TOPIC : CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses the conditions of knowledge, theories of truth.

3.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic, the learner should be able to;
a) Define knowledge
b) Identify the conditions of knowledge
c) Describe the characteristics of theories of truth

3.3 CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

The Latin word for knowledge is scribe which means to be conscious or aware of something. To
know therefore means to make something a content of a person’s consciousness i.e. to be aware
of the existence of something. Epistemology is the philosophical study of human knowledge. It
enables us to understand what knowledge is in order to be able to differentiate true knowledge
from the false one. Therefore knowledge is defined as a justified true belief.
EPISTEMOLOGY
Etymologically, the word epistemology is derived from two Greek words episteme, meaning
Knowledge and logos meaning to study. It is a branch of technical philosophy that is
concerned with the theory of knowledge. The term epistemology is defined as the study of
the nature and scope of knowledge and justified true belief.
Epistemology analyzes the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as
truth, belief and justification.
Epistemology deals with the manse of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about
different knowledge claims. It is essentially about having to do with the creation and
dissemination of knowledge in particular areas of inquiry.
Epistemology endeavors to ask questions like;’How is knowledge acquired? ‘What do people
know?’ What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?””What is its
structure and what are its limits?”What makes justified belief justified?”How do we come to
understand knowledge?”Is Justification of knowledge internal or external to one’s own
mind?”
The kind of knowledge discussed in epistemology is promotional knowledge,
“KNOWLEDGE-THAT” as opposed to “KNOWLEDGE-HOW” (For example, the
knowledge that “2 +2 = 4 “as opposed to knowledge of how to go about adding two numbers.
Therefore, knowledge is awareness and understanding of particular aspects of reality. It is the
clear lucid information gained through the process of reason applied to reality. The
traditional approach is that knowledge requires three necessary and sufficient conditions, so
that knowledge can be defined as “Justified true belief”
CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Truth-Truth is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions
that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the fact or state what is the case.
Truth is the aim of belief; falsity is false. People need the truth about the world in order to
thrive. Truth is important. Believing what is not true is apt to spoil a person’s plans and may
even cost his life or legal consequences.

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Since false prepositions cannot be known,-for something to count as knowledge, it must
actually be true. As Aristotle famously (but rather confusingly) expressed it “To say
something which is that it is not, or to say of something which is not that it is, is false.
However, to say of something which is that it is, or of something which is not that it is not, is
true”

Transcendent truths are those unaffected by time or space. They define the world, but are
not defined by the world. An example of a transcendent truth is "God is good", or "there is no
God". Either way, how one looks at things contained by time and space is a result of the
transcendent truth. One is true; both cannot be true at the same time. World views are made
up of transcendent truths; things we believe are true before we question whether or not
anything else is true.

The Transcendent Truth is the only Truth that is, ultimately, beyond human comprehension
and before all concepts. It is beyond reality, and is the Creator of realities, existence, time
and all there is, was and is yet to be. It is the Light that sacred texts speak of that illuminates
hearts with knowledge from a Source beyond our universe. It is actually the true definition of
God. Gandhi once signed a photograph of himself with the text "God is truth". Buddha once
said that truth is the saviour from sin. And Christ said to His disciples "I am the Truth".
THEORIES OF TRUTH
 Correspondence theory of truth
The correspondence theory of truth states that the truth or falsity of a statement is determined
only by how it relates to the world and whether it accurately describes (corresponds with)
that world. Correspondence theories claim that true beliefs and true statements correspond to
actual state of affairs. This type of theory attempts to posit a relationship between thoughts or
statements on one hand and things or facts on the other hand.

 Coherence theory of truth

States that truth is based on logical consistency as a primary requirement since we may or
may not be actually able to know the world around us. This is the view that the ideas or
propositions which conflict with the least number of other propositions which we hold to be
true are the ones that are the truest. The less a proposition logically conflicts with others the
more true it is.

