Chapter 7

Introduction to High Voltage Testing

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7.1 High Voltage Testing with AC, Dc and Impulse Voltages
• Purpose of the testing: To ensure that the electrical equipments are capable of withstanding
the overvoltages that are met with in service.
• Covers basic requirements procedures for testing on several electrical apparatus. Normally,
high voltage (HV) testing is to investigate the insulation performance.
• International/national specifications for testing are outlined (details of test, specific
equipment, procedure and acceptable limits) to meet the users’ and manufacturers’
requirements.
High voltage testing can be broadly classified into testing of insulating materials (samples
of dielectrics) and tests on completed equipment.
Tests on samples of dielectric: the measurement of permittivity, dielectric loss per unit
volume, and the dielectric strength of the material.
Tests on completed equipment: the measurement of capacitance, the power factor or the
total dielectric loss, the ultimate breakdown voltage and the flashover voltage. The
breakdown voltage tests on completed equipment is only done on a few samples since it
permanently damages and destroys the equipment.
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 Another way of classification is destructive test and non-destructive test.
• Destructive Test • Non-Destructive Test
• Normally the equipment that underwent • Mainly done to assess the electrical
destructive test cannot be used in the service. properties, eg. Resistivity, dielectric
constant and loss factor.
• Test voltage is higher than its normal working • The apparatus is not destroyed during the
voltage. test and can be used again.
• Breakdown test.
Classification is also done according to the stage at which the test is carried out.
1. Routine Tests: The routine tests are intended to check the quality of every finished piece of
product to check whether it fulfills the required specifications.
2. Type Tests: Type tests are intended to prove or check the design features and the quality.
Performed on each type of equipment before their supply on a general commercial scale to
demonstrate performance characteristics. No need to repeat the test unless changes are made in
the design of the product.
3. Maintenance Tests: Usually carried out after maintenance/repair of the equipment and is
conducted according to schedule provided. Purpose of the test is too ensure the equipment
lifetime is achieved.
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7.1.1 Test Voltages
Tests are done at power frequency high voltages, high DC voltages, high impulse voltages
and sometimes high frequencies.
General tests carried out on High voltage equipment
7.1.1.1 Power Frequency Tests
i) Sustained power frequency tests
Sustained low frequency tests are done at power frequency (50 Hz), and are the commonest
of all tests. These tests are made upon specimens of insulation materials for the
determination of dielectric strength and dielectric loss, for routine testing of supply mains,
and for work tests on high voltage transformers, insulators and other apparatus.
As dielectric loss is sensitive to electric stress, the tests are carried out at the highest ultimate
stress possible. Sometimes, voltages as high as 2000 kV need be used.
High voltage a.c. tests at 50 Hz are carried out as Routine tests on low voltage (230 or 400 V)
equipment. Each one of these devices are subjected to a high voltage of 1 kV + 2 × (working
voltage). A 230 V piece of equipment may thus be subjected to about 1.5 to 2 kV. These
tests are generally carried out after manufacture before installation.
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 Testing Procedure:
1) The high voltage is applied across the device under
test by means of a transformer. The transformer need not
have a high power rating.
2) If a very high voltage is required, the transformer is
usually build up in stages by cascading or the sample
insulation is reduced in size.
3) The transformers are usually designed to have poor
regulation so that if the device under test is faulty and
breakdown occurs, the terminal voltage would drop due
to the high current caused.
AC generation test circuit
4) A resistance of about 1 ohm/volt is used in series with
the transformer so as to limit the current in the event of a
breakdown to about 1 A.
In all high voltage tests, safety precautions are taken seriously and there is no access to the
testing area when the high voltage is on. There would be switches that would automatically
be operated when the door to the area is opened etc.
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 (ii) Power Frequency Flashover and Withstand Tests:
In these tests, power frequency voltage is applied across the insulators and increased at a
uniform rate of about 2 per cent per second of 75% of the estimated test voltage, to such a
value that a breakdown occurs along the surface of the insulator.
If the test is conducted under normal conditions without any rain or precipitation, it is
called ‘dry flashover test’. If the test is done under conditions of rain, it is called ‘wet
flashover test’.
In general, wet tests are not intended to reproduce the actual operating conditions, but only
to provide a criterion based on experience that a satisfactory service operation will be
obtained.
In wet tests, the test object is subjected to a spray of water of given conductivity by means
of nozzles. The spray is arranged such that the water drops fall approximately at an
inclination of 45° to the vertical. The test object is sprayed for at least one minute before
the voltage application, and the spray is continued during the voltage application.

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 Test conditions, procedure (including mounting of specimens) are specified in IEC and
other standards.

