Chapter 3

Signal Conditioning Elements

OUTLINES
• Introduction
• Deflection Bridge
• Amplifier
• Filter
• Oscillator
 Introduction

• Signal conditioning element converts the output of sensing

elements into a form suitable for further processing
• This form includes:
 A DC voltage
 A DC current
 A variable frequency AC voltage
• In general it is the action of:
 conversion
 filtration
 amplification
 attenuation
 modulation and demodulation takes place.
 Deflection bridges

• These are used to convert the out put of resistive, capacitive

and inductive sensors into a voltage signal.

• The following figure shows general Deflection bridge net

work.
 Eth- Thevenin’s
voltage
 It is open circuit
output voltage of
the bridge (when
current through
BD=0)
 Using Kirchhoff’s laws

• Loop PABCQ: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑖2 𝑍2 + 𝑖2 𝑍3
𝑉𝑠
𝑖2 =
𝑍2 + 𝑍3

• Loop PADCQ: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑖1 𝑍1 + 𝑖1 𝑍4
 𝑉𝑠
𝑖1 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍4
𝐸𝑡ℎ = 𝐸𝐷𝐵 = 𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝐵
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
But, 𝐸𝐷 = 𝑍 and 𝐸𝐵 = 𝑍
𝑍1 +𝑍4 4 𝑍2 +𝑍3 3

 Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge

𝑍4 𝑍3
𝐸𝑡ℎ = 𝐸0 = 𝑉𝑠 ( − )
𝑍1 + 𝑍4 𝑍2 + 𝑍3
• Zth -is the impedance looking back into the circuit between
the output terminals BD, when the supply voltage is short
circuited.

• Then Zth- is the parallel combination of Z2 & Z3 in series with

the parallel combination of Z1 & Z4

 z2 z3 z1 z4 
Z th    
 z2  z3 z1  z4 

• Thévenin impedance for general deflection bridge

• If a load (voltmeter or amplifier) of impedance ZL is connected
across the output terminals BD, then the current through the
load is:

𝑬𝒕𝒉
𝒊=
𝒁𝒕𝒉 + 𝒁𝑳

𝑬𝒕𝒉 𝒁𝑳
𝑽𝑳 =
𝒁𝒕𝒉 + 𝒁𝑳

• Thus, if 𝑍𝐿 ≫ 𝑍𝑡ℎ , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ

DC bridge
• These are used for measuring very low and medium resistance
used as resistive sensor.
• Works by deflection of Galvanometer connected across the
balanced point.
• It includes:
 Wheatstone bridge
 Kelvin’s bridge

8
 Wheatstone bridge
• A Wheatstone bridge is widely used to measure the
electrical resistance.

• This circuit is built with two known resistors, one

unknown resistor and one variable resistor connected in
the form of bridge.

• To find the value of unknown resistance, we need the

galvanometer and DC voltage source
• The circuit diagram of Wheatstone’s bridge is shown in
figure

• In Wheatstone's bridge all bridge elements are pure resistors,

Z1=R1, Z2=R2, Z3=R3, Z4=R4.
• Here, the resistor, R4 is a standard variable resistor and the
resistor, R1 is an unknown resistor. We can balance the bridge,
by varying the resistance value of resistor, R4.
• The bridge circuit is balanced when no current flows through
the diagonal arm, DB (i.e.) there is no deflection in the
galvanometer, when the bridge is balanced.
• The Thevenines equivalent will be (Output voltage for
resistive deflection bridge):

• Lets consider a cause that one of the resistance R1 is a sensing

element.
𝑅3
• Parameters are required to design the bridge, Vs, R4 and
𝑅2
 The three parameters can be specified by considering
• The range and linearity of the output voltage and
• Electrical power limitations for the sensor.