An example of this is would be that if a person believes firmly that “Fido is a dog” then also
it must be true that “Fido is not a cat”

However, notice the difference of how the truth is arrived at. It is obviously true for both the
correspondence theory and the coherence theory, but in the second case it is true because it
does not contradict with a more fundamental belief, rather than because has actually been
discovered to apply to reality. Of course correspondence theorists use this method as well,
but the difference is that they do not believe that the belief system which has the least
number of internal contradictions must be the one that it most true.

 Semantic theory of truth

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Is a theory of truth in the philosophy of language which holds that truth is a property of
sentences.

 Consensus theory of truth

Is the process of taking statements to be true simply because people generally agree upon
them. This usually also implies that if there is a small group of people who disagree, the with
the overall opinion, then their disagreement can be granted and their belief can remain true
for them but not for the others

 Pragmatic theory of truth

This view holds that truth is verified or confirmed by the results of putting one's beliefs or
concepts into practice. The beliefs and concepts that “function” the best when tested in the
real world are the truest. This theory is very closely associated with a scientific triumphalism,
a view that science is the ultimate arbiter of truth
2. Belief- is a psychological state of the mind. It is a mental conviction that something is
true, that a statement represents a fact or that a claim is indeed truth . It is the state of
mind in which a person thinks something to be the case with or without there being
empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty.
3. Justification-Justification is the reason that someone properly holds a belief, the
explanation as to why the belief is a true one or an account of how one knows what one
knows. Therefore, Knowledge is justified true belief. Also called ground verification or
proof condition. It offers ground upon which a truth claim is based. It provides proof to a
truth claim. In teaching and learning process, justification enables the teacher to be
practical, realistic and objective.
How is knowledge acquired?
Propositional knowledge can be of two types, depending on its source”
A propri (or non-empirical), where knowledge is possible independently of, or prior to any
experience, and requires only the use of reason e.g. Knowledge of logical truths and of
abstract claims
A posteriori (empirical), where knowledge is possible only subsequent or posterior, to
certain sense experiences, in addition to the use of reason. eg. Knowledge of color or shapes
of physical objects or geographical locations.
Skepticism-Refers to the attitude of doubting knowledge claims set forth in various areas.
Skeptics have challenged the adequacy or reliability of claims by asking what principles they
are based upon or what they actually establish.
Skepticism always questions whether claims really are, as alleged, indubitable, or necessarily
true, and they have challenged the purported rational grounds of accepted assumptions.
The Greek meaning Skeptikos was an inquirer, someone who was unsatisfied and still
looking for truth. Skepticism is critical in undermining contentions of dogmatic philosophers,
scientists and theologians.
Dogmatism-The tendency to lay down principles as undeniably true, without consideration
of evidence or the opinions of others.

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FORMS/TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
 REVEALED KNOWLEDGE
Revealed knowledge may be described as knowledge that God has disclosed to man. In his
omniscience, God inspired certain men to write down truths that he revealed to them, so that
these truths might be known thereafter by all mankind. For Christians and Jews, the word of
God is contained in the Bible, for Muslims in the Qur’an, for Hindus in the Bhagavad-Gita
and the Upanishads. Because it is the word of God, it is true forever.
 INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE
This refers to knowledge that a person finds within himself in a moment of insight. Insight or
intuition is the sudden eruption into consciousness of an idea or conclusion produced by a
long process of unconsciousness work. All of a sudden we see the solution to a problem with
which our unconsciousness has been at grip for days, months or even years.
Intuitive knowledge is also described as knowledge that is proposed and accepted on the
strength of the imaginative vision or private experience of the person proposing it. The truths
embodied in the works of arts are a form of intuitive knowledge. All great writers like
Homer, William Shakespeare, Ngugi Wathiong’o etc tell us truths about the heart of man.
Note: Epistemology seeks to answer such basic questions as "What is true?" and "How do we
know?"
Question: Compare and contrast Revealed knowledge and Intuitive knowledge.
 RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
This is the knowledge we obtain by the exercise of reason alone unaccompanied by
observation of actual states of affairs. The principles of formal logic and pure mathematics
are paradigms of rational knowledge. The truth is demonstrated by abstract reasoning alone,
e.g. if ‘A’ is greater than ‘B’ and ‘B’ is greater than ‘C’, then we conclude that ‘A’ is greater
than ‘C’. The principles of rational knowledge may be applied to sense experience, but they
are not deducted from it. Rational truths are valid universally.
 EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE
This knowledge is acquired through senses. By seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling, and tasting
we form our conception of the world around us. Empirical knowledge therefore is composed
of ideas formed in accordance with observed or sensed facts. Sense experience is the starting
pt. of knowledge for we begin to be conscious only when we begin to exercise our senses?
Our senses give empirical knowledge. Validated by sense perception.
The mind behaves like (Tabula rasa/blank tablet) a blank state ready to have impressions
from sense exp. Imprinted on it. Through reflection the mind develops dependable ideas.
All we know or think about is ideas which come from experiment.

 AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE
This is knowledge that has been accepted because it was vouched for by authorities in the
field. It is made up of facts that have been accepted as true. It is not subject to questioning or
criticism. For example we accept that Nairobi is the capital city of Kenya, Washington is the
capital city of the United States of America, light travels in a straight line, the battle of
Adowa took place in 1986, etc. we feel no need to work out for ourselves for example the
table of logarithms.
 CONTROLLED EXPERIENCE
Knowledge obtained from the scientific methods of observation and experimentation.
Through research;

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 - Identification of the problems
- Formulation of hypothesis
- Collection of data
- Organization of date
- Analysis of data
- Interpretation of data
- Presentation of data
 TRADITIONS AND CUSTOMS
Cultural norms provide knowledge necessary for living.
They are reliable because they have survived the test of time.
They enjoy non-controversial acceptance in the society as a source of knowledge one heir
legitimacy isn’t doubted.

 EXPERTS KNOWLEDGE
Gained form experts, specialists and authentic documents.
Such knowledge has been verified and validated by observation, experimentation and
replication such that its veracity (integrity/credibility) is indebted.
Also comprises of knowledge provided by elders and sages (mentor in spiritual/
philosophical matters) in African society – known as WISDOM.

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
The Senses
Information from the senses is called empirical knowledge and empiricists believe that the
fundamental source of all knowledge is our senses. Our senses are exploratory organs; we use
them all to become acquainted with the world we live in. We learn that candy is sweet, and so
are sugar, jam, and maple syrup. Lemons are not, and onions are not. The sun is bright and
blinding. Glowing coals in the fireplace are beautiful if you don't touch them. Sounds soothe,
warn, or frighten us. Through millions of single sense-events we build a fabric of empirical
information which helps us interpret, survive in, and control the world about us.

We have a number of different kinds of senses:

· The objective senses that tell us about the world: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste
· The visceral senses, in our mouths and gut that give us the sense of stomach ache
· The proprioceptive senses, in our muscles that tell us if our fist is clenched or not
· The balance senses, mostly in our ears that tell us if we are … um … balanced

However, our senses present us with a serious credibility problem. Before we start the
Philosophy of Education course most of us are naïve realists people who simply accept what
their senses are telling them as the truth … but is there any way we can actually be sure about
this? Can we really trust what our senses seem to tell us?

Unfortunately the answer must be a reluctant no. Our senses do not give us a "true picture" of the
real world; they give us useful picture – a picture that is designed to help us move around,
survive in and take advantage of our world. To take a simple example: if you think about it we
know that the chairs we sit on are not actually not solid: they are made of atoms which are
actually more space than anything else. Yet our senses tell us that they are solid. Why? Because

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in terms of day to day survival there is no point knowing about atoms: you need to know that a
chair will hold you up if you sit on it and that a rock will hurt if it falls on you: a sensitive
awareness of the arrangement of the sub-atomic particles of a boulder as it plummets towards
you will not do your survival chances any good.

Authority:
Other people are continual sources of information. Such information, however, is always second-
hand knowledge - or third-, fourth-, or nth-hand knowledge. It is all "hearsay." The farther it is
removed from our own personal experience, the more caution we must exercise before accepting
a fact-claim.

