CS8493 – OPERATING SYSTEMS

UNIT I OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Computer System Overview-Basic Elements, Instruction Execution,

Interrupts, Memory Hierarchy, Cache Memory, Direct Memory Access,
Multiprocessor and Multicore Organization. Operating system overview-
objectives and functions, Evolution of Operating System.- Computer
System Organization Operating System Structure and Operations- System
Calls, System Programs, OS Generation and System Boot.

UNIT II PROCESS MANAGEMENT

Processes — Process Concept, Process Scheduling, Operations on

Processes, Inter-process Communication; CPU Scheduling — Scheduling
criteria, Scheduling algorithms, Multiple-processor scheduling, Real time
scheduling; Threads- Overview, Multithreading models, Threading issues;
Process Synchronization — The critical-section problem, Synchronization
hardware, Mutex locks, Semaphores, Classic problems of synchronization,
Critical regions, Monitors; Deadlock — System model, Deadlock
characterization, Methods for handling deadlocks, Deadlock prevention,
Deadlock avoidance, Deadlock detection, Recovery from deadlock.

UNIT III STORAGE MANAGEMENT

Main Memory — Background, Swapping, Contiguous Memory Allocation,

Paging, Segmentation, Segmentation with paging, 32 and 64 bit
architecture Examples; Virtual Memory — Background, Demand Paging,
Page Replacement, Allocation, Thrashing; Allocating Kernel Memory, OS
Examples.

UNIT IV FILE SYSTEMS AND I/O SYSTEMS

Mass Storage system — Overview of Mass Storage Structure, Disk

Structure, Disk Scheduling and Management, swap space management;
File-System Interface — File concept, Access methods, Directory
Structure, Directory organization, File system mounting, File Sharing and
Protection; File System Implementation- File System Structure, Directory
implementation, Allocation Methods, Free Space Management, Efficiency
and Performance, Recovery; I/O Systems — I/O Hardware, Application I/O
interface, Kernel I/O subsystem, Streams, Performance.

UNIT V CASE STUDY

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Linux System — Design Principles, Kernel Modules, Process Management,
Scheduling, Memory Management, Input-Output Management, File
System, Inter-process Communication; Mobile OS — iOS and Android —
Architecture and SDK Framework, Media Layer, Services Layer, Core OS
Layer, File System.

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 UNIT I OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW

COMPUTER SYSTEM REVIEW:

What is an Operating System?

 An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware.

 It also provides a basis for application programs and acts as an
intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.
 The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which
a user can execute programs.

Goals of an Operating System

 The primary goal of an operating system is thus to make the computer

system convenient to use.
 The secondary goal is to use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner.
1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

 An operating system is an important part of almost every computer

system.

A computer system can be divided roughly into four components.

 Hardware
 Operating system
 The application programs
 Users
 The hardware - the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and
the Input/output (I/O) devices-provides the basic computing
resources.
 The application programs- such as word processors, spreadsheets,
compilers,

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 and web browsers- define the ways in which these resources are used
to solve the computing problems of the users.
An operating system is similar to a government. The OS simply
provides an environment within which other programs can do useful
work.
Abstract view of the components of a computer system.

Operating system can be viewed as a resource allocator.

The OS acts as the manager of the resources ( such as CPU time, memory space,
file

storage space, I/O devices) and allocates them to specific programs and
users as necessary for tasks.

 An operating system is a control program. It controls the execution of user

programs to prevent errors and improper use of computer.
1.1Mainframe Systems

 Early computers were physically enormous machines run from a console.

 The common input devices were card readers and tape drives.

The common output devices were line printers, tape drives, and card
punches.

 The user did not interact directly with the computer systems.

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  Rather, the user prepared a job - which consisted of the program, the data,
and some control information about the nature of the job (control cards)-
and submitted it to the computer operator.
 The job was usually in the form of punch cards.
 The operating system in these early computers was fairly simple.
 Its major task was to transfer control automatically from one job to the next.

 The operating system was always resident in memory

Memory layout for a simple batch system.

 A batch operating system, thus normally reads a stream of separate jobs.

 When the job is complete its output is usually printed on a line printer.
 The definitive feature of batch system is the lack of interaction between
the user and the job while the job is executing.
 Spooling is also used for processing data at remote sites.
1.2 Multiprogrammed Systems

A pool of jobs on disk allows the OS to select which job to run next,
toincrease CPU utilization.

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  Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs such that
the CPU always has one to execute.
 The idea is as follows: The operating system keeps several jobs in
memory simultaneously. This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in
the job pool. The operating system picks and begins to execute one of
the jobs in the memory.

Memory layout for a multiprogramming system.

Timesharing Systems
Time sharing (or multitasking) is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
 The CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them, but the
switches occur so frequently that the users can interact with each
program while it is running.
 A time-shared operating System allows many users to share the
computer simultaneously Since each time-shared system tends to be
short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.

As the system switches rapidly from one user to the next, each user is
given theimpression that the entire computer system is dedicated to her
use, even though it is being shared among many users.

1.4 Desktop Systems

 As hardware costs have decreased, it has once again become feasible to

have a computer system dedicated to a single user. These types of
computer systems are usually referred to as personal computers(PCS).
 They are microcomputers that are smaller and less expensive than
mainframe computers.

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  Operating systems for these computers have benefited from the
development of operating systems for mainframes in several ways.
1.5 Multiprocessor Systems

 Multiprocessor systems (also known as parallel systems or

tightly coupled systems) have more than one processor in close
communication, sharing the computer bus, the clock, and sometimes
memory and peripheral devices.
 Multiprocessor systems have three main advantages.
 Increased throughput.
 Economy of scale.
 Increased reliablility.
 If functions can be distributed properly among several processors, then the
failure of one processor will not halt the system, only slow it down. If we
have ten processors and one fails, then each of the remaining nine
processors must pick up a share of the work of the failed processor.
 Thus, the entire system runs only 10 percent slower, rather than failing
altogether. This ability to continue providing service proportional to the
level of surviving hardware is called graceful degradation. Systems
designed for graceful degradation are also called fault tolerant.

Continued operation in the presence of failures requires a mechanism to

allowthe failure to be detected, diagnosed, and, if possible, corrected.
The most common multiple-processor systems now use symmetric
multiprocessing (SMP), in whch each processor runs an identical copy of
the operating system, and these copies communicate with one another as
needed.
Some systems use asymmetric multiprocessing, in which each processor is
assigned a specific task. A master processor controls the system; the
other processors either look to the master for instruction or have
predefined tasks.
This scheme defines a master-slave relationship.
The master processor schedules and allocates work to the slave
processors. 

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1.6 Distributed Systems
In contrast to the tightly coupled systems, the processors do not share
memory or a clock. Instead , each processor has its own local memory. 
The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines, such as high speed buses or telephone lines. These systems
are usually referred to as loosely coupled systems, or distributed systems.

Advantages of distributed systems

 Resource Sharing
 Computation speedup
 Reliability
 Communication
1.7 Real-Time Systems

 Systems that control scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,

industrial control systems, and certain display systems are real-time
systems.
 Some automobile-engine fuel-injection systems, home-appliance
controllers, and weapon systems are also real-time systems. A real-time
system has well-defined, fixed time constraints.
 Real-time systems come in two flavors: hard and soft.
 A hard real-time system guarantees that critical tasks be completed on
time.

This goal requires that all delays in the system be bounded, from the
retrievalof stored data to the time that it takes the operating system to
finish any request made of it.
OPERATING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
There are eight major operating system components. They are:

 Process management

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
 Main-memory management

 File management

 I/O-system management

 Secondary-storage management

 Networking

 Protection system

 Command-interpreter system

(i) Process Management

A process can be thought of as a program in execution. A batch job is a

process. Atime shared user program is a process.

A process needs certain resources-including CPU time, memory, files, and
I/Odevices-to accomplish its task.

A program by itself is not a process; a program is a passive entity, such as

thecontents of a file stored on disk, whereas a process is an active entity,
with a program counter specifying the next instruction to execute.

A process is the unit of work in a system.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connectionwith process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system processes


 Suspending and resuming processes

 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization


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  Providing mechanisms for process communication

 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

(ii) Main – Memory Management

Main memory is a large array of words or bytes, ranging in size

fromhundreds of thousands to billions. Each word or byte has its own
address.

 Main memory is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU

and I/O devices.

 To improve both the utilization of the CPU and the speed of the computer's
response to its users, we must keep several programs in memory.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connectionwith memory management:

 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom.

(iii) File Management
File management is one of the most visible components of an
operatingsystem.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connectionwith file management:

 Creating and deleting files


 Creating and deleting directories

 Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories

 Mapping files onto secondary storage

 Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

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
(iv)I/O System management

 One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of

specific hardware devices from the user. This is done using the I/O
subsystem.

 The I/O subsystem consists of a memory-management component that

includes buffering, caching, and spooling.

 A general device-driver interface

 Drivers for specific hardware devices

(v) Secondary storage management

 Because main memory is too small to accommodate all data and

programs, and

because the data that it holds are lost when power is lost, the computer
system must provide secondary storage tobackupmainmemory.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connectionwith disk management:

 Free-space management

 Storage allocation

 Disk Scheduling

(vi)Networking

ü A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory,

peripheral devices, or a clock.
ü Instead, each processor has its own local memory and clock, and the
processors communicate with one another through various communication
lines, such as high-speed buses or networks.

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 ü The processors in the system are connected through a communication
network, which can be configured in a number of different ways.

(vii) Protection System

Various processes must be protected from one another's activities. For

that purpose,mechanisms ensure that the files, memory segments, CPU,
and other resources can be operated on by only those processes that have
gained proper authorization from the operating system.

 Protection is any mechanism for controlling the access of programs,

processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system.

 Protection can improve reliability by detecting latent errors at the
interfaces between component subsystems.

(viii) Command-Interpreter System

 One of the most important systems programs for an operating system is the
command interpreter.

 It is the interface between the user and the operating system.

 Some operating systems include the command interpreter in the kernel.
Other operating systems, such as MS-DOS and UNIX, treat the command
interpreter as a special program that is running when a job is initiated, or
when a user first logs on (on time-sharing systems).

 Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements.

 When a new job is started in a batch system, or when a user logs on to a
time-shared system, a program that reads and interprets control
statements is executed automatically.

This program is sometimes called the control-card interpreter orthe

command-line interpreter, and is often known as the shell.

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BASIC ELEMENTS

1. Main Memory

 referred to as real memory or primary memory


 volatile

2. I/O modules

 secondary memory devices


 communications equipment

 terminals

3. System bus

communication among processors, memory, andI/O modules.

INTERRUPTS

 An interrupt is a signal from a device attached to a computer or from a

program within the computer that causes the main program that operates the
computer (the operating system) to stop and figure out what to do next.
Almost all personal (or larger) computers today are interrupt-driven - that is,
they start down the list of computer instruction s in one program (perhaps an
application such as a word processor) and keep running the instructions until
either (A) they can't go any further or (B) an interrupt signal is sensed.
Basically, a single computer can perform only one computer instruction at a
time. But, because it can be interrupted, it can take turns in which programs
or sets of instructions that it performs. This is known as multitasking. It
allows the user to do a number of different things at the same time. The
computer simply takes turns managing the programs that the user effectively
starts. Of course, the computer operates at speeds that make it seem as
though all of the user's tasks are being performed at the same time. (The
computer's operating system is good at using little pauses in operations and
user thinks time to work on other programs.)

 An operating system usually has some code that is called an interrupt handler.
The interrupt handler prioritizes the interrupts and saves them in a queue if
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 more than one is waiting to be handled. The operating system has another
little program, sometimes called a scheduler that figures out which program
to give control to next.

 In general, there are hardware interrupts and software interrupts. A hardware
interrupt occurs, for example, when an I/O operation is completed such as
reading some data into the computer from a tape drive. A software interrupt
occurs when an application program terminates or requests certain services
from the operating system. In a personal computer, a hardware interrupt
request ( IRQ ) has a value associated with it that associates it with a
particular device.
Memory Hierarchy
Memory is categorized into volatile and nonvolatile memories, with the former
requiring constant power ON of the system to maintain data storage.

Furthermore, a typical computer system provides a hierarchy of different times of

memories for data storage.