11
• Thus, if 𝐼min and 𝐼m𝑎𝑥 are minimum and maximum values of
the measured variable, and 𝑅min and 𝑅m𝑎𝑥 are the
corresponding sensor resistances, then in order for the bridge
output voltage to have a range from 𝑉min to 𝑉max the following
conditions must be obeyed:

• Often we require 𝑉min = 0 , i.e. the bridge to be balance when

𝐼 = 𝐼min . 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, the relationship between resistances in a
balanced Wheatstone bridge:
• Other important consideration is the need to limit the electrical
power 𝑖22 𝑅1 in the sensor to a level which enables it to be
dissipated as heat flow to the surrounding fluid;

• Otherwise the temperature of the sensor rises above that of the

surrounding fluid, thereby affecting the sensor resistance.

• If 𝑤 watts is the maximum power dissipation:

 Reading Assignment

• Another requirement is, the need to keep the non-linearity of

the overall relationship between 𝐸𝑡ℎ and I within specified
limits.
 Kelvin’s bridge

• Kelvin Bridge is a modification of Wheatstone bridge.

• It is used for measuring of low resistance to a good precision.

• Used to measure values of resistance below 1 Ω.

• In low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads

connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal of the
bridge circuit may affect the measurement.
• Consider the circuit given, where Ry
represents the resistance of the
connecting leads from R3 to Rx
(unknown resistance).

• The galvanometer can be connected

either to point c or point a.

• When it is connected to point a, the

resistance Ry, of the connecting lead
is added to the unknown resistance
Rx, resulting in too high indication
for Rx.
• When the connection is made to point c, Ry, is added to
the bridge arm R3 and resulting measurement of Rx is
lower than the actual value
• If the galvanometer is connected to point b, in between
points c and a, in such a way that the ratio of the
resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the
ratio of resistances R1 and R2, then.
𝑅1 𝑅𝑏𝑐
=
𝑅2 𝑅𝑎𝑏
When bridge is balance;
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅𝑥 =
𝑅2
𝑅𝑏𝑐
Implies , 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅3
𝑅𝑎𝑏
 Example

• In figure below it is given the ratio Rb to Ra is

1000, R3=10ohm. What is the value of Rx?

• Ans: Rx=0.01ohm
 AC Bridge

• Includes:
 Maxwell’s Bridge
 Hay Bridge
 De sauté Bridge

1. Maxwell’s Bridge
• It is suitable to accurate measurement of medium inductance.

• Unknown inductance is determined by comparing with

standard self inductance.
• L1 is unknown inductance
• L3 is known variable inductance
• R2 & R4 are pure resistance
• D Detector can be balanced by adjusting L3 or one of R2 &
R4.
• When bridge is balanced;
𝑍1𝑍4 = 𝑍2𝑍3

𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅1 =
𝑅4
𝑅2 𝐿3
𝐿1 =
𝑅4
 2. Hay Bridge
• This is used when phase angle of inductor under test is large
𝜔𝐿
tan−1 is large
𝑅

• L1-is inductance & R1 is resistance of coil under test

• C4-is known variable capacitance
• R2,R3 & R4-are known pure resistance
• When bridge is balanced:

𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶4
𝐿1 = 2 2 2
𝜔 𝐶4 𝑅4 + 1

2
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶4
𝑅1 = 𝜔 2 2 2 𝑅4 𝐶4
𝜔 𝐶4 𝑅4 + 1
 3. De saute bridge

• It is used for determining the value of unknown capacitance in

capacitive sensor.
• C1-is unknown capacitance

• C2-is known standard capacitance

• R1 & R2-are known pure resistance

• When bridge is balanced:

𝑅2 𝐶2
𝐶1 =
𝑅1
 Operational Amplifier
• It is a direct coupled high performance
amplifier containing several transistors.
• It can amplify signals from DC level to
several MHz
• High performance indicates:
A very high voltage gain (Av)
High input impedance (Rin or Zin)
Low output impedance (Ro or Zo)
    
 Rin   1   1 
 RL 
Vin  Vs    Vs    Vs Vo  VTh    VTh  R 
 Rs  Rin   1  Rs   RL  Ro   1 o 
 R   R 
 in   L 
This value depend on the
𝑅𝑠
• Since, Rin is very high, =0 value of RL
𝑅𝑖𝑛
The schematic symbol of Op-amp
+Vcc (12-15v)

