Renewable Energy Resources Interfacing

EPM 454
Instructor
Prof. Dr. Naggar Hassan Saad
Email: [email protected]
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EPM 454 Renewable Energy Resources Interfacing
Chapter 2
Energy Storage Systems

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 2. 4. Superconducting magnetic Energy Storage
❑ Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is an energy storage
device that stores energy in the form of dc electricity that is the source of dc
magnetic field.
❑ SMES technology is one of the hot research areas of superconductor
applications, especially when the high temperature superconducting (HTS)
materials were discovered in 1986.
❑ Compared to other energy storage devices and methods, SMES has some
better performances:
❖ Firstly, the current density of SMES coil is about 𝟏𝟎 to 𝟏𝟎𝟎 times larger than
the common coil.
❖ It has virtually no resistive losses.
❖ The efficiency of SMES can get up to 𝟗𝟓%.
❖ Energy exchanging with power systems within milliseconds.
❖ SMES can be easily controlled.
❖ With the well-developed power electronic technology, SMES can enhance
power system stability and improve the power quality through active and
reactive power compensation.
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 Basic Principles
❑ The KVL of the 𝑹𝑳
circuit is given by:
𝑽 = 𝒊 𝒕 𝑹 + 𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒔
𝑽 − 𝒆𝒔
𝒊 𝒕 =
𝑹
where 𝒆𝒔 is the induced electromotive
force (EMF) given by:
𝒅𝒊 𝒕 Series RL circuit
𝒆𝒔 = 𝑳
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊
𝑽=𝒊 𝒕 𝑹+𝑳
𝒅𝒕
❑ Since 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟎 while 𝒕 = 𝟎, the solution of the transient process equation will
be given as follows:
𝑹
− 𝒕
𝑽
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑳 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑹
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❑ The time constant is 𝑳/𝑹 and its form
is shown in figure.
❑ The KVL of the 𝑹𝑳 circuit is given by:

𝒅𝒊
𝑽=𝒊 𝒕 𝑹+𝑳
𝒅𝒕

❑ Multiplying each term of the

transient process equation by 𝒊(𝒕)𝒅𝒕,
we can get the energy equation:

𝑽 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 − 𝒊𝟐 𝒕 𝑹 𝒅𝒕 − 𝑳 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎

𝒅𝑾𝒔 = 𝒅𝑾𝑹 + 𝒅𝑾𝒎

Time variation of current in an 𝑹𝑳 circuit
❑ The energy supplied from the external source, 𝒅𝑾𝒔 , divides into two parts:
❖ One of which is the energy content of the magnetic field (𝒅𝑾𝒎 ) and
❖ The other is the energy losses (𝒅𝑾𝑹 ).
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 ❑ The energy stored in the magnetic field, 𝒅𝑾𝒎 , is given by:
𝒅𝑾𝒎 = 𝑳 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒊
❑ Since 𝑳 is a constant, it follows that:
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟏
𝑾𝒎 = 𝑳 න 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒊 = 𝑳 𝑰𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑱
𝟎 𝟐

❑ The energy content in an electromagnetic field is determined by the

current 𝑰 through the 𝑵 turns of the coil of the magnet:
❑ The product 𝑵𝑰 is called the magneto motive force. Using another
expression for induced 𝑬𝑴𝑭 in the coil, 𝒆𝒔 = 𝑵 𝒅𝝋Τ𝒅𝒕,
𝝋 𝑩 𝑩
𝑾𝒎 = න 𝑵 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅 𝝋 = න 𝑯 𝑨 𝒍 𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍. න 𝑯 𝒅 𝑩
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

❑ Since there is an approximately linear relationship between 𝑯 and 𝑩 the

solution will be given from,
𝟏 𝟏 𝑩𝟐
𝑾𝒎 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍. × 𝝁 𝑯𝟐 𝑱 𝑾𝒎 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍. × 𝑱
𝟐 𝟐 𝝁
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 where 𝝋 = 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝑾𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓
𝑩 = 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑾𝒓𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓Τ𝒎𝟐
𝒍 = 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝟐
𝑵 = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝝁 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒊𝒎 𝑯Τ𝒎
𝑳 = 𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑯

❑ The volume energy density can be obtained from these equations as

follows,
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑩
𝒘 = 𝝁 𝑯𝟐 = 𝑯 𝑩 = 𝑱Τ𝒎𝟑
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝝁

❑ The energy density that can be achieved in a magnetic field of, for
example, 𝑩 = 𝟐 𝑻 is approximately 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱/𝒎𝟑 , which is an order of
magnitude or greater than that attainable in an electrostatic field.