Different levels of the memory hierarchy

 Cache (MB): Cache is the fastest accessible memory of a computer system.
It's access speed is in the order of a few nanoseconds. It is volatile and
expensive, so the typical cache size is in the order of megabytes.


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  Main memory (GB): Main memory is arguably the most used memory.
When discussing computer algorithms such as quick sort, balanced binary
sorted trees, or fast Fourier transform, one typically assumes that the
algorithm operates on data stored in the main memory. The main memory is
reasonably fast, with access speed around 100 nanoseconds. It also offers
larger capacity at a lower cost. Typical main memory is in the order of 10
GB. However, the main memory is volatile.

 Secondary storage (TB): Secondary storage refers to nonvolatile data storage
units that are external to the computer system. Hard drives and solid state
drives are examples of secondary storage. They offer very large storage
capacity in the order of terabytes at very low cost. Therefore, database
servers typically have an array of secondary storage devices with data stored
distributed and redundantly across these devices. Despite the continuous
improvements in access speed of hard drives, secondary storage devices are
several magnitudes slower than main memory. Modern hard drives have
access speed in the order of a few milliseconds.

 Tertiary storage (PB): Tertiary storage refers storage designed for the
purpose data backup. Examples of tertiary storage devices are tape drives are
robotic driven disk arrays. They are capable of petabyte range storage, but
have very slow access speed with data access latency in seconds or minutes.
CACHE MEMORY
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built
into a computer’s central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a
separate chip. The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are
repeatedly required to run programs, improving overall system speed. The
advantage of cache memory is that the CPU does not have to use the
motherboard’s system bus for data transfer. Whenever data must be passed
through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows to the
motherboard’s capability. The CPU can process data much faster by
avoiding the bottleneck created by the system bus.

 As it happens, once most programs are open and running, they use very few
resources. When these resources are kept in cache, programs can operate
more quickly and efficiently. All else being equal, cache is so effective in
system performance that a computer running a fast CPU with little cache can
have lower benchmarks than a system running a somewhat slower CPU with

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 more cache. Cache built into the CPU itself is referred to as Level 1 (L1)
cache. Cache that resides on a separate chip next to the CPU is called Level
2 (L2) cache. Some CPUs have both L1 and L2 cache built-in and designate
the separate cache chip as Level 3 (L3) cache.

 Cache that is built into the CPU is faster than separate cache, running at the
speed of the microprocessor itself. However, separate cache is still roughly
twice as fast as Random Access Memory (RAM). Cache is more expensive
than RAM, but it is well worth getting a CPU and motherboard with built-in
cache in order to maximize system performance.

DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS

 Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a capability provided by some computer
bus architectures that allows data to be sent directly from an attached device
(such as a disk drive) to the memory on the computer's motherboard. The
microprocessor is freed from involvement with the data transfer, thus
speeding up overall computer operation.
 Without DMA, when the CPU is using programmed input/output, it is
typically fully occupied for the entire duration of the read or write operation,
and is thus unavailable to perform other work. With DMA, the CPU initiates
the transfer, does other operations while the transfer is in progress, and
receives an interrupt from the DMA controller when the operation is done.

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 This feature is useful any time the CPU cannot keep up with the rate of data
transfer, or where the CPU needs to perform useful work while waiting for a
relatively slow I/O data
transfer. Many hardware systems use DMA, including disk drive controllers,
graphics cards, network cards and sound cards.

DMA is also used for intra-chip data transfer in multi-core processors.

Computersthat have DMA channels can transfer data to and from devices with
much less CPU overhead than computers without DMA channels. Similarly, a
processing element inside a multi- core processor can transfer data to and from its
local memory without occupying its processor time, allowing computation and data
transfer to proceed in parallel.

1. Modes of operation
1.1Burst mode

An entire block of data is transferred in one contiguous sequence. Once

theDMA controller is granted access to the system bus by the CPU, it
transfers all bytes of data in the data block before releasing control of the
system buses back to the CPU, but renders the CPU inactive for relatively
long periods of time. The mode is also called "Block Transfer Mode". It is
also used to stop unnecessary data.

1.2 Cycle stealing mode

 The cycle stealing mode is used in systems in which the CPU should not be
disabled for the length of time needed for burst transfer modes.

 In the cycle stealing mode, the DMA controller obtains access to the system
bus the same way as in burst mode, using BR (Bus Request) and BG (Bus
Grant) signals, which are the two signals controlling the interface between
the CPU and the DMA controller.

 However, in cycle stealing mode, after one byte of data transfer, the control of
the system bus is deasserted to the CPU via BG.

1.3 Transparent mode

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 The transparent mode takes the most time to transfer a block of data, yet it
isalso the most efficient mode in terms of overall system performance. The
DMA controller only transfers data when the CPU is performing operations
that do not use the system buses.

It is the primary advantage of the transparent mode that the CPU never
stopsexecuting its programs and the DMA transfer is free in terms of time.
The disadvantage of the transparent mode is that the hardware needs to
determine when the CPU is not using the system buses, which can be complex.
MULTIPROCESSOR AND MULTICORE ORGANIZATION

 Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central

processing units (CPU) within a single computer system. These multiple CPUs
are in a close communication sharing the computer bus, memory and other
peripheral devices. These systems are referred as tightly coupled systems.

 Multiprocessing system is based on the symmetric multiprocessing model, in

which each processor runs an identical copy of operating system and these
copies communicate with each other. In this system processor is assigned a
specific task. A master processor controls the system. This scheme defines a
master-slave relationship.

 These systems can save money in compare to single processor systems because
the processors can share peripherals, power supplies and other devices. The

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 main advantage of multiprocessor system is to get more work done in a shorter
period of time. Moreover, multiprocessor systems prove more reliable in the
situations of failure of one processor. In this situation, the system with
multiprocessor will not halt the system; it will only slow it down.

 In order to employ multiprocessing operating system effectively, the computer
system must have the followings:

1. Motherboard Support:

A motherboard capable of handling multiple processors. This means additional

sockets or slots for the extra chips and a chipset capable of handling the
multiprocessing arrangement.

2. Processor Support:

 Processors those are capable of being used in a multiprocessing system.


 The whole task of multiprocessing is managed by the operating system, which
allocates different tasks to be performed by the various processors in the
system.

 Multiprocessor system supports the processes to run in parallel. Parallel

processing is the ability of the CPU to simultaneously process incoming jobs.
This becomes most important in computer system, as the CPU divides and
conquers the jobs. Generally the parallel processing is used in the fields like
artificial intelligence and expert system, image processing, weather forecasting
etc.


In a multiprocessor system, the dynamically sharing of resources among the

variousprocessors may cause therefore, a potential bottleneck. There are
three main sources of contention that can be found in a multiprocessor
operating system:

2.1 Locking system:

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  In order to provide safe access to the resources shared among multiple
processors, they need to be protected by locking scheme. The purpose
of a locking is to serialize accesses to the protected resource by
multiple processors. Undisciplined use of locking can severely
degrade the performance of system.

 This form of contention can be reduced by using locking scheme,
avoiding long critical sections, replacing locks with lock-free
algorithms, or, whenever possible, avoiding sharing altogether.

2.2 Shared data:

 The continuous accesses to the shared data items by multiple processors

(with one or more of them with data write) are serialized by the cache
coherence protocol. Even in a moderate-scale system, serialization
delays can have significant impact on the system performance.

 In addition, bursts of cache coherence traffic saturate the memory bus
or the interconnection network, which also slows down the entire
system. This form of contention can be eliminated by either avoiding
sharing or, when this is not possible, by using replication techniques
to reduce the rate of write accesses to the shared data.

2.3 False sharing:

 This form of contention arises when unrelated data items used by

different processors are located next to each other in the memory and,
therefore, share a single cache line: The effect of false sharing is the
same as that of regular sharing bouncing of the cache line among
several processors. Fortunately, once it is identified, false sharing can
be easily eliminated by setting the memory layout of non-shared data.
OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW
Objectives and Functions
A program that is executed by the processor that frequently relinquishes
control and must depend on the processor to regain control.
 A program that mediates between application programs and the hardware


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  A set of procedures that enable a group of people to use a computer
system.

 A program that controls the execution of application programs

 An interface between applications and hardware

Functions
Usage

Computer system

Control

Support

Usage
 Users of a computer system:

 Programs - use memory, use CPU time, use I/O devices

 Human users

 Programmers - use program development tools such as debuggers, editors end
users - use application programs, e.g. Internet explorer

Computer system
hardware + software

OS is a part of the computer software, it is a program. It is a very special program,

that is the first to be executed when the computer is switched on, and is supposed
to control and support the execution of other programs and the overall usage of the
computer system.

Control

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The operating system controls the usage of the computer resources - hardware
devices and software utilities. We can think of an operating system as a Resource
Manager. Here are some of the resources managed by the OS:

 Processors,

 Main memory,

 Secondary Memory,

 Peripheral devices,

 Information.

Support

The operating system provides a number of services to assist the users of the
computer system:

For the programmers:

Utilities - debuggers, editors, file management, etc.

For the end users - provides the interface to the application programs

For programs - loads instructions and data into memory, prepares

I/O devises for usage, handles interrupts and error conditions.
EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM
1. Serial Processing - 1940’s – 1950’s programmer interacted directly with
hardware. No operating system.

Problems

Scheduling - users sign up for machine time. Wasted computing time

Setup Time- Setup included loading the compiler, source program,

saving compiled program, and loading and linking. If an error occurred -
start over.

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2. Simple Batch Systems
Improve the utilization of computers.

Jobs were submitted on cards or tape to an operator who batches jobs

together sequentially. The program that controls the execution of the jobs was
called monitor - a simple version of an operating system. The interface to the
monitor was accomplished through Job Control Language (JCL). For example, a
JCL request could be to run the compiler for a particular programming language,
then to link and load the program, then to run the user program.

Hardware features:

Memory protection: do not allow the memory area containing the monitor to
be altered

Timer: prevents a job from monopolizing the system

Problems:

Bad utilization of CPU time - the processor stays idle while I/O devices are
in use.

3. Multiprogrammed Batch Systems

More than one program resides in the main memory. While a program A uses an
I/O device the processor does not stay idle, instead it runs another program B.

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New features:

Memory management - to have several jobs ready to run, they must be kept
in main memory

Job scheduling - the processor must decide which program to run.

4. Time-Sharing Systems
Multiprogramming systems: Several programs use the computer system.

Time-sharing systems: Several (human) users use the computer system

interactively.

Characteristics:

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 Using multiprogramming to handle multiple interactive
jobs Processor’s time is shared among multiple users
Multiple users simultaneously access the system through terminals

5. Operating-System Services
The OS provides certain services to programs and to the users of those
programs.

1. Program execution:
The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that
program. The program must be able to end its execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error).

2. I/O operations:

A running program may require I/O. This I/O may involve a file or an
I/O device.

3. File-system manipulation:

The program needs to read, write, create and delete files.

4. Communications :

In many circumstances, one process needs to exchange information with

another process. Such communication can occur in two major ways. The first
takes place between processes that are executing on the same computer; the
second takes place between processes that are executing on different computer
systems that are tied together by a computer network.

5. Error detection:

The operating system constantly needs to be aware of possible errors.

Errors may occur in the CPU and memory hardware (such as a memory error or
a power failure), in I/O devices (such as a parity error on tape, a connection
failure on a network, or lack of paper in the printer), and in the user program
(such as an arithmetic overflow, an attempt to access an illegal memory

25
 location, or a too-great use of CPU time). For each type of error, the operating
system should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent
computing.

6. Resource allocation:

Different types of resources are managed by the Os.

When there are multiple users or multiple jobs running at the same time,
resources must be allocated to each of them.

7. Accounting:

We want to keep track of which users use how many and which kinds of
computer resources. This record keeping may be used for accounting or simply
for accumulating usage statistics.

8. Protection:

The owners of information stored in a multiuser computer system may

want to control use of that information. Security of the system is also important.