4
3

V+
Non Inv . Input +
1
OUT Output
Inverting Input 2

V-
-

11
Vee(-12-(-(15v))
 Characteristics of Op-amp
Open loop gain(AvoL)
• Refers to an output that is developed when only different
voltage is applied to the input.
i.e. without feedback from the output to the input

V1 +
Vcc
Vo  AvoL .Vin  AvoL V1  V2 
Vin Vo
V2 -
AvoL  ranges from 10, 000 to 200, 000

• Open loop mode is not used because there may be over

heated.
• OP-amp under goes saturation when Vo sat=90% of Vcc
29
Example:
• How much Vin is needed to cause saturation of op-
amp with AvoL=100,000 & Vcc=15 v
• Vo=AvoL*Vin , but the op-amp will get saturated at
90% of Vcc
Vcc*90%=0.9*15=13.5v=Vo
Vin= 𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 13.5
100,000=135μv
 Input offset voltage
• Ideally output voltage of op-amp should be zero when input
voltage is zero.
• In a practical case there is some output voltage ranges from
µV to mV even input voltage is zero.
• An input offsetting voltage is used to overcome the unwanted
output voltage of op-amp.
• The net effect is zero at the output when there is no input
voltage. This is called input offset voltage
 Input biasing current

• It is the average current flowing into or out of the two inputs.

Input Impedance (Zin)

• It is the equivalent resistance of the input of Op-amp.

• Typical value ranges from 10KΩ to 1 MΩ

 Application of Op-amp

It is applied for the construction of

 Voltage follower
 Inverting amplifier
 Non inverting amplifier
 Summing amplifier (adder)
 Subtracting amplifier
 Instrumentation amplifier
 Differentiator
 Integrator
 comparator
 Inverting amplifier
• Figure below shows what is known as the inverting
configuration. With this circuit, the output is out of phase with
the input.

• The gain of this circuit is determined by the ratio of the resistors

used and is given by: Ig  I f  0  Ig  I f
Vo Vin Rf
  Vo  Vin
Rf Rg Rg
Ig If Vo Rf
AvcL  
Vin Rg

Vo  R f
AvcL  
Vin Rg
 Non-Inverting amplifier
• With this circuit the output is in phase with the input.

• The gain of the circuit is also determined by the ratio of the

resistors used and is given by:

I g  ( I f )  0  I g  I f
Vin Vo  Vin
If  , Ideal sum min g po int Va  Vin
Rg Rf
Vin Vo Vin V V V
   o  in  in
Ig Rg R f R f R f Rg R f
Vo  1 1   Rf 
 AvcL  R f       1
Vin R R R 
 Rf   g f   g 
AvcL    1
R 
 g 
 Summing amplifier
• According to a comfort scale, the air conditioning in a building
should come on when the sum of the temperature and humidity
sensor voltages goes above 1 V. A threshold circuit in the air
conditioner requires 5 V for turn-on. Design an interface circuit to
connect the two sensors to the air conditioning unit.

• Hint :- the input impendence Ri=1KΩ.

 Differential amplifier

• A Differential amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference

between two inputs but rejects any signals common to the two
inputs.
VO  VO1  VO 2
R2
VO1   V1 , due to V1 only
R1
 R  R4
VO 2   1  2  Vb , Where Vb  *V2
 R1  R3  R4

But given that R1  R3 & R2  R4

Substitute for Vb gives ,
R 
VO 2   2  V2 , due to V2 only
 R1 
R
Vo  2 V2  V1 
R1
• Example 1: For subtracting amplifier given that R1=R3=20
ohm R2=R4=40 ohm and if the device is supplied from
V1=6v and V2=2v, Determine the output of the amplifier.
Example 2: Design an op amp ckt with inputs V1 & V2 such
that Vo=-5V1+3V2
Exercise
• A differential amp is needed to amplify the voltage
difference between two temperature sensors. The sensors
have an internal resistance of 5 kΩ, and the maximum
voltage difference between the sensors will be 2 V. Design
the differential amp circuit to have an output of 12 V when
the difference the inputs is 2 V.( hint Ra = Rb and Rf = Rg,
and the input impendence of the amplifier should be 10
times greater than sensor impendence)
 Instrumentation amplifier

• One of the most useful and versatile op-amp circuits for

precision measurement and process control is the
instrumentation amplifier (IA)

• Typical applications of IAs include isolation amplifiers,

thermocouple amplifiers, and data acquisition systems.