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 Magnetic Energy Storage Systems
❑ A superconducting coil can be connected to a constant DC power supply.
❑ As the current of the coil (which is pure inductance with inner resistance
equal to zero) increases, the magnetic field also increases and wholly
electrical energy is stored in the magnetic field.

❑ The idea of storing electricity in a very large superconducting magnet might

be arranged as shown in Fig.
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❑ Once 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 is reached, the voltage across the coil terminals is reduced to
𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐.
❑ At this stage, the coil is fully charged, and the energy can be stored as long
as is desired.
❑ In contrast, a conventional coil made of copper windings with a
particular resistance would require continuous power input to keep the
current flowing.

❑ The following specific problems need to be resolved before SMES can be

in widespread use for storage in power systems:
❖ Compensation for stray fields.
❖ Effects of electromagnetic forces on conductors and support
elements.
❖ Protection against sudden appearance of normally conducting
zones.

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 2. 4. 1. Superconductor Construction
❑ Superconductors can carry very high
current in the presence of high
magnetic fields at low temperatures
with zero resistance to the steady flow
of electrical current.
❑ Unless their critical values:
▪ Temperature 𝑻𝒄 ,
▪ Induction magnetic flux density 𝑩𝒄 ,
▪ Current density 𝑱𝒄 .
are exceeded, superconductors show
no resistance and thus can carry high
direct current without any losses.

❑ Technical superconductors are normally made of 𝑵𝒃𝑻𝒊

(Niobium - titanium is an alloy of niobium and titanium) or 𝑵𝒃𝟑 𝑺𝒏
alloy niobium titanium

(Niobium-tin or triniobium-tin) multi-filaments embedded in a copper or

aluminum stabilization matrix.
❑ The critical values of NbTi range from 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 up to:
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 𝑻𝒄 𝑩 = 𝟎, 𝑱 = 𝟎 = 𝟗. 𝟐 𝑲
𝑩𝒄 𝑻 = 𝟎, 𝑱 = 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑻
𝑱𝒄 𝑩 = 𝟎, 𝑻 = 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑨Τ𝒎𝒎𝟐
❑ Current density 𝑱𝒄 decreases with increasing values of 𝑩 and 𝑻; for
example: 𝟐
𝑱𝒄 𝑩 = 𝟓 𝑻, 𝑻 = 𝟒. 𝟐 𝑲 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑨Τ𝒎𝒎

❑ If the superconductor becomes normally conducting, the current transfers

to the stabilization matrix thus avoiding destruction of the superconductor
by overheating.
❑ Since ferromagnetic materials do not apply to inductions magnetic flux
density higher than 𝟑 𝑻 , coil arrangements used for superconductor
magnetic energy storage are usually placed in such media as air or
vacuum with 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟏.
❑ In order to obtain high values of 𝑾𝒎 , with a given coil current 𝑰, which is
limited by the applied superconductor, the total self-inductance 𝑳 of the
storage has to be made as high as possible by choosing a suitable coil
geometry.
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Superconducting magnets construction

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 2. 4. 2. Power extraction
❑ A superconducting coil is, in fact, a
source of variable direct current.
❑ To couple this source to a constant
voltage AC power system a special
power transformation system is
required.
❑ Rectifying and inverting systems of
this type arc already in use for
coupling DC connection lines to the 1 Superconducting winding.
2 AC/DC bridge converter.
AC power system.
3 Star-delta transformer.
4 To three-phase AC system.

❑ A typical 𝑺𝑴𝑬𝑺 configuration comprises two 6-pulse thyristor bridges

series-connected to the superconducting coil on the DC part of the
bridge and coupled through AC transformer to a power system on the AC
side of the bridge, as shown.