Wet and Dry Withstand Tests (One Minute):

In these tests, the voltage specified in the relevant
specification is applied under dry or wet conditions for a
period of one minute with an insulator mounted as in service
conditions. The test piece should withstand the specified
voltage.
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 7.1.1.2 High Voltage direct current tests
These tests are done on apparatus expected to operate under direct voltage conditions, and
also where, due to the inconvenience of the use of high capacity transformers required for
extra high tension alternating voltage tests and due to transport difficulties, alternating
voltage tests cannot be performed after installation.
A special feature of importance of the d.c. test is the testing of cables which are expected to
operate under a.c. conditions. If the tests are done under a.c. conditions, a high charging
current would be drawn and the transformer used would have to have a high current rating.
It is thus normal to subject the cable (soon after laying it, but before energizing it ) to carry
out a high voltage test under d.c. conditions. The test voltage would be about 2× (working
voltage ) and the voltage is maintained from 15 min to 1.5 hrs. This d.c test is not complete
equivalent to the corresponding a.c. conditions, it is the leakage resistance which would
determine the voltage distribution, while in the a.c. conditions, it is the layers of different
dielectrics that determine the voltage distribution in the cable. Although the electric field
differs in the 2 cases, it is likely that the cable will stand up to the required a.c. voltage.
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 7.1.1.3 High-frequency tests
High frequency tests at frequencies varying from several kHz are important for power lines,
and in insulators which are expected to carry high frequency such as radio transmitting
stations. Also in the case of porcelain insulators, breakdown or flashover occurs in most
cases as a result of high frequency disturbances in the line caused by either switching
operations or external causes.
It is found the dielectric loss for every cycle of the power is nearly constant. So at high
frequency the dielectric loss per second becomes much higher than that of normal power
frequency. This fast and large dielectric loss causes excessive heating of the insulator.
Excessive heating ultimately results to insulation failure, may be by blasting of insulators. So
to ensure this high frequency voltage withstanding capacity, high frequency test is carried out.
High voltage tests at high frequency are made at the manufacturing works so as to obtain a
design of insulator which will satisfactorily withstand all conditions of service. In the case of
power line suspension insulators, it is possible that breakdown or flash over would occur due
to high frequency over voltages produced by faults or switching operations in the line.
Sudden interruptions in the line would give rise to voltage waves in the line of high
frequency. These might cause flashover of the insulators.
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 7.1.4 Surge or impulse tests
These tests are carried out in order to investigate the influence of surges in transmission
lines, breakdown of insulators and of the end turns of transformer connections to line. In
impulse testing, to represent surges generated due to lightning, the IEC Standard impulse
wave of 1.2/50 µs wave is generally used. By the use of spark gaps, conditions occurring on
the flash over to line are simulated. The total duration of a single lightning strike is about
100 µs. Overvoltages of much higher duration also arise due to line faults, switching
operations etc., for which impulse waves such as 100/5000 µs duration may be used.
Countries have their own standards too.
In surge tests it is required to apply to the circuit or apparatus under test, a high direct
voltage whose value rises from zero to maximum in a very short time and dies away again
comparatively slowly is applied.
While impulse and high frequency tests are carried out by manufacturers, in order to ensure
that their finished products will give satisfactory performance in service, the most general
tests upon insulating materials are carried out at power frequencies.

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 Lightning impulse
chopped on the
front

Full Lightning impulse

Lightning impulse
chopped on the tail

Full switching impulse

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 Withstand and flashover tests are done in case of impulse voltages too.
Impulse Withstand Voltage Test:
This test is done by applying standard impulse voltage of specified value under dry
conditions with both positive and negative polarities of the wave. If five consecutive
waves do not cause a flashover or puncture, the insulator is deemed to have passed the
test. If two applications cause flashover, the object is deemed to have failed. If there is
only one failure, additional ten applications of the voltage wave are made. If the test
object has withstood the subsequent applications, it is said to have passed the test.
Impulse Flashover Test:
The test is done as above with the specified voltage. Usually, the probability of failure is
determined for 40% and 60% failure values or 20% and 80% failure values, since it is
difficult to adjust the test voltage for the exact 50% flashover values. The average value of
the upper and the lower limits is taken. The insulator surface should not be damaged by
these tests, but slight marking on its surface or chipping off of the cement is allowed.

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 7.2 Measurement of High DC, AC and Impulse Voltages,
Standardization of Testing Procedures
Different methods for measurement of high voltages is listed in table below.

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 7.2.1 Measurement of High DC Voltages:
(i) High Ohmic Series Resistance with Microammeter:
High d.c. voltages are usually measured by connecting a very high
resistance (few hundreds of megaohms) in series with a microammeter as
shown in Fig. Only the current flowing through the large calibrated
resistance R is measured by the moving coil microammeter.
The voltage of the source is given by V=IR
The voltage drop in the meter is negligible, as the impedance of the
meter is only few ohms compared to few hundred mega-ohms of
the series resistance R. A protective device like a paper gap, a neon
glow tube, or a zener diode with a suitable series resistance is
connected across the meter as a protection against high voltages in
case the series resistance R fails or flashes over. The ohmic value of
the series resistance R is chosen such that a current of one to ten
microamperes is allowed for full-scale deflection.
Series Resistance micrometer
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 300 kV DIVIDER FOR DC ( Ht.210 cm)

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 The resistance is constructed from a large number of wire wound resistors in series. The
voltage drop in each resistor element is chosen to avoid surface flashovers and discharges. A
Value less than 5 kV/cm in air or less than 20 kV/cm in good oil is permissible. The resistor
chain is provided with corona free terminations. The material for resistive elements is usually
a carbon-alloy with temperature coefficient less than 10-4/°C. Carbon and other metallic film
resistors are also used. A resistance chain built with ±1% carbon resistors located in an
airtight transformer oil filled P.V.C. tube, for 100 kV operation had very good temperature
stability.
The limitations in the series resistance design are:
(i) power dissipation and source loading,
(ii) temperature effects and long time stability,
(iii) voltage dependence of resistive elements, and
(iv) sensitivity to mechanical stresses
(v) stray capacitance across the elements and due to ground capacitances
Series resistance meters are built for 500 kV d.c. with an accuracy better than 0.2%.

