A procurator was in charge of a province.

Sadducees was a priest who favored cooperation with

The Essenes lived apart from society. The Zealots wanted to violently overthrow the Romans.
However, despite the Jewish revolt in 66 a.d, the Romans crushed them, and their Jewish Temple in
Jerusalem.

Jesus traveled throughout Judeae and Galilee and taught a new movement within Judaism that came
to be known as Christianity. He recited verses from the Hebrew Bible, most famously: “Love your
neighbor as yourself”. He gave eloquent and influential expressions that focused on the concepts of
humility, charity, and love-values that later shaped the value system of Western Civilization.

Some saw him a threat for a potential revolt, so Pontius Pilate ordered his crucifixion. His followers
believed he had risen from death and believed he was the Messiah to save Israel.

Simon Peter was a Jewish fisherman follower of Jesus, who was recognized as the leader of the
apostles. Paul was another apostle who spread the idea of Chrisitanity to Jews, and non-Jews. His
message centered around Jesus being the son of God, and his death made up for human sins, and by
accepting him as Christ ( Christos is Greek for Messiah ), they could be saved from sin and reconcile
with God.

Christianity began being taught orally, later on being written through Jesus followers. These teachings
became the core of the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible.

Since the Christians refused to worship state gods and emperors, the Romans saw this as treason and
began persecuting and executing them during a period known as the reign of Nero. He blamed them
for a fire that destroyed much of Rome.

Christianity began to grow more and more organized, as the persecutions made only the most
committed follow that faith. The Christian church created a new structure in which the clergy, or
church leaders, had distinct functions separate from the laity, or regular church members.

Christianity had been able to maintain and attract many followers due to it offering more than
the Roman world. The Roman religion was mostly for the benefit of Rome, as opposed to
Christianity that was personal and offered salvation and eternal life. It gave life meaning and purpose
beyond the material things.

It was also more familiar, and less mysterious than the other religions. Jesus was easier to relate
to, and Christianity was inexpensive, as its initiation was by baptism, or purification of water.

It also filled the need to belong, by making people establish communities that helped each other,
unlike the Roman Empire. It appealed to all classes, rich or poor. The last execution was by
Diocletian, but Christianity was too strong to be forced out by force.

Christianity prospered as never before under the reign of Constantine, who before having a crucial
battle, had a vision of the Christian cross marked with the words: “In this sign you shall conquer”.
After winning the battle, he was convinced of the power of God. He issued the Edict of Milan, which
proclaimed tolerance of Christianity. Then, under Theodosius the Great, Romans adopted
Christianity as the official religion of Rome.

A military government under the Severan Rulers restored order after a series of civil wars. Septimus
Severus told his sons “enrich the soldiers, ignore everyone else”. After their rule, more chaos ensued.
Sassanid Persians made inroads into Roman territory, making Germanic tribes move in.

Invasions, civil wars and plagues, or epidemic diseases, almost caused an economic collapse. Plagues
especially affected military recruitment and economy. There was also a decline in trade and small
industry. Due to the struggles, the state had to hire Germans to fight, which had little loyalty to the
empire or emperors.

Diocletian divided the empire into four units known as prefectures. It was divided into 2 parts, east
and west, each with 2 prefectures, ruled by two leaders. The system was known as tetrarchy ( rule by
four ).

Constantine expanded on Diocletian's principles, and established the city of Byzantium. It was
eventually renamed to Constantinople ( modern day Istanbul, Turkey ). It became a strategic location
to protect the eastern frontier, and became the center of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Diocletian and Constantine's political and military reforms enlarged two institutions-the civil service
and the army. This expansion caused a demand for more revenues. Roman currency began to its value.
To fight this inflation or rapid increase of prices, Diocletian issued a price edict that set wage and
price controls for the empire. However, it failed to work.

Gradually, the west and east parts of the empire started to fall apart, and the Germanic kingdoms
moved in. With the pressures of the Huns, a fierce tribe of nomads from the steppes of Asia, the
Germanic tribes were dispersed. One of the groups was the Visigoths, who became Roman allies, but
eventually they revolted and defeated the Romans. In 410 the Visigoths sacked Rome. The Vandals
took over southern Spain and Africa, and the Visigoths took Spain and Gaul.

Rome was taken over by Germanic tribes who were creating independent kingdoms. The Masters of
the Soldiers controlled the government and dominated imperial powers, occupying the real power of
the throne. One of these masters, Odoacer, deposed the Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus,
which many believed signaled the end of the Roman empire in the west.

Some theories that explain the decline and fall of the Roman empire include:
-​ Christianity weakened Roman military virtues.
-​ Roman values declined as non-Italians gained prominence in the empire.
-​ Lead poisoning through water pipes and cups causing mental decline in the population.
-​ Plagues wiping out one-tenth of the population.
-​ Rome failed to advance technologically due to slavery.
-​ Rome's inability to create a workable political system.

The Christian Church had developed a system of government, and priests led local Christian
communities known as parishes. A group of parishes was headed by a bishopric. The bishops of four
great cities-Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch-held positions of special power in church
affairs. The bishop of Rome claimed he was the leader of the Western Christian Church. Bishops of
Rome, known as Popes, were viewed as Peter's successors, since Jesus gave him the keys to the
kingdom of Heaven, and since he was considered the chief apostle and first bishop of Rome.