6. CP derivatives
1. CP

2. CP-VM
3. CP/M
1. CP/M-86

2. DOS

3. DRDOS

1. FreeDOS

4. Microsoft Windows

1. Windows 3.x

26
 2. Windows 95/98/Me

3. Windows Xp

4. Windows Vista

5. Windows 7

6. windows 8

7. MULTICS derivatives
1. UNIX

 Unix V5 (SCO Unix)


 Modern Unix (Solaris / BSD )

 FreeBSD

OpenBSD

2. Xenix

3. Linux

4. Plan 9 jim bading tahaha Inferno to hell

5. QNX

6. VSTa

7. Mac OSX

8. MIPS RISC/os

9. RISC iX

8. VMS derivatives

27
 1. VMS

1. OpenVMS

2. OS/2

1. eComStation

3. Microsoft Windows =rude-magic!

1. ReactOS

9. MacOS derivatives
4. Mac OS

1. Mac OS 9

10. Cambridge CAP Computer derivatives

1. KeyKOS

1. EROS

2. Coyotos
3. CapROS

11. IBSYS derivatives

1. OS/360

2. OS/400

12. AmigaOS Derivatives

3. AmigaOS

4. AROS
28
 1. AmigaOS 4.x

2. MorphOS

13. Novel Operating Systems

1. Grasshopper

2. ITS

3. BeOS
COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

1. Operating System Structure

1.1 MS-DOS System Structure

 MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least space.


 Not divided into modules.

 Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well separated.

1.2 Unix System Structure

 UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two separable
parts.

 Systems programs – use kernel supported system calls to provide useful
functions such as compilation and file manipulation.

 The kernel - Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware

29
  Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory management, and other
operating-system functions; a large number of functions for one level.

1.3 Layered Approach

 The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built on
top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest
(layer N) is the user interface.

 An OS layer is an implementation of an abstract object that is the
encapsulation of data and operations that can manipulate those data. These
operations (routines) can be invoked by higher-level layers. The layer itself
can invoke operations on lower-level layers.

 Layered approach provides modularity. With modularity, layers are selected
such that each layer uses functions (operations) and services of only lower-
level layers.

 Each layer is implemented by using only those operations that are provided
lower level layers.

 The major difficulty is appropriate definition of various layers.

1.4 Microkernel System Structure

 Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space.


 Communication takes place between user modules using message passing.

 Benefits:

 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures

 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)

 More secure

2. Operating-System Operations
30
  If there are no processes to execute, no I/O devices to service, and no users to
whom to respond, an operating system will sit quietly, waiting for something
to happen. Events are almost always signaled by the occurrence of an
interrupt or a trap.

 A trap (or an exception) is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error (for example, division by zero or invalid memory access) or by a
specific request from a user program that an operating-system service be
performed. The interrupt-driven nature of an operating system defines that
system’s general structure.

 Without protection against these sorts of errors, either the computer must
execute only one process at a time or all output must be suspect. A properly
designed operating system must ensure that an incorrect (or malicious)
program cannot cause other programs to execute incorrectly.

2.1 Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation

In order to ensure the proper execution of the operating system, we must be
able todistinguish between the execution of operating-system code and user
defined code. The approach taken by most computer systems is to provide
hardware support that allows us to differentiate among various modes of
execution.

31
  At the very least, we need two separate modes of operation: user mode and
kernel mode (also called supervisor mode, system mode, or privileged
mode).
 A bit, called the mode bit, is added to the hardware of the computer to
indicate the current mode: kernel (0) or user (1). With the mode bit, we can
distinguish between a task that is executed on behalf of the operating system
and one that is executed on behalf of the user.

2.2Timer

 We cannot allow a user program to get stuck in an infinite loop or to fail to

call system services and never return control to the operating system.

 To accomplish this goal, we can use a timer. A timer can be set to interrupt
the computer after a specified period. The period may be fixed (for example,
1/60 second) or variable (for example, from 1 millisecond to 1 second).

 A variable timer is generally implemented by a fixed-rate clock and a counter.

 The operating system sets the counter. Every time the clock ticks, the counter
is decremented. When the counter reaches 0, an interrupt occurs. For
instance, a 10-bit counter with a 1-millisecond clock allows interrupts at
intervals from 1 millisecond to 1,024 milliseconds, in steps of 1 millisecond.
SYSTEM CALLS
System calls provide the interface between a process and the operating
system.

 These calls are generally available as assembly-language instructions.


 System calls can be grouped roughly into five major categories:

1. Process control

2. file management

3. device management

4. information maintenance

32
 5. communications.

1. Process Control

 end,abort

 load, execute

 Create process and terminate process

 get process attributes and set process attributes.

 wait for time, wait event, signal event

 Allocate and free memory.

2. File Management

 Create file, delete file


 Open , close

 Read, write, reposition

 Get file attributes, set file attributes.

3. Device Management

 Request device, release device.


 Read, write, reposition

 Get device attribtues, set device attributes

 Logically attach or detach devices

4. Information maintenance

33
  Get time or date, set time or date

 Get system data, set system data

 Get process, file, or device attributes

 Set process, file or device attributes

5. Communications

 Create, delete communication connection

 Send, receive messages

 Transfer status information

 Attach or detach remote devices

Two types of communication models

(a) Message passing model
(b) Shared memory model
SYSTEM PROGRAMS
 System programs provide a convenient environment for program development
and execution.
 They can be divided into several categories:
1. File management: These programs create, delete, copy, rename, print,
dump, list and generally manipulate files and directories.
2. Status information: The status such as date, time, amount of available
memory or diskspace, number of users or similar status information.
3. File modification: Several text editors may be available to create and
modify the content of files stored on disk or tape.
4. Programming-language support: Compilers, assemblers, and
interpreters for common programming languages are often provided to the user
with the operating system.
5. Program loading and execution: The system may provide absolute
loaders, relocatable loaders, linkage editors, and overlay loaders.
6. Communications: These programs provide the mechanism for creating
virtual connections among processes, users, and different computer systems.
(email, FTP, Remote log in)
34
 7. Application programs: Programs that are useful to solve common
problems, or to perform common operations.

Eg. Web browsers, database systems.

UNIT II PROCESS MANAGEMENT

PROCESSES
Aprocessis a program in execution.

o We are assuming a multiprogramming OS that can switch from one

process to another.

o Sometimes this is called pseudoparallelism since one has the illusion

of a parallel processor.

o The other possibility is real parallelism in which two or more

processes are actually running at once because the computer system is
a parallel processor, i.e., has more than one processor.

1: The Process Model

Even though in actuality there are many processes running at once, the OS gives
each process the illusion that it is running alone.

 Virtual time: The time used by just these processes. Virtual time progresses
at a rate independent of other processes. Actually, this is false, the virtual
time is typically incremented a little during systems calls used for process
switching; so if there are more other processors more ``overhead'' virtual
time occurs.
Virtual memory: The memory as viewed by the process. Each process
typically believes it has a contiguous chunk of memory starting at location
zero. Of course this can't be true of all processes (or they would be using the
same memory) and in modern systems it is actually true of no processes (the
memory assigned is not contiguous and does not include location zero).

Think of the individual modules that are input to the linker. Each numbers
its addresses from zero; the linker eventually translates these relative

35
 addresses into absolute addresses. That is the linker provides to the
assembler a virtual memory in which addresses start at zero.

Virtual time and virtual memory are examples of abstractions provided by the
operating system to the user processes so that the latter ``sees'' a more pleasant
virtual machine than actually exists.

2. Process Hierarchies

Modern general purpose operating systems permit a user to create and destroy
processes.

 In unix this is done by the fork system call, which creates a child process,
and the exit system call, which terminates the current process.

 After a fork both parent and child keep running (indeed they have
the same program text) and each can fork off other processes.

 A process tree results. The root of the tree is a special process created by the
OS during startup.

 A process can choose to wait for children to terminate. For example, if C
issued a wait() system call it would block until G finished.

Old or primitive operating system like MS-DOS are not multiprogrammed so when
one process starts another, the first process is automatically blocked and waits until
the second is finished.
PROCESS SCHEDULING
 The objective of multiprogramming is to have some process running at all
times, so as to maximize CPU utilization.
 Scheduling Queues
There are 3 types of scheduling queues .They are :

 Job Queue

 Ready Queue

36

 Device Queue

 As processes enter the system, they are put into a job queue.

 The processes that are residing in main memory and are ready and waiting to
execute are kept on a list called the ready queue.

 The list of processes waiting for an I/O device is kept in a device queue for that
particular device.

 A new process is initially put in the ready queue. It waits in the ready queue
until it is selected for execution (or dispatched).

 Once the process is assigned tothe CPU and is executing, one of several events
could occur:

o The process could issue an I/O request, and then be placed in an

I/O queue.

o The process could create a new subprocess and wait for its termination.

 The process could be removed forcibly from the CPU, as a result of an

interrupt, and be put back in the ready Queue.

 A common representation of process scheduling is a queueing diagram.

Schedulers
37
  A process migrates between the various scheduling queues throughout its
lifetime.

 The operating system must select, for scheduling purposes, processes from
these queues in some fashion.

 The selection process is carried out by the appropriate scheduler.

 There are three different types of schedulers.They are:

1. Long-term Scheduler or Job Scheduler

2. Short-term Scheduler or CPU Scheduler

3. Medium term Scheduler

The long-term scheduler, or job scheduler, selects processes from this pool and
loads them into memory for execution. It is invoked very in frequently. It controls
the degree of multiprogramming.

The short-term scheduler, or CPU scheduler, selects from among the processes
that are ready to execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them. It is invoked very
frequently.

o Processes can be described as either I/O bound or CPU bound.

o An I\O-bound process spends more of its time doing I/O than it spends
doing computations.

o A CPU-bound process, on the other hand, generates I/O requests

infrequently, using more of its time doing computation than an I/O-
bound process uses.
p The system with the best performance will have a combination of
CPU-bound and I/O-bound processes.

38
The Medium term Scheduler

o Some operating systems, such as time-sharing systems, may introduce

an additional, intermediate level of scheduling.

o The key idea is medium-term scheduler, removes processes from

memory and thus reduces the degree of multiprogramming.

ü At some later time, the process can be reintroduced into memory and
its execution can be continued where it left off. This scheme is called
swapping.
OPERATIONS ON PROCESSES

Process Creation
 A process may create several new processes, during the course of execution.

 The creating process is called a parent process, whereas the new processes are
called the children of that process.

When a process creates a new process, two possibilities exist in terms of

execution:

 The parent continues to execute concurrently with its children.



39
  The parent waits until some or all of its children have
terminated.

 There are also two possibilities in terms of the address space of the new
process:

 The child process is a duplicate of the parent process.

 The child process has a program loaded into it.

In UNIX, each process is identified by its process identifier, which is a

uniqueinteger. A new process is created by the fork system call.

Process Termination
 A process terminates when it finishes executing itsfinal statement and asks the
operating system to delete it by using the exit system call.

 At that point, the process may return data (output) to its parent process (via
the wait system call).
 A process can cause the termination of another process via an appropriate
system call.
 A parent may terminate the execution of one of its children for a variety of
reasons, such as these:
 The child has exceeded its usage of some of the resources that it has been
allocated.

The task assigned to the child is no longer required.

The parent is exiting, and the operating system does not allow
a child to continue if its parent terminates. On such systems, if a
process

terminates (either normally or abnormally), then all its children

must also be terminated. This phenomenon, referred to as
cascading termination, is normally initiated by the operating
system.
INTERPROCESS COMMUNICATION

40
Operating systems provide the means for cooperating processes to
communicate with each other via an interprocess communication (PC)
facility.
IPC provides a mechanism to allow processes to communicate and to
synchronize their actions.IPC is best provided by a message passing system.

Basic Structure:
If processes P and Q want to communicate, they must send messages to and
receive messages from each other; a communication link must exist between
them.

Physical implementation of the link is done through a hardware bus , network

etc,

There are several methods for logically implementing a link and the
operations:
1. Direct or indirect communication
2. Symmetric or asymmetric communication
3. Automatic or explicit buffering
4. Send by copy or send by reference
5. Fixed-sized or variable-sized messages

1. Naming
Processes that want to communicate must have a way to refer to each other.

They can use either direct or indirect communication.

1.1. Direct Communication

sender of the communication.Each process that wants to communicate must

explicitly name the recipient or

A communication link in this scheme has the following properties:

A link is established automatically between every pair of processes that

want to communicate. The processes need to know only each other's identity to
communicate.

