The Apennine mountain range forms a ridge running from north to south, dividing west Italy and

south Italy. Rome had a favorable location due to it being inland to the Tiber river, giving it a route to
the sea. It was far enough to be safe from pirates and it could easily be defended since it was built on
seven hills.

Indo-Europeans spoke latin, and lived in the region of Latium. Eventually the Greeks and Etruscans
settled in Italy. During the Greek Colonization, they cultivated olives and grapes, passed on their
alphabet and provided artistic and cultural models through their sculptures, architecture, and literature.

The Etruscans, from Etrutriam, inspired the toga and short cloak, an army organization, that the
Romans then adopted.

Republic - form of government in which the leader is not a king and certain citizens have the right to
vote.

The Romans devised the Roman Confederation, to rule Italy, which allowed some people to have
Roman citizenship. Rome made communities run their own local affairs but they were required to
provide soldiers.

Livy, a Roman historian, wrote stories about virtues that made Rome great, such as duty, courage and
discipline. Such an example is Cincinnatus, a simple farmer who was chosen as a temporary ruler to
save Rome. After saving Rome, he returned to being a farmer.

Rome's success in controlling the Italian peninsula included their diplomatic but firm, their excellent
military matters, brilliant strategists and practical law and politics.

Early Rome ( Roman Republic ) was divided into two groups:

-​ Patricians - social class of wealthy, powerful landowners. (Eligible for governmental offices)
-​ Plebeians - social class of minor landholders, craftspeople, merchants and small farmers.

Both orders were citizens who paid taxes owed military service and could vote.

The chief executive officers of the Roman Republic were the:

-​ Consuls - two were elected each year to run the government and lead the army to battle.
-​ Praetor - in charge of enforcing civil law.

The Roman senate was composed of 300 patricians who served for life. Centuriate Assemblies elected
chief officials and passed laws.

There were often struggles between the Plebeians and Patricians that eventually led to the creation of
the Council of Plebs, who protected Plebeians and allowed the plebs to marry patricians, and to
become consuls.

The Twelve Tables were the first Roman code of laws. These include:
-​ Paternal Power
-​ Real Property
-​ Inheritance and Guardianship
-​ Torts or Delicts
The Law of Nations established standards of justice that applied to everyone, a universal law based
on reason.

The Phoenicians founded Carthage, which had a strong trading empire in the Mediterranean, and the
struggle for control of the western Mediterranean led to the First Punic War. Romans sent an army to
Sicily, which the Carthaginians considered an act of war since they thought of Sicily as part of their
empire. The Romans won, due to a Roman fleet defeating the Carthaginian navy. Sicily became the
first Roman province.

The Romans encouraged Hannibal, Spanish ally to the Carthigians to revolt against them, but he
struck back at the Romans, which led to the Second Punic War. He took the fight to Rome, and
crossed the Alps with 46,000 men, a large number of horses and 37 battle elephants. At Cannae,
Hannibal 's forces killed 40,000 Romans.

Rome began to reconquer and attacked Carthage. The Battle of Zama, led by Scipio Africanus,
crushed Hannibal's forces and ended the war. Spain also became a Roman province. The Romans
pursued Hannibal, who eventually cornered, took position.

In the Third Punic War, politician Cato, believed Carthage should be destroyed, and so it was.
Macedonia and Pergamum became Roman provinces.

Tiberius and Gaius Grachus, brothers, believed Rome's problems were the decline of small farmers,
who were the backbone of the Roman state, who had their lands taken by wealthy owners. So the
council of plebs gave back land, causing senators to kill Tiberius, and eventually Gaius.

Marius, a consul, recruited soldiers from urban and rural areas who did not own land.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla took advantage of this and seized Rome and took out all opposition.

Crassus, Pompey and Julius Caesar held enormous power. Crassus was the richest man in Rome,
Pompey came from Spain as a war hero, and Julius Caesar also had a military command in Spain.
They formed the First Triumvirate, or government of three with equal power.

Pompey received command in Spain, Crassus in Syria and Caesar in Gaul. When Crassus died, the
Senate referred Pompey to be ruler, which would leave Caesar vulnerable. So he left with his army,
and hence comes the phrase “crossing the Rubicon '' or doing something that can't be taken back.