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(ii) Resistance Potential Dividers
A resistance potential divider with an electrostatic or high impedance voltmeter is shown in
Fig. (a).
The influence of temperature and voltage on the elements is eliminated in the voltage divider
arrangement. The high voltage magnitude is given by [(R1 + R2)/R2]V2, where V2 is the d.c.
voltage across the low voltage arm R2. With sudden changes in voltage, such as switching
operations, flashover of the test objects, or source short circuits, flashover or damage may
occur to the divider elements due to the stray capacitance across the elements and due to
ground capacitances. To avoid such transient voltages, voltage controlling capacitors are
connected across the elements. A corona free termination is provided to avoid unnecessary
discharges at high voltage ends.
A series resistor with a parallel capacitor connection for linearization of transient potential
distribution is shown in Fig. (b).
Potential dividers are made with 0.05% accuracy up to 100 kV, with 0.1% accuracy up to 300
kV, and with better than 0.5% accuracy for 500 kV.

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 (a) Resistance potential divider with an
electrostatic voltmeter (b) Series resistor with parallel capacitors
P - Protective device for potential linearization for transient voltages
ESV - Electrostatic volt-meter
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 7.2.2 Measurement of High AC Voltages
i) Series Impedance Voltmeters
For power frequency a.c. measurements the series impedance may be a pure resistance or a
reactance. Since resistances involve power losses, often a capacitor is preferred as a series
reactance. Moreover, for high resistances, the variation of resistance with temperature is a
problem, and the residual inductance of the resistance gives rise to an impedance different
from its ohmic resistance. High resistance units for high voltages have stray capacitances
and hence a unit resistance will have an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. below.

L — Residual inductance
C —Residual capacitance

Simplified lumped parameter equivalent circuit of a high ohmic resistance R

At any frequency ω of the a.c. voltage, the impedance of the resistance R is;

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and the total phase angle is

This can be made zero and independent of frequency, if L/C= R2

For extended and large dimensioned resistors, this equivalent circuit is not valid and each
elemental resistor has to be approximated with this equivalent circuit. The entire resistor unit
then has to be taken as a transmission line equivalent, for calculating the effective resistance.
Also, the ground or stray capacitance of each element influences the current flowing in the
unit, and the indication of the meter results in an error. The equivalent circuit of a high voltage
resistor neglecting inductance and the circuit of compensated series resistor using guard and
timing resistors is shown in Figs. a and b respectively. Stray ground capacitance effects can be
removed by shielding the resistor R by a second surrounding spiral Rs, which shunts the actual
resistor but does not contribute to the current through the instrument. By tuning the resistors
Ra, the shielding resistor end potentials may be adjusted with respect to the actual measuring
resistor so that the resulting compensation currents between the shield and the measuring
resistors provide a minimum phase angle.
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 a) Extended Series Resistance with Inductance b) Series Resistance with Guard and
Neglected Tuning Resistances
Cg- Stray Capacitance to Ground R – Series Resistor, Rs – Guard
Cs – Winding Capacitance Resistor, Ra – Tuning Resistor

Extended Series Resistance for High a.c. Voltage Measurements

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(ii) Series Capacitance Voltmeter
To avoid the drawbacks pointed out earlier, a series capacitor is
used instead of a resistor for a.c. high voltage measurements.
The current Ic through the meter is:
where, C = capacitance of the series capacitor, ω = angular
frequency, and V= applied a.c. voltage.
But if the a.c. voltage contains harmonics, error due to changes in
series impedance occurs. The rms value of the voltage V with
harmonics is given by

where V1, V2 ... Vn represent the rms value of the fundamental,

second... and nth harmonics. The currents due to these harmonics Series Capacitance with a
are milliammeter for Measurement
of High ac Voltages

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 Hence, the resultant rms current is:

With a 10% fifth harmonic only, the current is 11.2% higher, and hence the error is 11.2%
in the voltage measurement This method is not recommended when a.c. voltages are not
pure sinusoidal waves but contain considerable harmonics. Series capacitance voltmeters
were used with cascade transformers for measuring rms values up to 1000 kV. The series
capacitance was formed as a parallel plate capacitor between the high voltage terminal of
the transformer and a ground plate suspended above it. A rectifier ammeter was used as an
indicating instrument and was directly calibrated in high voltage rms value. The meter was
usually a 0-100 µA moving coil meter and the over all error was about 2%.