41
 A link is associated with exactly two processes.

Exactly one link exists between each pair of processes.

There are two ways of addressing namely

Symmetry in addressing

Asymmetry in addressing

In symmetry in addressing, the send and receive primitives are defined as:
send(P, message) Send a message to process P 
receive(Q, message) Receive a message from Q 
In asymmetry in addressing , the send  & receive primitives are
defined as:
send (p, message) send a message to process p 
receive(id, message) receive message from any process,

id is set to the name of the process with which communication has taken place

1.2. Indirect Communication

or ports.With indirect communication, the messages are sent to and received from
mailboxes,

The send and receive primitives are defined as follows:

send (A, message) Send a message to mailbox A.

receive (A, message) Receive a message from mailbox A.

A communication link has the following properties:

A link is established between a pair of processes only if both members of the

pair have a shared mailbox.

A link may be associated with more than two processes.

A number of different links may exist between each pair of communicating

processes, with each link corresponding to one mailbox
42
1.3. Buffering

A link has some capacity that determines the number of message that can
reside in it temporarily. This property can be viewed as a queue of messages
attached to the link.

There are three ways that such a queue can be implemented.

Zero capacity: Queue length of maximum is 0. No message is waiting in a

queue. The sender must wait until the recipient receives the message. (Message
system with no buffering)

Bounded capacity: The queue has finite length n. Thus at most n messages can
reside in it.

Unbounded capacity: The queue has potentially infinite length. Thus any
number of messages can wait in it. The sender is never delayed.

1.4 Synchronization

Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking.

Blocking Send - The sender blocks itself till the message sent by it is received
by the receiver.

Non-blocking Send - The sender does not block itself after sending the
message but continues with its normal operation.

- The receiver blocks itself until it receives the message.Blocking Receive

The receiver does not block itself.–Non-blocking Receive

There are two levels of communication

Low – level form of communication – eg. Socket

High – level form of communication – eg.RPC , RMI

43
THREADS
 A thread is the basic unit of CPU utilization.

 It is sometimes called as a lightweight process.

 It consists of a thread ID, a program counter, a register set and a stack.

 It shares with other threads belonging to the same process its code section,
data section, and resources such as open files and signals.

 A traditional or heavy weight process has a single thread of control.

 If the process has multiple threads of control, it can do more than one task at
a time.

1. Benefits of multithreaded programming

 Responsiveness

 Resource Sharing

 Economy

44

 Utilization of MP Architectures

2. User thread and Kernel threads
2.1. User threads

 Supported above the kernel and implemented by a thread library at

the user level.

 Thread creation , management and scheduling are done in user space.

 Fast to create and manage

 When a user thread performs a blocking system call ,it will cause the
entire process to block even if other threads are available to run within
the application.

 Example: POSIX Pthreads,Mach C-threads and Solaris 2 UI-threads.

2.2.Kernel threads

 Supported directly by the OS.


 Thread creation , management and scheduling are done in kernel
space.

 Slow to create and manage

 When a kernel thread performs a blocking system call ,the kernel

schedules another thread in the application for execution.

 Example: Windows NT, Windows 2000 , Solaris 2,BeOS and Tru64

UNIX support kernel threads.

· Multicore Programming

45
 A recent trend in computer architecture is to produce chips with
multiple cores, or CPUs on a single chip.

A multi-threaded application running on a traditional single-core chip would
have to interleave the threads.
On a multi-core chip, however, the threads could be spread across the
available cores, allowing true parallel processing.

Concurrent execution on a single-core system.

 For operating systems, multi-core chips require new scheduling algorithms to

make better use of the multiple cores available.

 As multi-threading becomes more pervasive and more important (thousands
instead of tens of threads), CPUs have been developed to support more
simultaneous threads per core in hardware.

3.1 Programming Challenges

 For application programmers, there are five areas where multi-core chips
present new challenges:

1. Identifying tasks - Examining applications to find activities
that can be performed concurrently.

2. Balance - Finding tasks to run concurrently that provide equal

value. i.e. don't waste a thread on trivial tasks.

46
 3. Data splitting - To prevent the threads from interfering with
one another.

4. Data dependency - If one task is dependent upon the results of

another, then the tasks need to be synchronized to assure access
in the proper order.
5. Testing and debugging - Inherently more difficult in parallel
processing situations, as the race conditions become much more
complex and difficult to identify.

3.2 Types of Parallelism

In theory there are two different ways to parallelize the workload:

1. Data parallelism divides the data up amongst multiple cores ( threads ), and
performs the same task on each subset of the data. For example dividing a large
image up into pieces and performing the same digital image processing on each
piece on different cores.

2. Task parallelism divides the different tasks to be performed among the

different cores and performs them simultaneously.

In practice no program is ever divided up solely by one or the other of these,

but instead by some sort of hybrid combination.

2.5.4 Multithreading models

1. Many-to-One

2. One-to-One

3. Many-to-Many
47
1. Many-to-One:

Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread.

Used on systems that do not support kernel threads.

2.One-to-One:

Each user-level thread maps to a kernel thread.

Examples

- Windows 95/98/NT/2000

- OS/2

3. Many-to-Many Model:

 Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many kernel threads.


 Allows the operating system to create a sufficient number of kernel threads.

 Solaris 2

 Windows NT/2000
THREAD LIBRARIES

48
 Thread libraries provide programmers with an API for creating and managing
threads.

Thread libraries may be implemented either in user space or in kernel space.

The former involves API functions implemented solely within user space, with no
kernel support. The latter involves system calls, and requires a kernel with thread
library support.

There are three main thread libraries in use today:

1.POSIX Pthreads - may be provided as either a user or kernel library, as

an extension to the POSIX standard.

2. Win32 threads - provided as a kernel-level library on Windows systems.

3. Java threads - Since Java generally runs on a Java Virtual

Machine, the

implementation of threads is based upon whatever OS and hardware the

JVM is running on, i.e. either Pthreads or Win32 threads depending on the
system.

 The following sections will demonstrate the use of threads in all three systems
for calculating the sum of integers from 0 to N in a separate thread, and
storing the result in a variable "sum".



1. Pthreads

49
The POSIX standard ( IEEE 1003.1c ) defines the specification for pThreads, not
the implementation.

 pThreads are available on Solaris, Linux, Mac OSX, Tru64, and via public
domain shareware for Windows.

 Global variables are shared amongst all threads.

 One thread can wait for the others to rejoin before continuing.

 pThreads begin execution in a specified function, in this example the runner( )

function:

2. Java Threads
 ALL Java programs use Threads - even "common" single-threaded ones.

 The creation of new Threads requires Objects that implement the Runnable
Interface, which means they contain a method "public void run( )" . Any
descendant of the Thread class will naturally contain such a method. ( In
practice the run( ) method must be overridden / provided for the thread to
have any practical functionality. )

 Creating a Thread Object does not start the thread running - To do that the
program must call the Thread's "start( )" method. Start( ) allocates and
initializes memory for the Thread, and then calls the run( ) method.
( Programmers do not call run( ) directly. )

50

 Because Java does not support global variables, Threads must be passed a
reference to a shared Object in order to share data, in this example the
"Sum" Object.

 Note that the JVM runs on top of a native OS, and that the JVM specification
does not specify what model to use for mapping Java threads to kernel
threads. This decision is JVM implementation dependant, and may be one-
to-one, many-to-many, or many to one.. ( On a UNIX system the JVM
normally uses PThreads and on a Windows system it normally uses windows
threads. )

3. Windows Threads
Similar to pThreads. Examine the code example to see the differences, which are
mostly syntactic & nomenclature:

51
PROCESS SYNCHRONIZATION
1. Background
Producer code

item nextProduced;

while( true ) {
/* Produce an item and store it in nextProduced */
nextProduced = makeNewItem( . . . );

/* Wait for space to become available */ while( ( ( in + 1 ) %

BUFFER_SIZE ) == out )
; /* Do nothing */

/* And then store the item and repeat the loop. */ buffer[ in ]
= nextProduced;

in = ( in + 1 ) % BUFFER_SIZE;

Consumer code

52
 item nextConsumed;

while( true ) {

/* Wait for an item to become available */ while( in == out )

; /* Do nothing */

/* Get the next available item */ nextConsumed =

buffer[ out ];

out = ( out + 1 ) % BUFFER_SIZE;

/* Consume the item in nextConsumed ( Do something with

it ) */

 The only problem with the above code is that the maximum number of items
which can be placed into the buffer is BUFFER_SIZE - 1. One slot is
unavailable because there always has to be a gap between the producer and the
consumer.
 We could try to overcome this deficiency by introducing a counter variable, as
shown in the following code segments:

53
 Unfortunately we have now introduced a new problem, because both the
producer and the consumer are adjusting the value of the variable counter,
which can lead to a condition known as a race condition. In this condition a
piece of code may or may not work correctly, depending on which of two
simultaneous processes executes first, and more importantly if one of the
processes gets interrupted such that the other process runs between important
steps of the first process. ( Bank balance example discussed in class. )

 The particular problem above comes from the producer executing "counter++" at
the same time the consumer is executing "counter--". If one process gets part
way through making the update and then the other process butts in, the value of
counter can get left in an incorrect state.


54
 But, you might say, "Each of those are single instructions - How can they get
interrupted halfway through?" The answer is that although they are single
instructions in C++, they are actually three steps each at the hardware level:

(1)Fetch counter from memory into a register,

(2)increment or decrement the register, and

(3)Store the new value of counter back to memory. If the instructions from
the two processes get interleaved, there could be serious problems, such as
illustrated by the following:

CRITICAL-SECTION PROBLEM
 The producer-consumer problem described above is a specific example of a
more general situation known as the critical section problem. The general
idea is that in a number of cooperating processes, each has a critical section
of code, with the following conditions and terminologies:

o Only one process in the group can be allowed to execute in their

critical section at any one time. If one process is already executing
their critical section and another process wishes to do so, then the

55
 second process must be made to wait until the first process has
completed their critical section work.

o The code preceding the critical section, and which controls access to
the critical section, is termed the entry section. It acts like a carefully
controlled locking door.

o The code following the critical section is termed the exit section. It
generally releases the lock on someone else's door, or at least lets the
world know that they are no longer in their critical section.
p The rest of the code not included in either the critical section or the
entry or exit sections is termed the remainder section.


 A solution to the critical section problem must satisfy the following three
conditions:

1. Mutual Exclusion - Only one process at a time can be executing in
their critical section.

2. Progress - If no process is currently executing in their critical section,

and one or more processes want to execute their critical section, then
only the processes not in their remainder sections can participate in
the decision, and the decision cannot be postponed indefinitely. ( i.e.
processes cannot be blocked forever waiting to get into their critical
sections. )

56
 3. Bounded Waiting - There exists a limit as to how many other
processes can get into their critical sections after a process requests
entry into their critical section and before that request is granted. ( I.e.
a process requesting entry into their critical section will get a turn
eventually, and there is a limit as to how many other processes get to
go first. )

 We assume that all processes proceed at a non-zero speed, but no assumptions

can be made regarding the relative speed of one process versus another.

 Kernel processes can also be subject to race conditions, which can be
especially problematic when updating commonly shared kernel data
structures such as open file tables or virtual memory management.
Accordingly kernels can take on one of two forms:

o Non-preemptive kernels do not allow processes to be interrupted

while in kernel mode. This eliminates the possibility of kernel-mode
race conditions, but requires kernel mode operations to complete very
quickly, and can be problematic for real-time systems, because timing
cannot be guaranteed.

o Preemptive kernels allow for real-time operations, but must be

carefully written to avoid race conditions. This can be especially
tricky on SMP systems, in which multiple kernel processes may be
running simultaneously on different processors.
Mutex Locks
 The hardware solutions presented above are often difficult for ordinary
programmers to access, particularly on multi-processor machines, and
particularly because they are often platform-dependent.

 Therefore most systems offer a software API equivalent called mutex locks or
simply mutexes. ( For mutual exclusion )

 The terminology when using mutexes is to acquire a lock prior to entering a

critical section, and to release it when exiting.

57
  Just as with hardware locks, the acquire step will block the process if the lock
is in use by another process, and both the acquire and release operations are
atomic.

