,
sin 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 ∩𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 =
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ∩𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈

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Let us now consider light travelling between parallel media. If 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 are the angles made with the
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
normals by the respective rays in the glass and water media, 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = = × . But =
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 and = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 .
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

∴ 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 × 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

Thus, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∩𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ∩𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
From = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔,
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

→ sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1
Also, = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 =
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

→ sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

∴ sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

If the equation is written in terms of of the absolute refractive indicies of air(∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ), glass(∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ) and
water(∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ). Then , ∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 =∩𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =∩𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 . This relation shows that when a ray is refracted
from one medium to another, the boundaries being parallel,

∩ 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

where ∩is the absolute refractive index of the medium and 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the angle made by the ray with the
normal in that medium.

LESSON 3

AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 demonstrate real and apparent depth

 describe the occurrence of total internal reflection and state its applications

Activity

Materials needed

 Glass  Ruler
 Water  Coin

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Procedures

1. Place a coin in a glass and pour water to half way the

glass
2. Using a ruler, measure and record the depth of water.
This is the real depth.
3. Looking from directly above the glass, measure and
record the depth of the coin from the surface of water.
This is the apparent depth.

The refractive index of water( and any other material) is related

to the real and apparent depth by the equation
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,∩=
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ

Total internal reflection

When light travels from an optically denser medium to a less optically dense medium (for example
from water to air), the refracted ray bends away from the normal. At some angle of incidence known
as the critical angle, the refracted ray grazes the boundary between the two media. Beyond this angle,
the ray is reflected back to the denser medium. This is referred to as total internal reflection.

Critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the less dense medium is ninety degrees.
1
The refractive index, ∩ of a material is related to its critical angle, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 by the equation sin 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
∩

Total internal reflectionhas a number of applications. Some of them are shown in the pictures below.
Can you identify any? Is there any other you

Demonstrating total internal reflection Applications

know that has not been indicated in the picture 1. Optical fiber
2. Refracting
Do you know any other applications for total prism
internal reflection that have not been included 3. Rear reflectors
in the picture?

Effects for refraction include the fish’s view, mirage and atmospheric refraction of radio waves.
Research about them!

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SUB-TOPIC: REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH TRIANGULAR PRISMS

AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Derive the expression for the angle of deviation of a prism

 Explain dispersion of white light
 Describe the applications of glass prisms

When a ray of light is incident at Q on a

triangular prism, at an angle 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖1 it is
refracted at an angle𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 .At R, the angle
of incidence is 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 and the ray emerges
out of the prism at an angle 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 . If 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is
the refracting angle of the prism(angle
at which the refracting edges AB and
AC are inclined), then 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 .

The angle of deviation at Q is the angle

FQR and it is equal to 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 . The angle of deviation at R is the angle ERQ and it is equal to 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 . The
total deviation is the angle 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(FER) and it is equal to the sum of the deviation at Q and the deviation at
R.

∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 ) + (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 )

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 ) − (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 )

d= (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 ) − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

If the ray passes symmetrically through the prism, the angle of deviation is

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) − (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (since i1=i2=i and r1=r2=r)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴+𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
From 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = . From 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = . Therefore,
2 2
the refractive index of the material of the prism can be
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴+𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2
obtained from ∩= = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
sin 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2

Deviation by small angle prism

Consider a small-angled prism shown in the figure. The

deviation 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) + (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ′ − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ′ )

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ′ − (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ′ ).

But 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ′

∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ′ − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Since the refracting angle is very small, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ′ , 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 and𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ′ are also small. For small angles, sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟. So, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ′ = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ′ .

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∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ′ − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ′ ) − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 1)𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Dispersion of white light

White light is a mixture of a number of colors. A glass prism can

separate white light into its constituent colors. This is due to the
fact that light is refracted depending on the wavelength of the
light. The shorter the wavelength, the more it bends. Different
colors have different wavelengths. So, each color is refracted by
different amounts. Dispersion of light by tiny water drops in the
atmosphere leads to formation of the rainbow.

Applications of triangular prisms

Triangular prisms find numerous applications. One of the many is the spectrometer, an instrument
used to study light from different sources. The spectrometer can be used to measure the refracting
angle of a prism. It can also be used in the measurement of the Minimum Deviation of a prism.

The other applications for triangular prisms are prism periscopes and prism binoculars.

Fig: Spectrometer

Can you identify the prism?

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SUB-TOPIC: REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH THIN LENS

LESSON ONE
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify the types of lenses

 Define the terms principal focus, principal axis, optical center, focal length and power of a lens.