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(iii) Capacitance Potential Dividers and Capacitance Voltage Transformers
The errors due to harmonic voltages can be eliminated by
the use of capacitive voltage dividers with an electrostatic
voltmeter or a high impedance meter such as a vacuum
tube volt meter (V.T.V.M). If the meter is connected
through a long cable, its capacitance has to be taken into
account in calibration. Usually, a standard compressed air
or gas condenser is used as C1, and C2 may be any large
capacitor (mica, paper, or any low loss condenser). C1 is a
three terminal capacitor and is connected to C2 through a
shielded cable, and C2 is completely shielded in a box to
avoid stray capacitances. The applied voltage V1 is given
by;
Capacitance potential divider

Where Cm is the capacitance of the meter and the connecting

cable and the leads and V2 is the meter reading.
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Capacitance Voltage Transformer—CVT
Capacitance divider with a suitable matching or isolating potential transformer tuned for
resonance condition is often used in power systems for voltage measurements. This is often
referred to as CVT. In contrast to simple capacitance divider which requires a high impedance
meter like a V.T.V.M. or an electrostatic voltmeter, a CVT can be connected to a low impedance
device like a wattmeter pressure coil or a relay coil. CVT can supply a load of a few VA.
C1 is made of a few units of high voltage condensers, and the total capacitance will be around a
few thousand picofarads as against a gas filled standard condenser of about 100 pF. A matching
transformer is connected between the load or meter M and C2. The transformer ratio is chosen on
economic grounds, and the h.v. winding rating may be 10 to 30 kV with the LV winding rated
from 100 to 500 V. The value of the tuning choke L is chosen to make the equivalent circuit of the
CVT purely resistive or to bring resonance condition.

where, L= inductance of the choke, and

LT = equivalent inductance of the transformer referred to h.v. side.
The voltage V2 (meter voltage) will be in phase with the input voltage V1.
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The phasor diagram of CVT under
resonant conditions is shown in
figure. The meter is taken as a
resistive load, and Xm’ is neglected.
The voltage across the load referred
to the divider side will be V2’ =
(Im’Rm’) and Vc2 = V2' + Im(Re +
Xe). It is clear from the phasor
diagram that V1 (input voltage) =
(Vc1 + Vc2) and is in phase with V2',
the voltage across the meter. Re and
Xe include the potential transformer
resistance and leakage reactance.
Under this condition, the voltage
ratio becomes; Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT)

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(neglecting the voltage drop Im . Xi which is very small compared to the voltage VC1) where VRi
is the voltage drop in the transformer and choke windings.

The advanges of a CVT are:

(i) simple design and easy installation,
(ii) can be used both as a voltage measuring device for meter and relaying purposes and also as
a coupling condenser for power line carrier communication and relaying.
(iii) frequency independent voltage distribution along elements as against conventional
magnetic potential transformers which require additional insulation design against surges,
and
(iv) provides isolation between the high voltage terminal and low voltage metering.

The disadvantages of a CVT are:

(i) the voltage ratio is susceptible to temperature variations, and
(ii) the problem of inducing ferro-resonance in power systems.

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 7.2.3 Measurement of Impulses
(i) Measurement of Impulse Voltage by Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Potential or voltage dividers
for high-voltage impulse
measurements are usually
either resistive or capacitive
or mixed element type. The
low-voltage arm of the
divider is usually connected
to a fast recording
oscillograph or a peak
reading instrument through
a delay cable. A schematic
diagram of a potential
divider with its CRO is Schematic Diagram of a Potential Divider
given in the figure. with a Delay Cable and Oscilloscope
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 Z1 and Z2 are usually resistors or a series of resistors in case of a resistance potential
divider, or a single or a number of capacitors in case of a capacitance divider. It can also be
a combination of both resistors and capacitors.
𝑽𝟏(𝒕) 𝒁𝟏
The transformation ratio is given by,
𝑽𝟐(𝒕) 𝒁𝟐

When a step or fast rising voltage is applied at the high voltage terminal, the voltage
developed across the element Z2 will not have the true waveform as that of the applied
voltage. The cable can also introduce distortion in the waveshape.
The following elements cause errors in the measurements:
(i) residual inductance in the elements;
(ii) stray capacitance occurring between the elements, from sections and terminals of the
elements to ground, and from the high voltage lead to the elements or sections
(iii) The impedance errors due to connecting leads between the divider and the test objects,
and ground return leads and extraneous current in ground leads
So a compensated circuit needs to be used.
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 Arrangements required to reduce such errors is shown in figure
below.