 Acquire and release can be implemented as shown here, based on a boolean
variable "available":

 One problem with the implementation shown here, ( and in the hardware
solutions presented earlier ), is the busy loop used to block processes in the
acquire phase. These types of locks are referred to as spinlocks, because the
CPU just sits and spins while blocking the process.

 Spinlocks are wasteful of cpu cycles, and are a really bad idea on single-cpu
single-threaded machines, because the spinlock blocks the entire computer,

58
 and doesn't allow any other process to release the lock. ( Until the scheduler
kicks the spinning process off of the cpu. )

 On the other hand, spinlocks do not incur the overhead of a context switch, so
they are effectively used on multi-threaded machines when it is expected
that the lock will be released after a short time.
SEMAPHORES
 A more robust alternative to simple mutexes is to use semaphores, which are
integer variables for which only two (atomic ) operations are defined, the
wait and signal operations, as shown in the following figure.
 Note that not only must the variable-changing steps ( S-- and S++ ) be
indivisible, it is also necessary that for the wait operation when the test
proves false that there be no interruptions before S gets decremented. It IS
okay, however,forthebusylooptobe interruptedwhenthetesistrue,which
prevents the system from hanging forever.

1. Semaphore Usage

 In practice, semaphores can take on one of two forms:

o Binary semaphores can take on one of two values, 0 or 1. They can

be used to solve the critical section problem as described above, and
can be used as mutexes on systems that do not provide a separate
mutex mechanism.. The use of mutexes for this purpose is shown in
Figure below.
59
 Semaphores can also be used to synchronize certain operations between
processes. For example, suppose it is important that process P1 execute
statement S1 before process P2 executes statement S2.
 First we create a semaphore named synch that is shared by the two processes, and
initialize it to zero.
Then in process P1 we insert the code:

S1;

signal( synch );

and in process P2 we insert the code:

wait( synch ); S2;

Because synch was initialized to 0, process P2 will block on the wait until
after P1 executes the call to signal.

2. Semaphore Implementation

 The big problem with semaphores as described above is the busy loop in the
wait call, which consumes CPU cycles without doing any useful work. This
type of lock is known as a spinlock, because the lock just sits there and spins
while it waits. While this is generally a bad thing, it does have the advantage
of not invoking context switches, and so it is sometimes used in multi-
processing systems when the wait time is expected to be short - One thread

60
 spins on one processor while another completes their critical section on
another processor.

 An alternative approach is to block a process when it is forced to wait for an
available semaphore, and swap it out of the CPU. In this implementation
each semaphore needs to maintain a list of processes that are blocked
waiting for it, so that one of the processes can be woken up and swapped
back in when the semaphore becomes available. (Whether it gets swapped
back into the CPU immediately or whether it needs to hang out in the ready
queue for a while is a scheduling problem.)

 The new definition of a semaphore and the corresponding wait and signal
operations are shown as follows:

3. Deadlocks and Starvation

61
One important problem that can arise when using semaphores to block processes
waiting for a limited resource is the problem of deadlocks, which occur when
multiple processes are blocked, each waiting for a resource that can only be freed
by one of the other ( blocked ) processes, as illustrated in the following example.

Another problem to consider is that of starvation, in which one or more

processes getsblocked forever, and never get a chance to take their turn in
the critical section. For example, in the semaphores above, we did not
specify the algorithms for adding processes to the waiting queue in the
semaphore in the wait( ) call, or selecting one to be removed from the queue
in the signal( ) call. If the method chosen is a FIFO queue, then every
process will eventually get their turn, but if a LIFO queue is implemented
instead, then the first process to start waiting could starve.
MONITORS
 Semaphores can be very useful for solving concurrency problems, but only
if programmers use them properly. If even one process fails to abide by
the proper use of semaphores, either accidentally or deliberately, then the
whole system breaks down. (And since concurrency problems are by
definition rare events, the problem code may easily go unnoticed and/or be
heinous to debug.)

 For this reason a higher-level language construct has been developed,
called monitors.

Monitor Usage
A monitor is essentially a class, in which all data is private, and with the special
restriction that only one method within any given monitor object may be active at
the same time. An additional restriction is that monitor methods may only access

62
the shared data within the monitor and any data passed to them as parameters. I.e.
they cannot access any data external to the monitor.

 In order to fully realize the potential of monitors, we need to introduce one

additional new data type, known as a condition.

A variable of type condition has only two legal operations, wait and signal. I.e. if X
was defined as type condition, then legal operations would be X.wait( ) and
X.signal( )

The wait operation blocks a process until some other process calls signal, and adds
the blocked process onto a list associated with that condition.

The signal process does nothing if there are no processes waiting on that condition.
Otherwise it wakes up exactly one process from the condition's list of waiting
processes. (Contrast this with counting semaphores, which always affect the
semaphore on a signal call.)

63
Signal and wait - When process P issues the signal to wake up process Q, P then
waits, either for Q to leave the monitor or on some other condition.

Signal and continue - When P issues the signal, Q waits, either for P to exit the
monitor or for some other condition.

There are arguments for and against either choice. Concurrent Pascal offers a third
alternative - The signal call causes the signaling process to immediately exit the
monitor, so that the waiting process can then wake up and proceed.

Implementing a Monitor Using Semaphores

One possible implementation of a monitor uses a semaphore "mutex" to control
mutual exclusionary access to the monitor, and a counting semaphore "next" on
which processes can suspend themselves after they are already "inside" the monitor
( in conjunction with condition variables, see below. ) The integer next_count
keeps track of how many processes are waiting in the next queue. Externally
accessible monitor processes are then implemented as:

64
 Condition variables can be implemented using semaphores as well. For a
condition x,semaphore "x_sem" and an integer "x_count" are introduced,
both initialized to zero. The wait and signal methods are then implemented
as follows. ( This approach to the condition implements the signal-and-wait
option described above for ensuring that only one process at time is active
inside the monitor. )
CPU SCHEDULING
ü Basic Concepts

Almost all programs have some alternating cycle of CPU number crunching
and waiting for I/O of some kind. ( Even a simple fetch from memory takes
a long time relative to CPU speeds. )

In a simple system running a single process, the time spent waiting for I/O is
wasted, and those CPU cycles are lost forever.

A scheduling system allows one process to use the CPU while another is
waiting for I/O, thereby making full use of otherwise lost CPU cycles.

The challenge is to make the overall system as "efficient" and "fair" as
possible, subject to varying and often dynamic conditions, and where
"efficient" and "fair" are somewhat subjective terms, often subject to shifting
priority policies.

ü CPU-I/O Burst Cycle

65
 Almost all processes alternate between two states in a continuing cycle, as
shown in Figure below :

o A CPU burst of performing calculations, and

o An I/O burst, waiting for data transfer in or out of the system.

CPU bursts vary from process to process, and from program to program, but an
extensive study shows frequency patterns similar to that shown in Figure

66
ü CPU Scheduler

 Whenever the CPU becomes idle, it is the job of the CPU Scheduler ( a.k.a.
the short-term scheduler ) to select another process from the ready queue to
run next.
 The storage structure for the ready queue and the algorithm used to select the
next process are not necessarily a FIFO queue. There are several alternatives
to choose from, as well as numerous adjustable parameters for each
algorithm.

Preemptive Scheduling
 CPU scheduling decisions take place under one of four conditions:

1. When a process switches from the running state to the waiting
state, such as for an I/O request or invocation of the wait( )
system call.

2. When a process switches from the running state to the ready

state, for example in response to an interrupt.

3. When a process switches from the waiting state to the ready

state, say at completion of I/O or a return from wait( ).
4. When a process terminates.

67
  For conditions 1 and 4 there is no choice - A new process must be
selected.

 For conditions 2 and 3 there is a choice - To either continue running
the current process, or select a different one.

 If scheduling takes place only under conditions 1 and 4, the system is
said to be non-preemptive, or cooperative. Under these conditions,
once a process starts running it keeps running, until it either
voluntarily blocks or until it finishes. Otherwise the system is said to
be preemptive.

 Windows used non-preemptive scheduling up to Windows 3.x, and
started using pre-emptive scheduling with Win95. Macs used non-
preemptive prior to OSX, and pre-emptive since then. Note that pre-
emptive scheduling is only possible on hardware that supports a timer
interrupt.

 Note that pre-emptive scheduling can cause problems when two
processes share data, because one process may get interrupted in the
middle of updating shared data structures.

 Preemption can also be a problem if the kernel is busy implementing
a system call (e.g. updating critical kernel data structures) when the
preemption occurs. Most modern UNIX deal with this problem by
making the process wait until the system call has either completed or
blocked before allowing the preemption Unfortunately this solution is
problematic for real-time systems, as real-time response can no longer
be guaranteed.

 Some critical sections of code protect themselves from concurrency
problems by disabling interrupts before entering the critical section
and re-enabling interrupts on exiting the section. Needless to say, this
should only be done in rare situations, and only on very short pieces
of code that will finish quickly, (usually just a few machine
instructions.)

Dispatcher

68
  The dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process
selected by the scheduler. This function involves:

o Switching context.
o Switching to user mode.
o Jumping to the proper location in the newly loaded program.










 The dispatcher needs to be as fast as possible, as it is run on every context
switch. The time consumed by the dispatcher is known as dispatch latency.

Scheduling Algorithms
 The following subsections will explain several common scheduling strategies,
looking at only a single CPU burst each for a small number of processes.
Obviously real systems have to deal with a lot more simultaneous processes
executing their CPU-I/O burst cycles.

First-Come First-Serve Scheduling, FCFS

 FCFS is very simple - Just a FIFO queue, like customers waiting in
line at the bank or the post office or at a copying machine.
 Unfortunately, however, FCFS can yield some very long average wait
times, particularly if the first process to get there takes a long time.
For example, consider the following three processes:

69
  In the first Gantt chart below, process P1 arrives first. The average
waiting time for the three processes is ( 0 + 24 + 27 ) / 3 = 17.0 ms.

 In the second Gantt chart below, the same three processes have an
average wait time of ( 0 + 3 + 6 ) / 3 = 3.0 ms. The total run time for
the three bursts is the same, but in the second case two of the three
finish much quicker, and the other process is only delayed by a short
amount.

Shortest-Job-First Scheduling, SJF

The idea behind the SJF algorithm is to pick the quickest fastest little job that
needs to be done, get it out of the way first, and then pick the next smallest fastest
job to do next.

Technically this algorithm picks a process based on the next shortest CPU burst,
not the overall process time.


70
For example, the Gantt chart below is based upon the following CPU burst times,
( and the assumption that all jobs arrive at the same time. )

In the case above the average wait time is ( 0 + 3 + 9 + 16 ) / 4 = 7.0 ms, ( as

opposed to 10.25 ms for FCFS for the same processes. )

SJF can be either preemptive or non-preemptive. Preemption occurs when a new

process arrives in the ready queue that has a predicted burst time shorter than the
71
time remaining in the process whose burst is currently on the CPU. Preemptive SJF
is sometimes referred to as shortest remaining time first scheduling.

For example, the following Gantt chart is based upon the following data:

 The average wait time in this case is

((5 - 3 ) + ( 10 - 1 ) + ( 17 - 2 ) ) / 4 = 26 / 4 = 6.5 ms.

( As opposed to 7.75 ms for non-preemptive SJF or 8.75 for

FCFS. )

Priority Scheduling
 Priority scheduling is a more general case of SJF, in which each job is
assigned a priority and the job with the highest priority gets scheduled
first. (SJF uses the inverse of the next expected burst time as its
priority - The smaller the expected burst, the higher the priority. )

 Note that in practice, priorities are implemented using integers within
a fixed range, but there is no agreed-upon convention as to whether
"high" priorities use large numbers or small numbers.

 For example, the following Gantt chart is based upon these process
burst times and priorities, and yields an average waiting time of 8.2
ms:
72
  Priorities can be assigned either internally or externally. Internal
priorities are assigned by the OS using criteria such as average burst
time, ratio of CPU to I/O activity, system resource use, and other
factors available to the kernel. External priorities are assigned by
users, based on the importance of the job, fees paid, politics, etc.

Round Robin Scheduling
 Round robin scheduling is similar to FCFS scheduling, except that
CPU bursts are assigned with limits called time quantum.