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❑ When the phase delay angle 𝜶 is less than 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , the bridge operates in
rectifier mode and acts as a load of 𝑺 = 𝑷 + 𝒋𝑸 for the 𝑨𝑪 power system.
❑ Alternatively, if 𝜶 is set above 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , the average convertor voltage
becomes negative, the active power 𝑷 changes sign and the bridge
becomes a kind of power source for the 𝑨𝑪 system.
❑ This is caused by the fact that only unidirectional flow of current is possible
through the convertor.
❑ Therefore, with 𝜶 > 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , the 3 - phase bridge operates in inverter mode.
❑ Line-commutated convertor bridges have a limited delay angle of
𝜶𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 , thus avoiding the risk of commutation failure.
❑ This limit substantially reduces the operational range of the convertor
bridge when working in the inverter mode.
❑ An additional limitation may arise from the harmonic impact of AC bus
currents and THD.
❑ On the other hand, recent developments of the gate turn-off thyristor
(GTO) allow to design convertor which can control power within a circular
range containing four quadrants in the active and reactive power domain.
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 2. 4. 3. Charging and Discharging of SMES
❑ 𝑺𝑴𝑬𝑺 systems are typically able to store
up to about 𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝑾.
❑ Higher capacities are possible for shorter
time spans. Because a coil of around 𝟏𝟓𝟎
to 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎 radius would be able to support
a load of 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾𝒉, at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾 it is
expected that 𝑺𝑴𝑬𝑺 can potentially store
up to 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾.
❑ One problem associated with 𝑺𝑴𝑬𝑺
systems is the requirement of
compensation for stray field.

❑ The field falls at the inverse cube of the distance from the center of the
coil, and 𝟏 𝒌𝒎 of radius would still keep a few milli-Teslas.
❑ The figure shows the basic idea of controlling the charge and discharge of
a superconducting inductor for single-phase systems.

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❑ The figure shows the basic idea of controlling the charge and discharge of a
superconducting inductor for three-phase systems.
❑ The inductor is kept with current flowing in the same direction.
❑ As energy is stored, a positive voltage is applied across the superconducting
coil, and, as energy is released, the voltage is reversed.
❑ The power electronic topology presented in figure requires that the power
flow be bidirectional with the grid.
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 2. 4. 4. Developments in SMES Systems

SMES for voltage restoration.

SMES integrated to a dc-link system.

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 2. 4. 5. Applications of SMES
1) Adjusting Bus Bar Active Power
(a) load-step: Sudden change in the load power takes place. This may be due
to critical loads, temporary connection or disconnection of
loads, faults in conventional power stations.

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(b) load-sharing: Unpredictability of the wind power makes not possible
to control the output power of a wind farm and,
consequently, the power can suffer relatively large
fluctuations within a short time span.

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(c) grid-support: The voltage dips that can occur in the grid lead to a
current increase to maintain the grid power constant. The
energy storage system provides the extra power
necessary so that the grid power and frequency are
affected to a lesser extent.

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 2) Wind Energy
❑ The coil works as an active power
compensator in three different
operation modes:
1) WT output power is higher than the
reference power (mode 1):
In this mode, the current through the coil
increases and so does the stored
energy, since it is absorbing the extra
power from the IG.
2) WT output power is equal to the reference power
(mode 2):
Power does not flow through the coil. The current remains constant at the
same level that it had before both powers became equal.
3) WT output power is lower than the reference power (mode 3):
The current through the coil decreases and so does the stored energy, since
the system supplies the necessary power to the grid to equal the reference
power.
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 Profile of the Wind Turbine Output Power
❑ In order to show all the different operation modes of the superconducting
coil, an ideal wind speed profile that consecutively enables all of them has
been applied in the simulations.

❑ The different operation modes of the system are:

❖ At 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒔 the WT power is bigger than the load (or reference) power (mode 1).
❖ At 𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒔 the WT power decreases to equal the load power (mode 2).
❖ At 𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝒔 the WT power becomes lower than the load power (mode 3).
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 2. 4. 6. SMES Power Conditioning System
VSC-based SMES system

❑ The VSC is used to control active and reactive powers taking into
consideration system needs.
❑ DC-DC chopper is used to control current flowing through the
superconducting coil.
❑ A magnetic field is created by the flow of direct current through the
superconducting coil and the current is circulated indefinitely with almost
zero loss, so the energy remains stored in the form of a magnetic field for a
long time.
❑ This stored energy can be released back to the electrical power system by
converting the magnetic energy stored in it to electrical energy. 22
 CSC-based SMES system

❑ Each leg of the CSC consists of two IGBTs and two blocking diodes.
❑ Bidirectional power flow is achieved by reversing the DC voltage polarity.
❑ Therefore, a CSC needs a blocking diode connected in series with the
switching device in absence of reverse blocking capabilities in a normal
IGBT.
❑ The DC side of the CSC is directly connected to the superconducting coil,
and its AC side is connected to the PCC through the C-filter.

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 Real Application of SMES system

SMES connected to infinite BB

to stabilized BB voltage.

SMES connected to PCC of

microgrid as storage element.

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 The End
of Lecture (4)
Thank You
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