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(ii) Peak Voltmeters
Sometimes it is enough if the peak value of an
impulse voltage wave is measured; its waveshape
might already be known or fixed by the source itself.
This is highly useful in routine impulse testing work.
The instrument is normally connected to the low
voltage arms of the potential dividers. Diode D
conducts for positive voltages only. For negative
pulses, the diode has to be connected in reverse.
When a voltage impulse v(t) appears across the low
voltage arm of the potential divider, the capacitor Cm
is charged to the peak value of the pulse. When the
amplitude of the signal starts decreasing the diode
becomes reverse biased and prevents the discharging
of the capacitor Cm. The voltage developed across Basic and equivalent circuits
Cm is measured by a high impedance voltmeter (an
electrostatic voltmeter or an electrometer).
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7.2.4 Direct Measurement Methods
In direct measurement of voltages, any intermediate arrangement of components or circuits is
not required.
(i) Electrostatic Voltmeters
Electrostatic voltmeters utilize the force of attraction between electric charges in neighboring
plates.
Principle: In electrostatic fields, the attractive force between the electrodes of a parallel plate
capacitor is given by

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 In the expression,
V = applied voltage between plates,
C = capacitance between the plates,
A = area of cross-section of the plates,
d = diameter of plates,
s = separation between the plates,
ε0 = permittivity of the medium (air or free space), and
Ws = work done in displacing a plate

When one of the electrodes is free to move, the force on the plate can be measured by
controlling it by a spring or balancing it with a counter weight. For high-voltage
measurements, a small displacement of one of the electrodes by a fraction of a mm to a
few mm is usually sufficient for voltage measurements. As the force is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage, the measurement can be made for ac or dc voltages.

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Construction:

Schematic Diagram of Electrostatic Voltmeter

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 Electrostatic voltmeters are made with parallel plate configuration using guard rings to
avoid corona and field fringing at the edges. An absolute voltmeter is made by
balancing the plate with a counter weight and is calibrated in terms of a small weight.
Usually the electrostatic voltmeters have a small capacitance (5 to 50 pF) and high
insulation resistance (R ≥ 1013 Ω). Hence, they are considered devices with high input
impedance.

The upper frequency limit for ac applications is determined from the following
considerations:
(i) natural frequency of the moving system,
(ii) resonant frequency of the lead and stray inductances with meter capacitance, and
(iii) the R-C behaviour of the retaining or control spring ( due to the frictional
resistance and elastance ).
An upper frequency limit of about one MHz is achieved in careful designs. The
accuracy for ac voltage measurements is better than ±0.25%, and for dc voltage
measurements it may be ±0.1% or less.
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  An electrostatic voltmeter consists of parallel-plane disc-type electrodes separated by
a small distance.
 The moving electrode is surrounded by a fixed guard ring to make the field uniform in
the central region.
 In order to measure the given voltage with precision, the disc diameter is to be
increased, and the gap distance is to be made less.
 The limitation on the gap distance is the safe working stress (V/s) allowed in air which
is normally 5 kV/cm or less.
The main difference between several forms of voltmeters lies in the manner in which the
restoring force is obtained.
• For conventional versions of meters, a simple spring control is used, which actuates a
pointer to move on the scale of the instruments.
• In more versatile instruments, only small movements of the moving electrodes is
allowed, and the movement is amplified through optical means (lamp and scale
arrangement as used with moving coil galvanometers).

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 Two air vane dampers are used to reduce vibrational tendencies in the moving system,
and the elongation of the spring is kept minimum to avoid field disturbances.
 The range of the instrument is easily changed by changing the gap separation so that V/s
or electric stress is the same for the maximum value in any range. Multi-range
instruments are constructed for 600 kV rms and above.

 In operation, the control torque is provided by a balancing weight.

 The moving disc M is the central core of the guard ring G which is of the same diameter
as the fixed plate F.
 The cap D encloses a sensitive balance B, one arm of which carries the suspension of
the moving disc.
 The balance beam carries a mirror which reflects a beam of light. The movement of the
disc is thereby magnified.

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 (ii) Sphere Gap:
Sphere gap is one of the standard methods to measure the peak value of AC and DC
voltages and impulse Voltage.
Principle: Two equal sized metal spheres made of brass, bronze, aluminium or
copper are used. The voltage to be measured is applied between the two spheres and
the distance or spacing S between them gives a measure of the sparkover voltage.
Sphere gaps can be arranged either (i) vertically with lower sphere grounded, or (ii)
horizontally with both spheres connected to the source voltage or one sphere
grounded. The two spheres used are identical in size and shape.

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 A series resistance is usually connected between the source and the sphere gap to (i) limit
the breakdown current, and (ii) to suppress unwanted oscillations in the source voltage
when breakdown occurs (in case of impulse voltages).
The value of the series resistance may vary from 100 to 1000 KΩ for ac or dc voltages
and not more than 500 Ω in the case of impulse voltages.

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2/18/2024 BG 40
 Typical Sphere Gaps

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 In the case of measurements of DC voltage and AC peak value, the applied voltage
is uniformly increased until the sparkover occurs in the gap. Generally, a mean of
about five breakdown values is taken when they agree to within ±3%.
In the case of impulse voltages, to obtain 50% flashover voltage, two voltage limits,
differing by not more than 2% are set such that on application of lower limit value
either 2 or 4 flashovers take place and on application of upper limit value 8 or 6
flashovers take place respectively. The mean of these two limits is taken as 50%
flashover voltage. In any case, a preliminary sparkover voltage measurement is to be
made before actual measurements are made.
The p.d. at which the sparkover occurs depends upon nearby earthed objects,
atmospheric conditions and humidity, irradiation, polarity and rise time of voltage
waveform.