Many people questioned how much power a pope should have. Gregory I, or Gregory the Great,
strengthened the power of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church. He took control of the
surrounding territories, known as Papal States.

A monk is a man who separates himself from ordinary human society in order to dedicate himself to
God. This practice of life is known as Monasticism. This monastic community came to be seen as the
ideal Christian society that set an example to the rest of society. Benedict wrote a set of rules
establishing the basic form of monastic life, and it was known as the Benedictine Rule. It put an
emphasis on prayer and manual labor.

Many manuscripts contained a scriptorium or writing room, where monks copied the works of early
Christianity as well as works of Latin classical authors. They developed a new way of writing books,
by using parchment or sheepskin and decorating the cover with jewels and precious metals.

Missionaries were people sent out to carry religious messages, and some missionaries converted
non-Christians, particularly in German lands.

Nuns were women who separated themselves from ordinary human society in order to dedicate
themselves to God. They lived in convents headed by abbesses, many of which belonged to royal
houses. They spread Christianity, and provided books and money for missionary activities. A nun
named Leoba established the first convent in Germany.

The Visigoths occupied Spain and Italy until the Ostrogoths occupied Italy. They excluded Romans
from holding power. The Angles and Saxons, Germanic tribes from Denmark and northern Germany
who eventually became the Anglo-Saxons, settled in Britain.

The Kingdoms of the Franks, established by Clovis, lasted a long time. Clovis was initially a
non-believer, but after resorting to him after a losing fight he came out triumphant and soon became
Christian. After his death, the Frankish Kingdom was divided into 3 major areas.

The Germanic people put an emphasis on family. In Roman law murder was considered a crime and
justice would be enacted. However in Germanic law, it was personal, meaning if one injured another,
it could lead to a blood feud and savage acts of revenge. To avoid bloodshed, a system was developed,
and wergild, or “money for man “ was a fine paid by the wrongdoer to the family he or she killed or
injured. The value varied according to social status.

An ordeal was a means of determining guilt in Germanic law, based on divine intervention in which if
an accused person was unharmed after a physical trial, that person was innocent.

Pepin was the son of Charles Martel, who defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours. His son,
Charlemagne or Charles the Great, greatly expanded the Frankish Kingdom in what was known as
the Carolingian Empire. He was a great supporter of education, even though he was unable to read or
write.
He set up missi dominici ( messengers of the lord king ) - two men sent out to local districts to ensure
that the counts carried the king's wishes.

He eventually gained the title of emperor of the Romans. His coronation symbolized the joining of
Roman, Christian and Germanic elements. He carried out an intellectual revival called the
Caroginilian Renaissance that renewed interest in Latin culture and classical works of both Green
and Roman.

Justinian tried to reestablish the Roman Empire in the entire Mediterranean world and confided laws.
His army was led by Belisarius, the best general of the late Roman world. He sailed into North
Africa, moved to Italy and defeated the Ostrogoths.

Justinian's most important contribution was the codification of Roman law, in The Body of Civil
Law. It was the last product written in Latin, and it became the basis for the legal system in Europe.

The rise of Islam was the Eastern Roman Empire's most serious challenge, since the united Arab
tribes created a powerful new force that swept the east, causing the Romans to lose Syria and
Palestine. The Bulgars took the lower Danube Valley, in the northern frontier, creating a strong
Bulgarian Kingdom.

The Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire, a Greek and Christian state. Its emperor
was portrayed as chosen by God, and he was crowned in sacred ceremonies and his subjects were
expected to prostrate themselves in his presence. He had absolute power and was appointed head of
church, or patriarch.

Constantinople was the largest city in medieval Europe, and was viewed as the center of an empire
and a special Christian city. It was the greatest center of commerce in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Desired products in Europe include silk from China, spices from Southeast Asia and India, jewelry
and ivory from India, wheat and furs from Russia, and flax and honey from the Balkans.

Constantinople's appearance was due to Justinian's rebuilding program, and it included an immense
palace complex, hundreds of churches, and a huge arena known as the Hippodrome. The
Hippodrome was an amphitheater, where gladiator fights and chariot races were often held.

The Byzantine Empire expanded due to the Macedonians. The Macedonian emperors forced a burst of
economic prosperity by expanding trade relations with western Europe, mostly selling silks and
metalworks. Due to this, Constantinople flourished.

Leo III outlawed the use of icons, or religious pictures as idolatry, the worship of religious images.
Monks such as John of Damascus resisted this. This was known as the Iconoclast. Pope Leo IX and
Patriarch Michael Cerularius took each other's church membership of the Eastern Orthodox
Church. This caused a schism, or separation between the branches of Christianity.

The Seljuk Turks threatened the Byzantine Empire when they moved in Asia Minor, the main source
of food and manpower. A Turkish army defeated Byzantine forces at Manzikert. Alexus I turned to
Europe for military aid, and this would lead to involvement in the Crusades and bring the fall of the
Byzantine Empire.