Have you wondered why some people wear spectacles and others don’t? Do you wear spectacles? Do
you know anyone in your class/ family who wears them?

Activity

Identify an individual at home or in the neighborhood wearing glasses.

Kindly, request them to have a look at them (take care not to break
them). Can you tell what type they are? Look at any object by trying to
bring the glasses close to your eyes. Is there a difference when you look at
the same object with a naked eye?

A lens is a piece of glass with one or two spherical surfaces. If a lens is

thicker in the middle than the edges, it is a convex lens. One that is
thinner in the middle than the edges is a concave lens.

When light is incident on a convex lens, it is refracted so that it converges at a point, F2. This point is
the principal focus. This point is real. A convex lens is therefore a converging lens.

When a parallel beam of light is incident on a concave lens, light rays are refracted so that they appear
to be coming from the same point, F1. This point is the principal focus for the lens. Since light rays
appear to be coming from this point, it is a virtual point. A concave lens is a diverging lens.

Point O, is the optical center. Rays through this point are not refracted. The distance OF1 and OF2 is the
focal length for the concave and convex lens respectively. The line through O, F1 and F2 is the
principal axis.

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Activity

Materials needed

 Convex lens
 Ordinary glass
 Pieces of paper/ dry grass

Procedures

1. Make a small heap of papers or dry grass.

2. Using a convex lens, focus sunlight onto the papers/ dry grass until it burns.
3. Try the same procedure with ordinary glass. Do you achieve the same result? Why or Why not?

Power of a lens

The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length (in meters) of the lens. It is
measured in diopters (D).

Try out!
Calculate the power of a lens of focal length 10 cm.

1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

LESSON TWO
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe the formation of images by lenses

 Apply the thin lens formula.

Light from an object

is refracted by a lens
leading to formation
of an image by the
lens. These images
can be located by
constructing ray
diagrams. Here, we
consider two main rays.

A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal focus.
A ray through the optical center is not refracted.

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Use the pictures to guide you in practicing the construction of ray diagrams. State the characteristics
of the image formed in each case.

Thin lens formula

Earlier on, we looked at the mirror formula. Do you recall what the letters 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 and 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 stand for? The
same formula applies for thin lenses. The same sign
convention applies. That is, distances of real objects and
images are positive while distances of virtual objects and
images are negative.
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
The magnification can also be expressed as 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = − 1 or
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
1 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
+1=
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Try this out!

1. An object is placed 12 cm from a converging lens of

focal length 18 cm. Find the position of the image and
the magnification.

LESSON THREE
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Derive the expression for the focal length of a thin lens using the small angle prism method.
 Derive the expression for the combined focal length of two thin lenses in contact.

An alternative way of deriving the expression for the focal length of a thin lens is using the small angle
prism method.

Consider a ray parallel and close to the principal axis

shown in figure(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖). After refraction, the ray is
ℎ ℎ
deviated through an angle 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. From 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = , 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = .
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
(tan 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for small angles). Since the angle of
incidence is small and the ray is close to the
principal axis, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (∩ −1)𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. (deviation for small
ℎ
angle prism). This implies that = (∩ −1)𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴.
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ℎ ℎ
∴ = (∩ −1) … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖). From figure (ii), 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = + .
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 1 1 1 1 1
∴ = + … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ). Substituting (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) in (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖), = (∩ −1)( + ).
ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2

1 1 1
The focal length of a thin lens can be obtained from the expression = (∩ −1) � + � where ∩ is the
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2
refractive index of the material of the lens and𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 are the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces.

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TRY OUT!

A biconvex lens has radii of curvature𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 , each 10cm. If the refractive index of the material of the
lens is 1.5. Find the focal length of the lens.

The sign for the radius of curvature of the

lens surface can be positive or negative. The
picture on the left shows the sign for the
radius of curvature of the different lens
surfaces.

Combined focal length of two thin lenses in contact

If two lenses of focal length𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 and 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 are combined as shown in the figure, the effective focal length, F
1 1 1
of the combined lenses is given by = + .
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2

Example: A thin converging lens of 8cm focal length is

placed in contact with a diverging lens of 12cm focal
length. Find the combined focal length.

Solution

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 =8cm, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 =-12cm, F=?

1 1 1 1
= + = therefore, 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 24 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 8 −12 24

Since F is positive, the combination acts like a converging lens.