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 i. In presence of nearby earthed objects, the sparkover voltage is reduced.
ii. The sparkover voltages of a spark gap depends upon the air density which varies
with the changes in both temperature and pressure. If the sparkover voltage is V
under test conditions of temperature T and pressure p torr and if the sparkover
voltage is V0 under standard conditions of temperature T = 20°C and pressure p =
760 torr, then
V = kV0
where k is a function of the air density factor d, given by
𝒑 𝟐𝟗𝟑
𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻

iii. Radiation: Illumination of sphere gaps with UV or X-rays aids easy ionization in
gaps, hence the sparkover voltage is reduced.
iv. It has been observed that the sparkover voltages for positive and negative polarity
impulses are different. Also, for wave fronts of less than 0.5 μs and wave tails less
than 5 μs the breakdown voltages are not consistent and hence the use of sphere
gap is not recommended for voltage measurement in such cases.

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 An accuracy of up to ±3% can be obtained with sphere gaps when the gap
between the spheres is small.
When the gap distance is increased, the uniform field between the spheres becomes
distorted, and accuracy falls. The limits of accuracy are dependant on the ratio of the
spacing d to the sphere diameter D.
d < 0.5 D, accuracy = ± 3 %
0.75 D > d > 0.5 D, accuracy = ± 5 %
So for more accuracy, gap distances in excess of 0.75D are not used.
Precautions:
(i) The gap length should not exceed the sphere radius.
(ii) No conductor or conducting surface shall be near the high voltage spheres. The
minimum clearance distance is given by (0.25+V/300) meters, where V is the peak
voltage in kV.
Advantages: Cheap, simple, reliable and useful for measuring a range from 2 kV to
2500 kV. Very useful for calibrating HV meters and devices.
Limitations: No continuous record of the measurement.

2/18/2024 BG 44
 7.3 Non-destructive Testing of Insulations
(i) Direct Current Resistivity
A simple measuring circuit for the measurement
of resistance is shown in figure. The
galvanometer is first calibrated by using a
standard resistance of 1 to 10 MΩ (±0.5% or
±1%). If necessary, a standard universal shunt is
used with the galvanometer. The deflection in
cm per microampere of current is noted.
The specimen (Rp) is inserted in the circuit as
shown, and maintaining the same supply
voltage, the galvanometer current is observed by
adjusting the universal shunt, if necessary. The
galvanometer gives a maximum sensitivity of
10–9 A/cm deflection and a dc amplifier has to be
used along with the galvanometer for higher
sensitivities (up to 10 –12 to 10 –13 A/cm).
2/18/2024 BG 45
 The resistance of the specimen is given by

where,
D = deflection in cm (with specimen), and
G = galvanometer sensitivity.

in which, n = the universal shunt ratio,

Ds = deflection in cm with the standard resistance in position,
Rs = standard resistance used for calibration, and
V = the supply voltage.

2/18/2024 BG 46
 Alternately, a Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure the specimen resistance.
One of the resistances (usually RA) is
made variable for balancing the bridge. At
balance, Rp is given by.

With the specimen arrangement used, the

volume resistivity ρ can be given as

where, R = measured resistance in ohms,

t = thickness of the specimen in metres, and
r = effective radius in metres.

2/18/2024 BG 47
Example:
The volume resistivity of a bakelite piece was determined by using standard circular
electrodes, a sensitive galvanometer, and a stabilized power supply. When the applied voltage
was 1000 V, the galvanometer deflection with the specimen was 3.2 cm. When a standard
resistance of Rs = 10MΩ is used for calibration, the deflection was 33.30 cm with a universal
shunt ratio of 3,000. The diameter of the electrodes is 10 cm, and the thickness of the
specimen is 2 mm. Find the volume resistivity.

~ Solution in the next page ~

2/18/2024 BG 48
2/18/2024 BG 49
(ii) Leakage Current and Dielectric Loss :
Many insulating substances have dielectric constant greater than unity and have dielectric
loss when subjected to a.c. voltages. These two quantities depend on the magnitude of the
voltage stress and on the frequency of the applied voltage. When a dielectric is used in an
electrical equipment such as a cable or a capacitor, the variation of these quantities with
frequency is of importance. The microscopic properties of the dielectric are described by
combining the variation of the above two quantities into one "complex quantity" known as
"complex permittivity" and determining them at various frequencies.
A capacitor connected to a sinusoidal voltage source v = v0exp(jwt) with an angular
frequency ω=2πf stores a charge Q = C0v and draws a charging current IC = dq/dt = jwC0v.
When the dielectric is vacuum, C0 is the vacuum capacitance or geometric capacitance of
the condenser, and the current leads the voltage vc by 90°.
Under practical conditions, if the same voltage v is applied, there will be a charging current
Ic and loss component of the current Il. Il will be equal to Gv where G represents the
conductance of the dielectric material. The total current I= Ic + Il = (jωC+G)V. The current
leads the voltage by an angle θ which is less than 90°. The loss angle δ is equal to (90 - θ)°.
2/18/2024 BG 50
 The phasor diagrams of an ideal capacitor and a capacitor with a lossy dielectric are
shown in Figs.
For practical purposes, the frequency response of this circuit can be expressed as the ratio
of the loss current to the charging current, i.e. the loss tangent

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 Schering-bridge Circuit for Measurement:
Schering-bridge is a very versatile and sensitive bridge and is readily suitable for power
frequency high voltage measurements of dielectric loss. The stress dependence of εr and
tan δ can be readily obtained with this bridge.