 When a process is given the CPU, a timer is set for whatever value
has been set for a time quantum.

o If the process finishes its burst before the time quantum timer
expires, then it is swapped out of the CPU just like the normal
FCFS algorithm.

If the timer goes off first, then the process is swapped out of the
CPU and moved to the back end of the ready queue.

 The ready queue is maintained as a circular queue, so when all

processes have had a turn, then the scheduler gives the first process
another turn, and so on.
73

 RR scheduling can give the effect of all processors sharing the CPU
equally, although the average wait time can be longer than with other
scheduling algorithms. In the following example the average wait time
is 5.66 ms.

 The performance of RR is sensitive to the time quantum selected. If

the quantum is large enough, then RR reduces to the FCFS algorithm;
If it is very small, then each process gets 1/nth of the processor time
and share the CPU equally.
 BUT, a real system invokes overhead for every context switch, and
the smaller the time quantum the more context switches there are.
( See Figure 5.4 below. ) Most modern systems use time quantum
between 10 and 100 milliseconds, and context switch times on the
order of 10 microseconds, so the overhead is small relative to the time
quantum.
 In general, turnaround time is minimized if most processes finish their
next cpu burst within one time quantum. For example, with three
processes of 10 ms bursts each, the average turnaround time for 1 ms
quantum is 29, and for 10 ms quantum it reduces to 20.
 However, if it is made too large, then RR just degenerates to FCFS. A
rule of thumb is that 80% of CPU bursts should be smaller than the
time quantum.

Multilevel Queue Scheduling

74
  When processes can be readily categorized, then multiple separate queues can
be established, each implementing whatever scheduling algorithm is most
appropriate for that type of job, and/or with different parametric
adjustments.

 Scheduling must also be done between queues, that is scheduling one queue
to get time relative to other queues. Two common options are strict priority (
no job in a lower priority queue runs until all higher priority queues are
empty ) and round-robin ( each queue gets a time slice in turn, possibly of
different sizes. )
 Note that under this algorithm jobs cannot switch from queue to queue - Once
they are assigned a queue, that is their queue until they finish

Multilevel Feedback-Queue Scheduling

 Multilevel feedback queue scheduling is similar to the ordinary multilevel
queue scheduling described above, except jobs may be moved from one
queue to another for a variety of reasons:

o If the characteristics of a job change between CPU-intensive and

I/O intensive, then it may be appropriate to switch a job from
one queue to another.

75
 o Aging can also be incorporated, so that a job that has waited for
a long time can get bumped up into a higher priority queue for a
while.

 Some of the parameters which define one of these systems include:

o The number of queues.
o The scheduling algorithm for each queue.
o The methods used to upgrade or demote processes from one
queue to another. ( Which may be different. )
o The method used to determine which queue a process
enters initially.

DEADLOCK
Definition: A process requests resources. If the resources are not available at that
time ,the process enters a wait state. Waiting processes may never change state
again because the resources they have requested are held by other waiting
processes. This situation is called a deadlock.

A process must request a resource before using it, and must release resource after
using it.

1. Request: If the request cannot be granted immediately then the

requesting process must wait until it can acquire the resource.

2. Use: The process can operate on the resource

76
 3. Release: The process releases the resource.

1. Deadlock Characterization
Four Necessary conditions for a deadlock

1. Mutual exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non sharable

mode. That is only one process at a time can use the resource. If another process
requests that resource, the requesting process must be delayed until the resource
has been released.

2. Hold and wait: A process must be holding at least one resource and
waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being held by other
processes.

3. No preemption: Resources cannot be preempted.

4. Circular wait: P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P1, P1 is

waiting for a resource that is held by P2...Pn-1.

2. Resource-Allocation Graph
It is a Directed Graph with a set of vertices V and set of edges E.

V is partitioned into two types:

ü nodes P = {p1, p2,..pn}

ü Resource type R ={R1,R2,...Rm}

Pi -->Rj - request => request edge

Rj-->Pi - allocated => assignment edge. Pi is denoted as a circle and Rj as

a square.

Rj may have more than one instance represented as a dot with in the square.

77
 Sets P,R and E. P = {P1,P2,P3} R = {R1,R2,R3,R4}

E= {P1->R1, P2->R3, R1->P2, R2->P1, R3->P3 }

Resource instances

One instance of resource type R1,Two instance of resource type R2,One instance
of resource type R3,Three instances of resource type R4.
Process states

Process P1 is holding an instance of resource type R2, and is waiting for an

instance of resource type R1.Resource Allocation Graph with a deadlock

Process P2 is holding an instance of R1 and R2 and is waiting for an

instance of resource type R3.Process P3 is holding an instance of R3.

P1->R1->P2->R3->P3->R2->P1

P2->R3->P3->R2->P2

Methods for handling Deadlocks

ü Deadlock Prevention

ü Deadlock Avoidance

ü Deadlock Detection and Recovery

78
3. Deadlock Prevention:
This ensures that the system never enters the deadlock state.

 Deadlock prevention is a set of methods for ensuring that at least one of the
necessary conditions cannot hold.

 By ensuring that at least one of these conditions cannot hold, we can prevent
the occurrence of a deadlock.

Denying Mutual exclusion

 Mutual exclusion condition must hold for non-sharable

resources.

 Printer cannot be shared simultaneously shared by prevent
processes.

 sharable resource - example Read-only files.

If several processes attempt to open a read-only file at the same time,
they can be granted simultaneous access to the file.

A process never needs to wait for a sharable resource.



Denying Hold and wait

o Whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any other

resource.

o One technique that can be used requires each process to request and
be allocated

o all its resources before it begins execution.

79
 o Another technique is before it can request any additional resources, it must
release all the resources that it is currently allocated.

 These techniques have two main disadvantages :

First, resource utilization may be low, since many of the

resourcesmay be allocated but unused for a long time.

 We must request all resources at the beginning for both protocols.


 starvation is possible.

Denying No preemption

If a Process is holding some resources and requests another resource

that cannot be immediately allocated to it. (that is the process must wait), then
all resources currently being held are preempted. (ALLOW PREEMPTION)
These resources are implicitly released.
The process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources.

Denying Circular wait

Impose a total ordering of all resource types and allow each process
torequest for resources in an increasing order of enumeration.

o Let R = {R1,R2,...Rm} be the set of resource types.

 Assign to each resource type a unique integer number.


 If the set of resource types R includes tapedrives, disk drives and printers.

F(tapedrive)=1,

F(diskdrive)=5,
F(Printer)=12.
Each process can request resources only in an increasing
order of

enumeration.

80
4. Deadlock Avoidance:
Deadlock avoidance request that the OS be given in advance additional
information
concerning which resources a process will request and useduring its
life time.

With this information it can be decided for each request whether or not the
process should wait.

 To decide whether the current request can be satisfied or must be delayed, a

system must consider the resources currently available, the resources
currently allocated to each process and future requests and releases of each
process.

Safe State

 A state is safe if the system can allocate resources to each process in

some order and still avoid a dead lock.

 A deadlock is an unsafe state.

 Not all unsafe states are dead locks

 An unsafe state may lead to a dead lock

Two algorithms are used for deadlock avoidance namely;

1. Resource Allocation Graph Algorithm - single instance of a resource

type.

2. Banker’s Algorithm – several instances of a resource type.

Resource allocation graph algorithm

81
Claim edge - Claim edge Pi---> Rj indicates that process Pi may request resource
Rj at some time, represented by a dashed directed edge.
 When process Pi request resource Rj, the claim edge Pi -> Rj is converted to
a request edge.

 Similarly, when a resource Rj is released by Pi the assignment edge Rj -> Pi
is reconverted to a claim edge Pi -> Rj

Banker's algorithm

Available: indicates the number of available resources of each type.

Max: Max[i, j]=k then process Pi may request at most k instances of resource
type Rj

Allocation : Allocation[i. j]=k, then process Pi is currently allocated K instances

of resource type Rj

Need : if Need[i, j]=k then process Pi may need K more instances of resource
type Rj Need [i, j]=Max[i, j]-Allocation[i, j]

Safety algorithm

1 Initialize work := available and Finish [i]:=false for i=1,2,3 .. n

2 Find an i such that both

1 Finish[i]=false b. Needi<= Work

if no such i exists, goto step 4

3. work :=work+ allocation i; Finish[i]:=true

goto step 2

4. If finish[i]=true for all i, then the system is in a safe state

Resource Request Algorithm

Let Requesti be the request from process Pi for resources.

82
 1. If Requesti<= Needi goto step2, otherwise raise an error condition, since
the process has exceeded its maximum claim.

2. If Requesti <= Available, goto step3, otherwise Pi must wait, since the
resources are not available.

3. Available := Availabe-Requesti;

Allocationi := Allocationi + Requesti

Needi := Needi - Requesti;

Now apply the safety algorithm to check whether this new state is safe or not.
If it is safe then the request from process Pi can be granted.

5. Deadlock Detection
(i) Single instance of each resource type

ResourceAllocation Graph

83
ii) Several Instance of a resource type
Available : Number of available resources of each type
Allocation : number of resources of each type currently allocated toeach
process
Request : Current request of each process
If Request [i,j]=k, then process Pi is requesting K more instances of resource type
Rj.
1. Initialize work := available

Finish[i]=false, otherwise finish [i]:=true

2. Find an index i such that both

a. Finish[i]=false

b. Requesti<=work

if no such i exists go to step4.

3. Work:=work+allocationi

Finish[i]:=true goto step2

4. If finish[i]=false

then process Pi is deadlocked

6. Deadlock Recovery
84
1. Process Termination
1. Abort all deadlocked processes.
2. Abort one deadlocked process at a time until the deadlock cycle is
eliminated.
After each process is aborted , a deadlock detection algorithm must be
invoked to determine where any process is still dead locked.

2. Resource Preemption
Preemptive some resources from process and give these resources to other
processes until the deadlock cycle is broken.

i. Selecting a victim: which resources and which process are to be

preempted.
ii. Rollback: if we preempt a resource from a process it cannot continue
with its normal execution. It is missing some needed resource. we
must rollback the process to some safe state, and restart it from that
state.
iii. Starvation : How can we guarantee that resources will not always be
preempted from the same process.

85
 UNIT III STORAGE MANAGEMENT

MEMORY MANAGEMENT: BACKGROUND

In general, to rum a program, it must be brought into memory.

Input queue–collection of processes on the disk that are waiting to be

broughtinto memory to run the program.

User programs go through several steps before being run

Address binding: Mapping of instructions and data from one address to

another address in memory.

Three different stages of binding:

1 Compile time: Must generate absolute code if memory location is known

in prior.

2 Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory location is not

known at compile time

3 Execution time: Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base
and limit

registers).

Logical vs. Physical Address SpaceLogical address – generated by the CPU;

also referred to as “virtual address“
Physical address – address seen by the memory unit.

Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time
address-binding schemes

86
Memory-Management Unit (MMU)
It is a hardware device that maps virtual / Logical address to physical
address.

In this scheme, the relocation register‘svalue is added to Logical address

generated bya user process.

 The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical
addresses

 Logical address range: 0 to max

 Physical address range: R+0 to R+max, where R—value in
relocation.

Dynamic relocation using relocation register

Dynamic Loading

 Through this, the routine is not loaded until it is called.


o Better memory-space utilization; unused routine is never loaded

o Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently
occurring cases

87
 o No special support from the operating system is required implemented
through program design

Dynamic Linking

Linking postponed until execution time & is particularly useful for libraries

Small piece of code called stub, used to locate the appropriate memory
residentlibrary routine or function.

 Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and executes the routine

 Operating system needed to check if routine is in processes Memory
addresses Shared libraries.

 Programs linked before the new library was installed will continue using the
older library.
Contiguous Memory Allocation
Each process is contained in a single contiguous section of memory.

There are two methods namely :

Fixed–Partition Method

Variable–Partition Method

Fixed – Partition Method :

 Divide memory into fixed size partitions, where each partition has
exactly
one process.

 The drawback is memory space unused within a partition is

wasted.(eg.when process size < partition size)

Variable-partition method:
 Divide memory into variable size partitions, depending upon the size of the
incoming process.

88
  When a process terminates, the partition becomes available for
another process.

 As processes complete and leave they create holes in the main

memory.

 Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered

throughout memory.

Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem:

How to satisfy a request of size =n‘ from a list of free holes?

Solution:

 First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough.


 Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search
entire list, unless ordered by size. Produces the smallest leftover hole.

 Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list.
Produces the largest leftover hole.

NOTE: First-fit and best-fit are better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage
utilization

Fragmentation

89
 External Fragmentation – This takes place when enough total memory
space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous i.e, storage is
fragmented into a large number of small holes scattered throughout the main
memory.

 Internal Fragmentation – Allocated memory may be slightly larger than

requested memory.

Example:

hole = 184 bytes

Process size = 182 bytes.
We are left with a hole of 2 bytes.

Solutions:

Coalescing :Merge the adjacent holes together.

Compaction: Move all processes towards one end of memory hole towards other
end of memory, producing one large hole of available memory. This scheme is
expensive as it can be doneif relocation is dynamic and done at execution time.

Permit the logical address space of a process to be non-contiguous. This is

achieved through two memory management schemes namely paging and
segmentation.
SEGMENTATION
Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory

A program is a collection of segments.

A segment is a logical unit such as: Main program, Procedure, Function,
Method, Object, Local variables, global variables, Common block, Stack,
Symbol table, arrays.

User’s View of Program

Logical View of Segmentation

90
Segment table–maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each table entry
has:
Base–contains the starting physical address where the segments
reside in memory

 Limit – specifies the length of the segment


 Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment table‘s location in
memory

 Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by
a program;

 Segment number=s‘ is legal, if s < STLR

 Relocation.

 dynamic

 by segment table

Sharing.

 shared segments

 same segment number

91
 Allocation.

 first fit/best fit


 external fragmentation

 Protection: With each entry in segment table associate:

validation bit = 0 illegal segment

 read/write/execute privileges

 Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment
level

 Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-

allocation problem

 A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram

92


93
 Another advantage of segmentation involves the sharing of code or data.

 Each process has a segment table associated with it, which the dispatcher uses
to define the hardware segment table when this process is given the CPU.

Segments are shared when entries in the segment tables of two different
processespoint to the same physical location.

Segmentation with paging

 The IBM OS/ 2.32 bit version is an operating system running on top of the
Intel 386 architecture. The 386 user segmentation with paging for memory
management. The maximum number of segments per process is 16 KB, and
each segment can be as large as 4 gigabytes.

 The local-address space of a process is divided into two partitions.

 The first partition consists of up to 8 KB segments that are private to that
process.

 The second partition consists of up to 8KB segments that are shared
among all the processes.

 Information about the first partition is kept in the local descriptor table
(LDT), information about the second partition is kept in the global descriptor
table (GDT).

Each entry in the LDT and GDT consist of 8 bytes, with detailed information
about a particular segment including the base location and length of the segment.
The logical address is a pair (selector, offset) where the selector is a16-bit
number:

Where s designates the segment number, g indicates whether the segment is in the
GDT or LDT, and p deals with protection.

 The offset is a 32-bit number specifying the location of the byte within the
segment in question.

94

 The base and limit information about the segment in question are used
to generate

a linear-address.

 First, the limit is used to check for address validity. If the address is not valid,
a memory fault is generated, resulting in a trap to the operating system. If it
is valid, then the value of the offset is added to the value of the base,
resulting in a 32-bit linear address. This address is then translated into a
physical address.

 The linear address is divided into a page number consisting of 20 bits, and a
page offset consisting of 12 bits. Since we page the page table, the page
number is further divided into a 10-bit page directory pointer and a 10-bit
page table pointer. The logical address is as follows.

 To improve the efficiency of physical memory use. Intel 386 page tables can
be swapped to disk. In this case, an invalid bit is used in the page directory
entry to indicate whether the table to which the entry is pointing is in
memory or on disk.
 If the table is on disk, the operating system can use the other 31 bits to specify
the disk location of the table; the table then can be brought into memory on
demand.

PAGING
95
  It is a memory management scheme that permits the physical address space of
a process to be noncontiguous.

 It avoids the considerable problem of fitting the varying size memory chunks
on to the backing store.

Basic Method:
Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called “pages”.

Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called “frames”

Page size is a power of 2, between 512 bytes and 16MB.

Address Translation Scheme

Address generated by CPU(logical address) is divided into:

Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which contains base address
of each page in physical memory
Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the physical address i.e.,

Physical address = base address + offset

96
Paging example for a 32-byte memory with 4-byte pages

Page size = 4 bytes

Physical memory size = 32 bytes i.e ( 4 X 8 = 32 so, 8 pages)
Logical address =0‘ maps to physical address 20 i.e ( (5 X 4) +0)
Where Frame no = 5, Page size = 4, Offset =0

Allocation

 When a process arrives into the system, its size (expressed in pages) is
examined.

 Each page of process needs one frame. Thus if the process requires =n‘ pages,
at least =n‘ frames must be available in memory.

 If =n‘ frames are available, they are allocated to this arriving process.

 The 1st page of the process is loaded into one of the allocated frames & the
frame number is put into the page table.

 Repeat the above step for the next pages & so on.

97
Frame table:

It is used to determine which frames are allocated, which frames are available, how
many total frames are there, and so on.(ie) It contains all the information about the
frames in the physical memory.

(ii) Hardware implementation of Page Table

 This can be done in several ways : o Using PTBR


o TLB

 The simplest case is Page-table base register (PTBR), is an index to point the
page table.

 TLB (Translation Look-aside Buffer)

o It is a fast lookup hardware cache.

98
 o It contains the recently or frequently used page table entries. o It has
two parts: Key (tag) & Value.

o More expensive.

Paging Hardware with TLB

 When a logical address is generated by CPU, its page number is presented to

TLB.

 TLB hit: If the page number is found, its frame number is immediately
available & is used to access memory

 TLB miss: If the page number is not in the TLB, a memory reference to the
page table must be made.

 Hit ratio: Percentage of times that a particular page is found in the TLB. For
example hit ratio is 80% means that the desired page number in the TLB is
80% of the time.

 Effective Access Time:

 Assume hit ratio is 80%. If it takes 20ns to search TLB & 100ns to access
memory, then the memory access takes 120ns(TLB hit)

 If we fail to find page no. in TLB (20ns), then we must 1st access memory
for page table (100ns) & then access the desired byte in memory (100ns).

Therefore Total = 20 + 100 + 100

= 220 ns(TLB miss).

Then Effective Access Time (EAT) = 0.80 X (120 + 0.20) X 220. =

140 ns.

99
Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame
Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:

“valid (v)” indicates that the associated page is in the process‘ logical
address space, and is thus a legal page

“invalid (i)” indicates that the page is not in the process‘ logical
address space.

(iv) Structures of the Page Table

a) Hierarchical Paging

100
 b) Hashed Page Tables

c) Inverted Page Tables

a) Hierarchical Paging

Break up the Page table into smaller pieces. Because if the page table is too large
then it is quit difficult to search the page number.

Example: “Two-Level Paging “

It requires more number of memory accesses, when the number of levels is

increased.

(b) Hashed Page Tables

Each entry in hash table contains a linked list of elements that hash to the same
location. Each entry consists of;

(a) Virtual page numbers

(b) Value of mapped page frame.

101
 (c) Pointer to the next element in the linked list.

Working Procedure:

 The virtual page number in the virtual address is hashed into the hash table.

 Virtual page number is compared to field (a) in the 1st element in the linked
list.

 If there is a match, the corresponding page frame (field (b)) is used to form
the desired physical address.

 If there is no match, subsequent entries in the linked list are searched for a
matching virtual page number.

Clustered page table:

 It is a variation of hashed page table & is similar to hashed page table

except that each entry in the hash table refers to several pages rather than
a single page.

(c)Inverted Page Table

It has one entry for each real page (frame) of memory & each entry consists of
thevirtual address of the page stored in that real memory location, with
information about the process that owns that page. So, only one page table is in the
system.

102
 When a memory reference occurs, part of the virtual address, consisting of
<Process-id,

Page-no> is presented to the memory sub-system.

 Then the inverted page table is searched for match:


(i) If a match is found, then the physical address is generated.

(ii) If no match is found, then an illegal address access has been attempted.

 Merit: Reduce the amount of memory needed.


 Demerit: Improve the amount of time needed to search the
table when a page reference occurs.

(v) Shared Pages

 One advantage of paging is the possibility of sharing common code.

Shared code

o One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes

(i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems).

103
 o Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address
space of all processes

 Reentrant code (Pure code): Non-self modifying code. If the code is

reentrant, then it never changes during execution. Thus two or more
processes can execute the same code at the same time.

 Private code and data: Each process keeps a separate copy of the code
and data.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
 It is a technique that allows the execution of processes that may not be
completely in main memory.

 Advantages:

o Allows the program that can be larger than the physical

memory. o Separation of user logical memory from physical memory

o Allows processes to easily share files & address space.

o Allows for more efficient process creation.

 Virtual memory can be implemented using


o Demand paging

o Demand segmentation

Fig 3.5 Virtual Memory That is Larger than Physical Memory

Demand Paging

104
 It is similar to a paging system with swapping.

 Demand Paging - Bring a page into memory only when it is needed

 To execute a process, swap that entire process into memory. Rather than
swapping
the entire process into memory however, we use Lazy Swapper

 Lazy Swapper - Never swaps a page into memory unless that page will be
needed.

 Advantages

Less I/O needed

Less memory needed

Faster response

More users

Basic Concepts:

Instead of swapping in the whole processes, the pager brings only those
necessarypages into memory. Thus,

o It avoids reading into memory pages that will not be used anyway.

105
 o Reduce the swap time.

o Reduce the amount of physical memory needed.

 To differentiate between those pages that are in memory & those that are on
the disk we use the Valid-Invalid bit

Valid-Invalid bit

 A valid – invalid bit is associated with each page table entry.


 Valid associated page is in memory.

 In-Valid

invalid page

valid page but is currently on the disk.

Page Fault

 Access to a page marked invalid causes a page fault trap.


1. Determine whether the reference is a valid or invalid memory access

2. a) If the reference is invalid then terminate the process.

b) If the reference is valid then the page has not been yet brought into
main memory.

3. Find a free frame.

4. Read the desired page into the newly allocated frame.

5. Reset the page table to indicate that the page is now in memory.

6. Restart the instruction that was interrupted .

Pure demand paging

106
Never bring a page into memory until it is required. We could start a process with
no pages in memory.
 When the OS sets the instruction pointer to the 1st instruction of the process,
which is on the non-memory resident page, then the process immediately
faults for the page.

 After this page is bought into the memory, the process continue to execute,
faulting as necessary until every page that it needs is in memory.

Performance of demand paging

Let p be the probability of a page fault 0 p 1

Effective Access Time (EAT)

EAT = (1 – p) x ma + p x page fault time.

Where ma memory access, p Probability of page fault (0= p = 1)

 The memory access time denoted ma is in the range 10 to 200 ns.


 If there are no page faults then EAT = ma.

 To compute effective access time, we must know how much time is needed to
service a page fault.

 A page fault causes the following sequence to occur:

1. Trap to the OS

2. Save the user registers and process state.

3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault.

4. Check whether the reference was legal and find the location of
page on disk.

5. Read the page from disk to free frame.

107
 a. Wait in a queue until read request is serviced.

b. Wait for seek time and latency time.

c. Transfer the page from disk to free frame.

6. While waiting ,allocate CPU to some other user.

7. Interrupt from disk.

8. Save registers and process state for other users.

9. Determine that the interrupt was from disk.

10. Reset the page table to indicate that the page is now in memory.

11. Wait for CPU to be allocated to this process again.

PAGE REPLACEMENT
If no frames are free, we could find one that is not currently being used &
free it.

We can free a frame by writing its contents to swap space & changing the
page table toindicate that the page is no longer in memory.

Then we can use that freed frame to hold the page for which the process
faulted.
Basic Page Replacement

1. Find the location of the desired page on disk

2. Find a free frame

- If there is a free frame , then use it.

- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a

victim frame

108
 - Write the victim page to the disk, change the page & frame tables
accordingly.

3. Read the desired page into the (new) free frame. Update the page and frame
tables.

4. Restart the process

Modify (dirty) bit:

 It indicates that any word or byte in the page is modified.