Chromatic aberration

Spherical aberration

When white light is incident on a prism, different colors of light are refracted differently. White light
incident on a convex lens lens is refracted so that thedifferent colors are brought to different focus.
This effect is chromatic aberration (a). It is corrected using an achromatic doublet (b).

If a wide beam of light is incident on a lens, not all rays are brought to the same focus. The image is
therefore distorted. This defect is known as spherical aberration.

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SUB-TOPIC: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

LESSON 1
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define the terms visual angle, near point, far point and accommodation.
 Explain the relationship between visual angle and apparent size of objects.
 Define magnifying power of an optical instrument.

Introduction
Get out of the house and look around you. What is the farthest thing you can see? How far do think is
this object from you? Now, put your finger at about 2 cm from your eye. Can you distinctively see the
finger? Move the finger to away from the eye until you can distinctively see it. How far do you think is
your finger from your eye?

Our eyes can see close and far objects. The eye can see an object in greatest detail when it is placed at
a certain distance from the eye. The point at this distance is known as the near point. An object is not
clearly seen if it is brought closer to the eye than the near point. A normal eye can also focus far
objects (objects at infinity).

This is the far point of the normal eye.

Consider an object placed at some distance from the eye, and suppose θ is the angle in radians
subtended by the object at the eye. Since vertically opposite angles are equal, the length of the image
on the retina is given by Hi = We θ. Since the distance We is fixed, Hi is proportional to θ. We conclude
that the length of the image formed by the eye is proportional to the angle subtended at the eye by
the object. This angle, θ is known as the visual angle.

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If two or more objects of different sizes subtend the same visual angle at the eye, they appear to be of
the same size. If the same object is viewed at different visual angles, it appears to be of different size.
Accommodation is the ability of the eye to change its focus
from distant to
near objects.

If a microscope
or telescope is
Same object at different visual angle
used, the visual
angle is Objects of different size at same visual angle
increased such that the object viewed appears larger. If the
object subtends an angle 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 at the eye without the instrument and an angle 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ when the instrument is
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
used, the ratio𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = ′ is known as the angular magnification of the instrument. It is also referred to as
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
the magnifying power of the instrument.

LESSON 2
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe the structure and action of a simple microscope.

 Describe the structure and action of a compound microscope.

The simple microscope

A microscope is an instrument used to see near objects. They are used for viewing tiny micro-
organisms like malaria parasites. An example of a simple microscope is the magnifying glass.

An object
subtends an
angle 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 at the
unaided eye (a) Unaided eye
and is located
at a distance,
D from the
eye (a).
Children observing with magnifying glass
Therefore,
ℎ
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = . With the microscope (b), the image subtends an
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
angle 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 at the eye and is also a distance, D from the eye
(b) Simple microscope
(since a microscope forms image at near point).
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
Therefore, 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = . the magnifying power is given by 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ℎ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
= ÷ = . But for a lens, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = where 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 is the image distance and 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 is the object
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ℎ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

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1 1 1 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

distance.Multiplying through the lens formula + = by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, 1 + = . Therefore, = − 1. But 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷. So, = = − 1. Hence, 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇

Compound microscope
A compound microscope has two separated lenses. The lens nearer the object is called the objective.
The lens through which the final image is viewed is called the eye-piece. Both the objective and eye-
piece have a small focal length.

Compound microscope in normal adjustment

In normal adjustment, the image is formed at near point. The object is placed at a distance slightly
beyond the focal length of the objective. An inverted real image is formed at I1. The eye-piece is
adjusted until a virtual image is formed at I2(the eye –piece acts as a simple magnifying glass for
viewing the image formed at I1by the objective). The
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ ℎ2 ℎ ℎ2
angular magnification, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = = ÷ = . The image
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ℎ
subtends an angle 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ at the eye and it is formed at the
ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ
least distance of distinct vision, D. But = × 1.
ℎ ℎ1 ℎ
ℎ2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ2
Therefore, = − 1. Since𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷, it implies that =
ℎ1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 ℎ1
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ℎ1 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
− 1. But = − 1. Hence, the angular magnification
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1
𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
is given by 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = � − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏� � − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏�. Compound microscope with final image at
𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
infinity
Compound microscope with final image at infinity

For the image to be formed at infinity, the image of the object in the objective must be formed at the
focus, Fe, of the eye-piece. The visual angle, 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽, subtended
ℎ
at the eye by the final image at infinity is 1. So, the
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
angular magnification,
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ℎ1 ℎ ℎ1 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ℎ1 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = = ÷ = × . But = − 1, where𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 and
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 are the focal lengths for the objective and eye-piece
𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫
respectively. Therefore, 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = � − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏�
𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 Malaria parasites (purple) seen
under a microscope

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LESSON 3
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe the structure and action of astronomical and Galileo’s telescopes in normal adjustment
and with the final image at near point.