Caesar defeated Pompey and became dictator, or absolute ruler. He gave land to the poor and raised
the Senate to 900 with his supporters weakening the Senate's power. He granted citizenship to those
who helped him and introduced the Egyptian Calendar of 365 days. Resentment from senators led to
his assassination.

Octavius ( Caesar 's heir and grand nephew ), Antony ( Caesar' s ally and assistant ), and Lepidus (
commander of Caesar 's cavalry ) formed the Second Triumvirate. Eventually Octavian took West
Rome and Antony East Rome.

Antony allied himself with Cleopatra VII ( she was with both Caesar and Antony ) both whom lost
at the Battle of Actium and committed suicide a year later. Octavia’s became the first Roman emperor.
He gained the title of “Augustus” ( the Revered One ) which was reserved for Gods. He also gained
the title of Imperator - commander in chief; Latin origin for emperor.

Augustus maintained a standing army of 28 legions, developed a new system for governing the
provinces and stabilized the frontiers of the Roman Empire. Tried to conquer Germany, but general
Varus was massacred. He also rebuilt many ruined temples and built new ones to honor Roman gods.

The first 4 emperors after Augustus were from his family:

-​ Tiberius
-​ Caligula
-​ Claudius
-​ Nero - killed people if he wanted to, including his mother. Committed suicide, “what an artist
the world is losing in me”.

5 so called good emperors include:

-​ Nerva
-​ Trajan - provided state funds to support poor parents and give their children education.
Active in public works and constructions. Extended Roman rule into Dacia.
-​ Hadrian - Active in public works and constructions. Strengthened fortifications - known as
Hadrian’s Wall.
-​ Antoninus Pius
-​ Marcus Aurelius
They created a period of peace and prosperity known as Pax Romana - the Roman Peace. It lasted for
about 200 years. Treated ruling classes with respect, ended arbitrary executions, maintained peace,
etc.

Caracalla gave free citizenship to every free person in the Empire.

Rome had high levels of trade, and merchants came from Puteoli, on the Bay of Naples and Ostia at
the mouth of the Tiber, such as silk goods from China and grains. Economy was mostly based on
farming, and large landed estates, called latifundia, dominated Italy.

Romans took inspiration from the Greeks, resulting in Greco-Roman influence. Used Greek styles
such as colonnades and rectangular buildings, and curved items such as arches, vaults and domes.
They were famous for their grand scales. Built roads, bridges, and aqueducts.

Authors of the Augustan Age include Virgil, Horace and Livy.

The high point of Latin literature was during the Augustan Age. The most distinguished poet was
Virgil, who wrote the Aeneid, about Aeneas, an ideal roman meant to express Rome’s gift of ruling.

Horace wrote Satires, which points out follies and vices of his age, The most famous prose was The
Early History of Rome by Livy, which revealed chief figures and demonstrated virtues that made
Rome great.

Paterfamilias - the dominant male, head of the household, which also included his wife, sons and
their wives and children, unmarried daughters and slaves.
Roman boys and girls learned to read, but boys were also taught to read and write, moral principles,
family values, law and physical training. At the age of 16, childhood ended for them and they
exchanged their purple-edged toga for a plain white one, the toga of manhood.

Women were thought to be weak and needed protection from a man, hence the duty of the
paterfamilias. Divorces became easy to obtain. Eventually paterfamilias didn't have total authority
over their children or wives. Women were more free, having the right to own, inherit and sell
property and could go outside and participate in different activities. They could influence
politics through their husbands, but they couldn't participate in it.

Slavery was common and prisoners typically became slaves. Spartcaus, a gladiator, led a famous
revolt, killing several Romans alongside 70,000 slaves.

Rome was famous for its temples, markets, baths, theaters among others. It was very populated and
noisy, and it was dangerous at night. Insulae were roman apartments blocks constructed of concrete
with wooden-beam floors.

Fires were started easily due to stoves, torches, candles, etc. Nero was accused of starting the famous
fire of A.D 64. Three major forms of entertainment were the Circus Maximus, horse and chariot
races and gladiatorial shows.

Romans believed proper rituals brought them the right relationship with the gods, which brought them
peace and prosperity. Cicero claimed the gods governed the world. They were tolerant of other
religions, but worshiped gods and goddesses such as Jupiter ( Thunder ), Minerva ( Battle Strategy ),
Juno, Mars ( War ).