• An instrumentation amplifier is a differential amp that has its

inputs buffered with voltage followers.
Prove that!
 Integrator

• A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of

the input voltage waveform is called integrator.

• Fig. below, shows an integrator circuit using OPAMP.

Here, the feedback element is a

capacitor. The current drawn by
OPAMP is zero and also the V2 is
virtually grounded.
Therefore, i1 = if and
v 2 = v1 = 0
 Vin  0 d (0  Vo )
C
R dt

d ( Vo )
t t
Vin
0 R dt  0 C dt dt
 C  ( Vo )  Vo t 0 
if Vo t 0  0, then
1
t
Vo 
RC V
0
in dt
• The output voltage is directly proportional to the negative
integral of the input voltage and inversely proportional to the
time constant RC.

• If the input is a sine wave the output will be cosine wave.

• If the input is a square wave, the output will be a triangular

wave.
 Differentiator
• A circuit which produces an output proportional to the
derivation of the input.

I in  I f
d (Vin  0) 0  Vo
C 
dt R
dVin Vo
C 
dt R
d (Vin )
Vo   RC
dt
• The input signal to the differentiator is applied to
the capacitor.
• The capacitor blocks any DC content so there is no
current flow to the amplifier summing point, X
resulting in zero output voltage.
• The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage
changes to pass through and whose frequency is
dependant on the rate of change of the input signal.
 Filter Circuits
• Filter is a circuit that pass signals of frequency in the pass band
and rejects those which are in the stop band.
• In other word, Filter is frequency selective network.
• It has a wide application in communication and control system
• Based on frequency discrimination, filter circuits can be
classified as:
Low pass
High pass
Band pass
Band reject
48
• Depending on their construction, there are two types of filters
– Active Filter: constructed with active electronics device.

Ex. Op-amp in conjunction with Inductor, capacitor and resistor

– Passive Filter: constructed with passive electronics device.

Ex. Inductor, capacitor and resistor

 Oscillator
• Is a circuit which basically act as a generator, generating the
out put signal which oscillates with constant amplitude and
constant desired frequency.

• It is an amplifier, which uses positive feedback

• It produces a periodic waveform on its output with only the

DC supply voltage as an input.

• Different types of oscillators produce various types of outputs

including sine waves, square waves, triangular waves, and saw
tooth waves.
• The basic oscillator concept showing three
common types of output wave-forms: sine
wave, square wave, and saw tooth.
For self-sustaining oscillations (Barkhausen criterion):
1. The total phase shift around a loop, as a signal proceed from input
through amplifier, feedback network back to input again, completing
a loop is precisely 00 or 3600 imaginary parts are
zero.
2. The overall gain must be equal to one (unity gain), |Aβ|=1
• Satisfying the above 2 condition, we can obtained sustained
oscillation
 R-C Phase-Shift Oscillator

• It consist of an amplifier and a feedback network consist of a

resistor and capacitor arranged in ladder fashion.

• Each of the three RC circuits in the feedback loop can provide

a maximum phase shift approaching 90° (0 < θ < 90◦).

• The phase shift is given by θ = tan−1 (XC/R).

• In practice , by selecting proper values of R and C ,the angle θ

is adjusted as 60° for RC phase shift oscillator
• RC Phase-Shift Network
• Basic RC Oscillator Circuit (using inverting op-
amp)

• The operating frequency of this oscillator is

(drive?)
In RC Oscillator the input is shifted 180°
through the amplifier and 180° again through a
feedback stage ,giving us" 180° + 180° =360°
or 0.
 180° + 180° =360° or 0° . Satisfies phase shift
criteria of oscillation.
E.g. Determine the frequency of oscillations of a RC
oscillator circuit having three-stages each with a
resistor and capacitor of equal values. R = 10 kΩ and
C = 500 pF