Fo

Astronomical telescope in normal adjustment

Telescope

Telescopes are used to view distant objects like stars. In normal adjustment, an astronomical
telescope forms the final image at infinity. The image of a distant object is formed at the focus, Fo, of
the objective. Since the final image is formed at infinity, the focus of the eye-piece must also be at Fo.
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
The angular magnification, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = where 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽is the angle subtended at the eye when the telescope is
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
used and 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼is the angle subtended at the unaided eye by a distant object. Assuming the eye is so close
to the eye-piece, the length between the objective and the eye-piece is very small compared with the
distance of the object from either lens. We can take the angle 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼subtended at the unaided eye by the
ℎ
object as that subtended at the objective lens.𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = where ℎ is the length of the image at Foand 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 is
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
ℎ
the focal length of the eye-piece.𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = since theimage is at distance 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 from the objective. The angular
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ℎ ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
magnification 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = = ÷ = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜. The angular magnification is the ratio of the focal length of the
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
objective to that of the eye-piece.

Astronomical telescope with image at near point

The image in a telescope can be formed at near point. The

objective forms an image of a distant object at its focus F1.
The eye-piece is moved so that the image is near to it than
its focus F2, thus acting as a magnifying glass. The angle
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 subtended at the unaided eye is the same as that
ℎ
subtended at the objective. Therefore 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = where h is
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
the height of the image in the objective and 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 its focal length. The angle subtended at the eye by the
ℎ 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ ℎ
final image is 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ = where 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 is distance of the image from the eye-piece. Therefore, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = = ÷
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

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ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜. Since the image is formed at near point, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 when 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 . From + = , + = .
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 +𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
This implies that 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = . Therefore, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = � �= �1 + 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �.
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 +𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

Galileo’s telescope

This telescope consists an objective which is a convex

lens of long focal length and an eye-piece which is a
concave lens of short focal length. In the absence of
the diverging lens, an image of a distant object in the
objective would be formed at I. since the eye-piece is
at a distance f2 from I, rays falling on it are refracted
so they emerge parallel. The angle subtended by the
ℎ
final image at the eye-piece is 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ = where ℎ,is the
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2
height of the image and 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 is the focal length of the eye-piece. The angle subtended by the object at
ℎ
the unaided eye is the same as that subtended by the object at the objective and is given by 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′
where 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 is the focal length of the objective. Therefore, the angular magnification is given by 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = =
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
ℎ ℎ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
÷ = 1.
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2

LESSON 4

AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe the structure and action of reflecting telescopes

 Compare the use of refracting and reflecting telescopes.
 Describe the action of projection lantern, lens camera and prism binoculars.

Reflecting telescopes

Newton reflecting telescope Coude reflecting telescope Cassegrain reflecting telescope

Reflecting telescopes employ a large concave mirror that is used to collect light rays from a distant
object and focus them on a reflecting mirror. Thereafter, the rays are reflected to the eye-piece. There
are three such telescopes: Newton, Cassegrain and Coude reflecting telescopes.

Advantages of reflecting telescopes over refracting telescopes

 Not subject to chromatic aberration.

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 Spherical aberration can be overcome by using a parabolic mirror.

 Telescope tube is shorter making it more economical.

The Hubble Space telescope

This is a telescope that was launched in 1990 and orbits at about 547km above the earth’s surface. It
has a primary mirror of width 2.4m. It is powered by two 25-foot solar panels. It has six Nickel-
Hydrogen batteries with a storage capacity equal to 20 car batteries.

For a period of 30 years the telescope has been used to study the universe.

The projection lantern

A projection lantern is commonly known as a projector and is used for throwing on a screen a
magnified image of a slide. Light from a lamp s reflected off a concave mirror and focused by the
condenser onto the film. The projection lens is mounted in the sliding tube so that it is moved to and
fro to focus a sharp image on the screen.

Prism binoculars

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Binoculars are used by tourists, scientists and soldiers to see distant objects. They consist of a pair of
refracting astronomical telescopes with two totally reflecting prisms between each objective and eye-
piece. The prisms use total internal reflection to invert rays of light so that the final image is seen the
correct way.