All of our historical knowledge is acquired in this way as is most of our knowledge of the
sciences. We can't experience the past or personally repeat every experiment, so we must trust
the specialists and accept, though not blindly, the discoveries they record for us. They key thing
with knowledge from authority is that it can be double-checked and the work of scientists and
historians is continually being ‘double checked’ as other workers in the same field (even
sometimes us in our classrooms) repeat their experiments or investigations. A healthy cynicism
of sources, the development of the skills required to check facts and an awareness of which
sources are more or less reliable is a good way to ensure that the knowledge we receive from
authority is as good as it can be.

Reason:
Reasoning might be defined as the process of using known facts to arrive at new facts. In this
way Reason can help us arrive at new facts or new knowledge BUT only as long as the original
facts we put into the process are correct and the process itself is reliable.

Imagine you are travelling in Japan and you know that the exchange rate is 200 yen to a dollar,
you can easily work out that an 800 yen sushi meal will actually cost you $4. This is new
knowledge (you didn’t know it before) but … it only works if your original facts are right (i.e.
you’ve got the correct exchange rate and are correct about the cost of the meal) and if the process
is right (you can do multiplication / division properly)

Reasoning generally comes in two forms: deduction and induction. Deduction is the kind of
reasoning usually used in Maths and is the more certain of the two as it involves ‘drawing out’
valid conclusions from previously known facts – e.g. All cats are animals, Jack is a cat, so Jack is
an animal. Induction, on the other hand, is usually used in Science and is less certain as it
involves jumping from some things you have observed to making universal statements about all
things – e.g. I drop this pencil and it falls, so it is likely all dropped pencils (and indeed things)
will fall. Notice that both forms are usually dependent on sensation to give us the initial facts or
ideas in the first place.

The problem with reasoning is that deduction (the most certain form of reasoning) can never
teach us anything new because all the information is there in the facts at the start, while induction
(the thing that can give us what seems like new knowledge) can’t ever give us anything certain,
only things that are likely to be the case.

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Intuition:
Although the word intuition has connotations of the mystical or unscientific, when carefully
defined it can be considered a source of knowledge. Intuition refers to insights or bits of
knowledge which suddenly ‘pop’ into consciousness as our deeper subconscious chugs away
working on data that we have collected earlier. We have all probably had the experience where
the answer to a question we were previously thinking about but have currently forgotten has
suddenly popped into our minds for no reason. This is intuition and, as such, like reason, it too is
dependent on our senses to provide the raw material on which the subconscious works.

Sometimes intuition seems to be a ‘feeling’. We often say something like "I have the feeling he's
not telling the truth," without being sure of why. The psychologist Jung suggested that actually
this is actually a form of unconscious reasoning where your subconscious picks up on the tell-
tale signs of lying (sweating, nervous movements, etc) that are too subtle for your conscious
mind to notice and processes them resulting in the ‘feeling’ that this person is untrustworthy.

The problem with intuition however, is that most of our intuitions are wrong and they need
careful double checking before they are trusted.

IMPORTANCE OF EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology is the explanation of how we think. It is required in order to be able to determine
the true from the false, by determining a proper method of evaluation, It is needed in order to use
and obtain knowledge of the world around us. Without epistemology, we could not think. More
specifically, we would have no reason to believe our thinking was productive or correct, as
opposed to random images flashing before our mind. With an incorrect epistemology, we would
not be able to distinguish truth from error. The consequences are obvious. The degree to which
our epistemology is correct is the degree to which we could understand reality, and the degree to
which we could use knowledge to promote our lives and goals. Flaws in epistemology will make
it harder to accomplish anything.
- The educational implications of the pragmatic theory of truth include the following:
It stresses on the role of research in verifying and establishing truth.
It stresses on science, vocational and career training as means to address challenges in the
society.
 It advocates for contact with the observable universe.
 It advocates for a learner centered education.
 It holds that education is not preparation for life but life itself.
Encourages learning by doing ( use of discovery) methods of instruction