The lossy capacitor or

capacitor with the dielectric
between electrodes is
represented as an imperfect
capacitor of capacitance Cx
together with a resistance rx.
The standard capacitor is
shown as Cs which will usually
have a capacitance of 50 to 500
Dotted line is the shielding arrangement. Shield is pF. The variable arms are R4
connected to B, the ground. G: the protective device and C3//R3.
for Z3, Z4 arms
2/18/2024 BG 52
 Balance is obtained when Z1 . Z3 = Z2 . Z4

where, 𝒙 , ,
𝟏 𝟐
𝒙 𝒙 𝒔
𝒙
𝒙

𝟑
𝟑 and 𝟒 𝟒
𝟑 𝟑

From the balance condition we obtain,

𝟑 𝟑
𝒙 𝒙

So the loss angle tanδ of the dielectric specimen is obtained in terms of frequency and the
resistance and capacitance of the opposite branch.
Similarly, 𝟒 𝟑 𝒔
𝒙 𝟐 and 𝒙 𝟐
𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒

2/18/2024 BG 53
 Example:
A 20 kV, 50 Hz Schering-Bridge has a standard capacitance of 106 μF. In a test on a
bakelite sheet, balance was obtained with a capacitance of 0.35 μF in parallel with a
non-inductive resistance of 318 Ω. The non-inductive resistance in the remaining arm of
the bridge is 130 Ω.
Determine the equivalent resistance, capacitance and the loss tangent of the bakelite
sheet.

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(iii) Partial Discharge:
It was found that weak points in an insulation like voids, cracks, and other imperfections
lead to internal or intermittent discharges in the insulation. These imperfections being small
were not revealed in capacitance measurements but were revealed as power loss
components in contributing for an increase in the dissipation factor. In modern terminology
these are designated as "partial discharges" which in course of time reduce the strength of
insulation leading to a total or partial failure or breakdown of the insulation.
If the sites of partial discharges can be located inside an equipment, like in a power cable or
a transformer, it gives valuable information to the insulation engineer about the regions of
greater stress and imperfections in the fabrication. Based on this information, the designs
can be considerably improved.
When Partial Discharge activity occurs within high voltage switchgear insulation, it
generates electromagnetic waves in the radio frequency range. Detection and measurement
of these EM waves proves the existence and the degree of partial discharge.

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 Consider a capacitor with a void inside the insulation (Ca). The capacitance of the void is
represented by a capacitor in series with the rest of the insulation capacitance (Cb). The
remaining void-free material is represented by the capacitance Cc. When the voltage across
the capacitor is raised, a critical value is reached across the capacitor Ca and a discharge
occurs through the capacitor, i.e. it becomes short circuited. This is represented by the
closure of the switch.
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Straight Discharge Detection Circuit:
Figure gives a simplified circuit
for detecting "partial
discharges". This circuit is called
the straight discharge detection
circuit.
The HV transformer is free from
internal discharges. A resonant
filter is used to prevent any
pulses starting from the
capacitance of the windings and
bushings of the transformer. Cx
is the test object, Cc is the
coupling capacitor, and Zm is a
detection impedance.
Straight Discharge Detection Circuit

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The signal developed across the impedance Zm
is passed through a band pass filter and amplifier
and displayed on a CRO or counted by a pulse
counter multi-channel analyzer unit. In figures
here, the discharge pattern displayed on the
CRO screen of a partial discharge detector with
an elliptical display is shown.

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 The sinusoidal voltage and the corresponding ellipse pattern of the discharge are shown in
Fig. (a) and a single corona pulse in a point-plane spark gap geometry is shown in Figs. (b)
and (c). When the voltage applied is greater than that of the critical inception voltage,
multiple pulses appear like in Fig. (c), and all the pulses are of equal magnitude.
A typical discharge pattern in cavities inside the insulation is shown in Fig. (d). This
pattern of discharge appears on the quadrants of the ellipse which correspond to the test
voltage rising from zero to the maximum, either positively or negatively. The discharges
usually start near the peaks of the test voltage but spread towards the zero value as the test
voltage is increased beyond the inception level.
The number and magnitude of the discharges on both the positive and negative cycles are
approximately the same. A typical discharge pattern from a void bounded on one side by
the insulation and the other side by a conductor is shown in Fig. (c). This pattern of
discharge is common in insulated cables (like polyethylene and XLPE cables) when the
discharge is made up of a large number of pulses of small magnitude on the positive cycle
and a much smaller number of large magnitude pulses on the negative half-cycle.