Lens camera

Lens camera

A lens camera is used to take photographs. The lens focuses light from the object onto a light sensitive
film. It is moved to and fro so that a sharp image is formed on the film.

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TOPIC: WAVES
SUB-TOPIC: BASIC PROPERTIES OF WAVES

LESSON 1
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define the terms: wave, amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase.

 Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves.
 State the characteristics of a progressive wave.

Introduction
The government of Uganda is planning to give out radios to every household so that students can
continue learning from home during the lockdown. Do you have a favorite radio station? How are the
signals able to move from the broadcasting center to reach you at home? Radio broadcasting, mobile
phone communication, X-ray and ultrasound imaging, and remote control of devices is all possible
because of waves. So, what is a wave?

Activity

Material needed

 Rope  Basin
 Water
Get a rope and tie on end on a tree or any other fixed support. Swing the rope so that it makes
continuous up and down movements. What do you notice? Thereafter, pour water in a basin and wait
for it to settle. Gently, touch the surface of the water from the middle of the basin. Observe the waves
as they spread from the center to the end. (You do not have to necessarily carry out the activities
at the same time)

Waves are produced when a vibrating source causes a disturbance in a medium. When you
touch the water surface, energy is transferred to the water particles and this energy is carried

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away from that point to the end. Therefore, a wave is a disturbance which travels through a
medium, transforms energy from one point to another without transferring medium.

Waves are categorized as mechanical or electromagnetic.

Electromagnetic waves are waves which do not require a medium for their propagation.
Electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum. Examples of such waves include radio waves, infrared,
visible light, Ultraviolet, X-rays and Gamma rays.
Mechanical waves are waves which require a material medium for their propagation. These
include water waves, sound waves and waves on stretched strings.

Waves can also be classified as transverse and longitudinal waves.

A transverse wave is one in which the direction of propagation of the wave is perpendicular to the
direction of vibration of the particles. Examples of transverse waves include all electromagnetic
waves, water waves and waves on a string.

A Longitudinal wave is a mechanical wave in which the vibrations of the particles takes place in
the same direction as that direction of the travel of the wave. An example is sound waves.

Terms used

Amplitude: This is the greatest displacement of a particle from the rest position.
Wavelength (λ): This is the distance between two successive crests or troughs. Or, it is the
distance between two consecutive wave particles in phase.
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Period (T): The time taken for one cycle. T= = where 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is the time and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
number of cycles. It is measured in seconds.
Frequency (f): The number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz)

Velocity of a wave (v): This is the distance covered by a wave particle per second.

Relationship between f and T

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
If a wave completes 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cycles in time 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, then frequency, f is given by 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = . But 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = .
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1
Therefore, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = .
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

Relationship between 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗, 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝝀𝝀𝝀𝝀

If a wave of wavelength 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 completes 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cycles in time 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, then total distance covered = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = = = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆. Therefore, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆.
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

LESSON 2
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define a progressive wave.

 Explain phases of vibration.
 Derive the progressive wave equation.

Progressive wave
A wave which travels continuously in a medium in the same direction without a change in its
amplitude is a progressive wave. In a progressive wave, there is continuous transmission of
energy from one particle to another. Electromagnetic waves and mechanical waves are examples
of progressive waves.

A tsunami is an example of a progressive wave. A large volume of water is

displaced by a disturbance resulting in a huge wave. The energy propagated
by the wave is so much that it destroys property.

Characteristics of a progressive wave

 Each particle of the medium vibrates at its mean position.

 Particles vibrate with the same amplitude.
 There is transfer of energy across the medium in the direction of propagation of the wave.

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Phase of vibrations

When you tie a rope at one end and swing it, it makes up and down movements similar to a sine
wave. Any oscillation of this form is represented by the equation 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.

Consider an oscillation given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (blue). Suppose a second oscillation (green) has the
same amplitude, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, and angular frequency, 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 but reaches the end of its oscillation a fraction, 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽, of
the period 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 later than the first one. The second oscillation thus lags behind the first by a time,
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 and so, its displacement is given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑) where 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽. If
the second oscillation leads the first by a time 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇, the displacement is given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣2 =
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑). 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 is the phase angle of the oscillation.