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7.4 Insulation Testing as Routine Maintenance Procedure
Plant shutdowns or system blackout due to equipment malfunction or safety violations can
cost businesses enormous amounts of time and money. Lost productivity, expenses to repair
or purchase equipment, and opportunity costs are some of the consequences incurred when
simple, but nonetheless crucial preventative maintenance steps are not routinely carried out.
Insulation testing is one of such preventive maintenance procedure.
 Insulation resistance testing is commonly performed as part of electrical testing in a
preventive maintenance program for rotating machines, cables, switches, transformers,
and electrical machinery where insulating integrity is needed.
 It helps identify potential electrical issues to reduce unpredictable, premature equipment
repairs and replacement costs.
 With properly scheduled monitoring and data collection, this testing can be very useful in
analysing and predicting the current and future behaviour of equipment. Early problem
detection helps avoid major repairs, resulting in cost savings when compared to a run-to-
failure maintenance practice.
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  Insulation resistance testing is carried out by applying a constant voltage to the
equipment under test while measuring the any flowing current.
 For an effective test, results should be regularly recorded over a period of time and
compared with earlier recorded values taken when the equipment was new and in
good condition. The trend of the readings over a period of time helps identify the
presence of anomalies. Insulation resistance values that are consistent over time
indicate that the equipment’s insulation proper- ties are good. If the resistance values
are decreasing, it indicates that potential issues can occur sometime in the future and
more thorough preventive maintenance should be scheduled soon.
Factors that affect the insulation resistance:
Surface condition: oil or carbon dust on the surface can lower the insulation
resistance.
Moisture: moisture lowers the equipment’s resistance value.
Temperature: The insulation resistance value may vary inversely with the change of
the temperature. Its influence on readings can be mitigated by performing preventive
maintenance testing at the same temperature each time. If the temperature cannot be
controlled, normalizing to a base temperature such as 40°C is recommended.
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 Types of routine maintenance tests of insulation:
(i) Spot test
A test voltage is applied for a fixed period of time, normally 60 seconds or less, and the
reading is collected at the end of the test. A curve is plotted based on the history of the
readings. Observation of the trend is taken over a period of time, over years or months.
Temperature and humidity variations are compensated for if necessary. This test is suitable
for a device with a small or negligible capacitance effect, for example a short wiring run.
(ii)Time-resistance test
Successive readings are taken at a specific time, typically every few minutes, and difference
in readings compared. Good insulation will show a continual increase in the resistance value.
If the reading is stagnant and it does not increase as expected, the insulation may be weak
and service may be needed. Moisture and contamination lower resistance. The temperature
influence on this test is negligible as long as there is no significant temperature change in the
device under test. This test is suitable for the predictive and preventive maintenance of
rotating machines.

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 The polarisation index (PI) and dielectric absorption ratio (DAR) are commonly used
to quantify the time-resistance test result.
Polarization index (PI)
The polarization index is defined as the ratio of the 10 minute resistance value to the 1
minute resistance value.. The IEEE Std 43 – 2000 recommends the minimum value of
PI for AC and DC rotating machinery in thermal class A be 1.5, and the minimum PI
value for class B, F, and H equipment is 2.0.
Dielectric absorption ratio (DAR)
Dielectric absorption ratio is referred to the ratio of the 60 second resistance value to
the 30 second resistance value.

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 (iii) Step voltage test
Different voltage levels are applied in steps to the device under test. The recommended
ratio of the test voltage is 1:5. The test at each step is same length, usually 60 seconds, and
goes from low to high. This test is normally used at test voltages lower than the rated
voltage of the equipment. The rapid increase of the test voltage level creates additional
stress on the insulation and causes the weak point to fail, subsequently leading to a lower
resistance value.
This test is particularly useful when the rated voltage of the equipment is higher than the
available test voltage generated by the insulation resistance tester.

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Test voltage selection
As the insulation resistance test consists of the high DC voltage, the appropriate test voltage
has to be selected to avoid over stressing the insulation, which may lead to insulation failure.
The test voltage applied to the equipment should be based on the manufacturer’s
recommendations. If the test voltage is not specified, IEEE standards or other international
practices can be followed. One such standard is shown in the table below.
Guidelines for DC Voltage to be Applied during
Routine Insulation Test (extracted from IEEE std 43-2000)
Winding Rated Voltage (V) Routine Insulation Testing DC Voltage (V)

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 Planning for a maintenance program
Prioritizing the equipment: A motor or machine that supports the whole line
should be of high priority.
Identification of the frequency of tests: The frequency can be varied from unit to
unit depending on the criticalness of the unit in the environment. Past history will be
a good guide for determining when the next maintenance activities will be needed.
The maintenance record should cover the following: Date of the test, test voltage
and current, test time, insulation resistance value, temperature of
winding/equipment, identification of the equipment/device under test, parts or
equipment that were included in the test and relative humidity. As with every
preventive maintenance program, record-keeping and plotting of consecutive
readings can identify trends and enable you to predict and plan for the next action.

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