The progressive wave equation

The figure shows a progressive wave represented by a

sine wave. Suppose the wave moves from left to right. A
particle at the origin vibrates according to the equation
Progressive wave
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(equation of a sine wave) where 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, is the
amplitude, 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is the time and ω is the angular frequency
(angular displacement per unit time).
1 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 where 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 if the frequency. Since 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = , it implies that 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = . A particle at P a distance x
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
from O to the right has a phase of vibration different from that at O. the phase difference at P is
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 = (a distance 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 form O corresponds to a phase difference of 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋). The displacement of any
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
particle at a distance 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 from the origin is given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑). But 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 and 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 = .
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

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2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1

Therefore 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − ) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin � − � = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖). Since 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = , the
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
equation can be written as 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋( − ). A wave travelling from right to left arrives at P
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
before O. thus, the vibration at P leads that at O. so, a wave travelling in the opposite direction
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
(right to left) is given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋( − ).
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Example
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Suppose a wave is represented by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(2000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − ). Find the velocity and frequency of the
17
wave.
Try out!
Solution A transverse progressive wave is given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
From 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖), = 2000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. This 3 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋( − )where the length is in cm and
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 0.04 40
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 the time in seconds. Calculate the wavelength,
implies that 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 1000𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆. Also, = .
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 17 frequency, amplitude and the speed of the wave.
∴ 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 = 2 × 17 = 34 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. Hence,

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 1000 × 34 = 34000𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −1 .

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 34000
∴ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = = 1000𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 34

SUB-TOPIC: STATIONARY WAVES

LESSON 1
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 State the principle of superposition.

 Explain how a stationary wave is formed
 State characteristics of a stationary wave

When two waves travel in the same medium at the same time, their resultant displacement when
they combine is obtained from the principle of superposition.

The principle of superposition states that the resultant displacement at any point is the sum of
the separate displacements due to the two waves.

Stationary waves

Stationary waves are produced by superposition of two progressive waves of equal amplitude
and frequency traveling with the same speed in opposite direction.

Consider two waves 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) and 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖). If the two waves combine,
from the principle of superposition, their resultant displacement 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 is given by

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𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣1 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖). From trigonometry, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴−𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
2 sin � � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � �. Therefore 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 2 asin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 cos 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 where 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is the amplitude of the
2 2
resulting wave.

Stationary wave

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 3𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
The amplitude is maximum and equal to 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 at 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = and so on. These points are the
4 4
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
antinodes and the separation between consecutive antinodes is . (x is the displacement of the
2
particle)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
The displacement is zero when 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 and so on. These points are called nodes and they
2
are midway between consecutive antinodes.

Properties of stationary waves

 Energy is not transferred from one point to another.

 Particles at the node do not vibrate at all. So, their amplitude is zero. Particles at the antinode
vibrate with maximum amplitude.
 All particles within one vibrating loop (e.g. between two adjacent nodes) are in phase.

LESSON 2
AIM: By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the modes of vibration of a
stretched string.

Activity

Materials needed

 Three strings of different size(thickness)

 A piece of stick that can bend

Procedures

1. Bend the stick and tie the string at either end to form a bow.
2. Pluck the string at half-way, a quarter-way and a three-quarter way. Bow
In each case, keenly take a note of the sound produced.

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3. Repeat the above procedures using different strings. (it is better if you can get strings from
different materials say, cotton, sisal, nylon and banana fiber)

Is the sound produced in each case the same? If not, what causes the difference?

When a stretched string is made to vibrate, it produces

stationary waves. Consider a string of length 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 plucked to
produce the wave shown in the picture. The length from node
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
to node is . This means that 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = . ∴ 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 = 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
2 2
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
From 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆, it implies that 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . Hence, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = . This can
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
Fundamental frequency of stretched string
be written as 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 = and it is the frequency of the first
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
harmonic or the fundamental frequency (lowest frequency
that can be produced by the string).

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
The velocity of sound in a string is given by 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = � where T is the tension in the string and is the mass
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
1 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
per unit length of the string. Therefore 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 = �𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇. This shows that the frequency of a note produced
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
by a vibrating string depends on the length of the string, tension in the string and the mass per unit
length of the string.

A stretched string can produce a number of frequencies

which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. These
are called overtones. For the first overtone (second
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
harmonic), 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆. This means that𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 = = . Therefore,
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
First overtone (second harmonic) 1 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 = 2𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 = � .
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Assignment

1. Derive the expression for the third harmonic, fifth

harmonic and nth harmonic of a vibrating string.
2. List all the musical instruments you know that use
the above principle.

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