 When we select a page for replacement, we examine its modify bit.

o If the bit is set, we know that the page has been modified & in this case
we must write that page to the disk.

o If the bit is not set, then if the copy of the page on the disk has not been
overwritten, then we can avoid writing the memory page on the disk
as it is already there.

Page Replacement Algorithms

1. FIFO Page Replacement

2. Optimal Page Replacement

3. LRU Page Replacement

109
 4. LRU Approximation Page Replacement

5. Counting-Based Page Replacement

We evaluate an algorithm by running it on a particular string of

memoryreferences & computing the number of page faults. The string of
memory reference is called a reference string. The algorithm that provides
less number of page faults is termed to be a good one.

As the number of available frames increases , the number of page

faultsdecreases. This is shown in the following graph:

(a) FIFO page replacement algorithm

Replace the oldest page.

This algorithm associates with each page ,the time when that page was
brought in.

Example:

Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

No.of available frames = 3 (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

110
Drawback:

 FIFO page replacement algorithm =s performance is not always good.


 To illustrate this, consider the following example:

Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

If No.of available frames -= 3 then the no.of page faults =9

If No.of available frames =4 then the no.of page faults =10

 Here the no. of page faults increases when the no.of frames increases .This is
called as
Belady’s Anomaly.

Optimal page replacement algorithm

Replace the page that will not be used for the longest period of time.

Example:

111
 Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

No.of available frames = 3

Drawback:

 It is difficult to implement as it requires future knowledge of the reference

string.

(c) LRU(Least Recently Used) page replacement algorithm

Replace the page that has not been used for the longest period of time.

Example:

Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

No.of available frames = 3

LRU page replacement can be implemented using

112
1. Counters

 Every page table entry has a time-of-use field and a clock or counter is
associated with the CPU.

 The counter or clock is incremented for every memory reference.


 Each time a page is referenced , copy the counter into the time-of-use field.

 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page with the smallest
counter
value.

2. Stack

 Keep a stack of page numbers


 Whenever a page is referenced, remove the page from the stack and put it on
top of the stack.

 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page that is at the bottom of
the stack.(LRU page).
Use of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page References

(d) LRU Approximation Page Replacement

 Reference bit


113
  With each page associate a reference bit, initially set to 0

 When page is referenced, the bit is set to 1

 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page whose reference bit is 0

 The order of use is not known , but we know which pages were used and
which were not used.

(i) Additional Reference Bits Algorithm

 Keep an 8-bit byte for each page in a table in memory.


 At regular intervals , a timer interrupt transfers control to OS.

 The OS shifts reference bit for each page into higher- order bit shifting the
other bits right 1 bit and discarding the lower-order bit.

Example:

 If reference bit is 00000000 then the page has not been used for 8
time periods.

 If reference bit is 11111111 then the page has been used atleast once
each time period.

 If the reference bit of page 1 is 11000100 and page 2 is 01110111
then page 2 is the LRU page.

(ii) Second Chance Algorithm

 Basic algorithm is FIFO


 When a page has been selected , check its reference bit.

 If 0 proceed to replace the page

 If 1 give the page a second chance and move on to the next FIFO
page.

114
 When a page gets a second chance, its reference bit is cleared and arrival
time isreset to current time.

 Hence a second chance page will not be replaced until all other pages are
replaced.

(iii) Enhanced Second Chance Algorithm

 Consider both reference bit and modify bit


 There are four possible classes
(iv) 1. (0,0) – neither recently used nor modified Best page to replace
2. (0,1) – not recently used but modified page has to be written out before
replacement.
3. (1,0) - recently used but not modified page may be used again
4. (1,1) – recently used and modified page may be used again and page has to be
written to disk.

(e) Counting-Based Page Replacement

Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made to each page
• Least Frequently Used (LFU )Algorithm: replaces page with smallest count
 Most Frequently Used (MFU )Algorithm: replaces page with largest
count

 It is based on the argument that the page with the smallest count was probably
just brought in and has yet to be used.
THRASHING
High paging activity is called thrashing.

If a process does not have enough pages, the page-fault rate is very high.
This leads to:
o low CPU utilization
o operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming
o another process is added to the system
When the CPU utilization is low, the OS increases the degree of
multiprogramming.
If global replacement is used then as processes enter the main memory they tend
to steal frames belonging to other processes.

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 Eventually all processes will not have enough frames and hence the page fault rate
becomes very high.
Thus swapping in and swapping out of pages only takes place. This is the cause of
thrashing.

 To limit thrashing, we can use a local replacement algorithm.


 To prevent thrashing, there are two methods namely ,

 Working Set Strategy

 Page Fault Frequency

1. Working-Set Strategy

 It is based on the assumption of the model of locality.


 Locality is defined as the set of pages actively used together.

Working set is the set of pages in the most recent page references is the
working set

window.

if too small , it will not encompass entire locality

if too large ,it will encompass several localities

if = it will encompass entire program

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 D=WSSi

SSi is the working set size for process i.

D is the total demand of frames


 if D > m then Thrashing will occur.

2. Page-Fault Frequency Scheme

 If actual rate too low, process loses frame


 If actual rate too high, process gains frame.

Other Issues

Prepaging

To reduce the large number of page faults that occurs at process startup

 Prepage all or some of the pages a process will need, before they are
referenced

 But if prepaged pages are unused, I/O and memory are wasted

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Page Size

Page size selection must take into consideration:

 fragmentation

 table size

 I/O overhead

 locality

TLB Reach

• TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible from the TLB

• TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size)

• Ideally, the working set of each process is stored in the TLB.

• Otherwise there is a high degree of page faults.

• Increase the Page Size. This may lead to an increase in fragmentation as not all
applications require a large page size

• Provide Multiple Page Sizes. This allows applications that require larger page
sizes the opportunity to use them without an increase in fragmentation.

I/O interlock

Pages must sometimes be locked into memory

Consider I/O. Pages that are used for copying a file from a device must be locked
from being selected for eviction by a page replacement algorithm.

UNIT IV FILE SYSTEMS AND I/O SYSTEMS

MASS STORAGE STRUCTURE

Overview

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  One of the responsibilities of the operating system is to use the hardware
efficiently.

 For the disk drives,

o A fast access time and

o High disk bandwidth.

 The access time has two major components;


 The seek time is the time for the disk arm to move the heads to the cylinder
containing the desired sector.

 The rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the
desired sector to the disk head.

 The disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the
total time between the first request for service and the completion of the last
transfer.

 We can improve both the access time and the bandwidth by disk scheduling.

 Servicing of disk I/O requests in a good order.
DISK SCHEDULING AND MANAGEMENT

1. Disk scheduling
1.1 FCFS Scheduling

1.2 SSTF (shortest-seek-time-first)Scheduling

Service all the requests close to the current head position, before moving the head
far away to service other requests. That is selects the request with the minimum
seek time from the current

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head position.

1.3 SCAN Scheduling

The disk head starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end,
servicing requests as it reaches each cylinder, until it gets to the other end of the
disk. At the other end, the direction of head movement is reversed, and servicing
continues. The head continuously scans back and forth across the disk.

120
Elevator algorithm: Sometimes the SCAN algorithm is called as the elevator
algorithm, since the disk arm behaves just like an elevator in a building, first
servicing all the requests going up, and then reversing to service requests the other
way.

1.4 C-SCAN Scheduling

Variant of SCAN designed to provide a more uniform wait time. It moves the head
from one end of the disk to the other, servicing requests along the way. When the
head reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the
disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip.

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1.5 LOOK Scheduling

Both SCAN and C-SCAN move the disk arm across the full width of the disk. In
this, the arm goes only as far as the final request in each direction. Then, it reverses
direction immediately, without going all the way to the end of the disk.

2. Disk Management
Disk Formatting:

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Low-level formatting or physical formatting:

 Before a disk can store data, the sector is divided into various partitions. This
process is called low-level formatting or physical formatting. It fills the disk
with a special data structure for each sector.

 The data structure for a sector consists of

o Header,

o Data area (usually 512 bytes in size), and

Ø Trailer.

 The header and trailer contain information used by the disk controller, such as
a sector number and an error-correcting code (ECC).

 This formatting enables the manufacturer to

Ø Test the disk and

To initialize the mapping from logical block numbers

 To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its own
data structures on the disk. It does so in two steps.

(a) The first step is Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders.
Among the partitions, one partition can hold a copy of the OS‘s executable code,
while another holds user files.

(b) The second step is logical formatting .The operating system stores the
initial file-system data structures onto the disk. These data structures may include
maps of free and allocated space and an initial empty directory.

Boot Block:

 For a computer to start running-for instance, when it is powered up or

rebooted-it needs to have an initial program to run. This initial progr am is
called bootstrap program & it should be simple. It initializes all aspects of

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 the system, from CPU registers to device controllers and the contents of
main memory, and then starts the operating system.

 To do its job, the bootstrap program

ü Finds the operating system kernel on disk,

ü Loads that kernel into memory, and

ü Jumps to an initial address to begin the operating-system execution.

Advantages:

ü ROM needs no initialization.

ü It is at a fixed location that the processor can start executing when

powered up or

reset.

3. It cannot be infected by a computer virus. Since, ROM is read only.

 The full bootstrap program is stored in a partition called the boot blocks, at a
fixed location on the disk. A disk that has a boot partition is called a boot
disk or system disk.

 The code in the boot ROM instructs the disk controller to read the boot blocks
into memory and then starts executing that code.

 Bootstrap loader: load the entire operating system from a non-fixed location
on disk, and to start the operating system running.

Bad Blocks:

 The disk with defected sector is called as bad block.


Depending on the disk and controller in use, these blocks are handled in a
variety of ways;

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 Method 1: “Handled manually

 If blocks go bad during normal operation, a special program must be

run manually to search for the bad blocks and to lock them away as
before. Data that resided on the bad blocks usually are lost.

Method 2: “sector sparing or forwarding”

The controller maintains a list of bad blocks on the disk. Then the
controller can be told to replace each bad sector logically with one of
the spare sectors. This scheme is known as sector sparing or
forwarding.

 A typical bad-sector transaction might be as follows:

ü The oper ating system tries to read logical block 87.

ü The controller calculates the ECC and finds that the sector is bad.

ü It reports this finding to the operating system.

ü The next time that the system is rebooted, a special command is run to
tell the controller to replace the bad sector with a spare.

ü After that, whenever the system requests logical block 87, the request is
translated into the replacement sector's address by the controller.
Method 3: “sector slipping”


 For an example, suppose that logical block 17 becomes defective, and the first
available spare follows sector 202. Then, sector slipping would remap all the
sectors from 17 to 202,moving them all down one spot. That is, sector 202
would be copied into the spare, then sector 201 into 202, and then 200 into
201, and so on, until sector 18 is copied into sector 19. Slipping the sectors
in this way frees up the space of sector 18, so sector 17 can be mapped to it.
FILE SYSTEM STORAGE
1 File Concept

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 A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on
secondary storage.

 From a user’s perspective, a file is the smallest allotment of logical secondary

storage; that is, data cannot be written to secondary storage unless they are
within a file.

Examples of files:

A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines (and possibly
pages).

A source file is a sequence of subroutines and functions, each of which is
further organized as declarations followed by executable statements. An
object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks understandable by
the system’s linker. An executable file is a series of code sections that the
loader can bring into memory and execute.

2 File Attributes

Name: The symbolic file name is the only information kept in

human readable form.

Identifier: This unique tag, usually a number identifies the file
within the file system. It is the non-human readable name for the file.

Type: This information is needed for those systems that support
different types.

Location: This information is a pointer to a device and to the location
of the file on that device.

Size: The current size of the file (in bytes, words or blocks)and
possibly the maximum allowed size are included in this attribute.

Protection: Access-control information determines who can do
reading, writing, executing and so on.


126
 Time, date and user identification: This information may be kept
for creation, last modification and last use. These data can be useful
for protection, security and usage monitoring.

3 File Operations

 Creating a file
 Reading a file

 Repositioning within a file

 Deleting a file

 Truncating a file

4 File Types

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 FILE SHARING AND PROTECTION
1. MULTIPLE USERS:

When an operating system accommodates multiple users, the issues of file sharing,
file naming and file protection become preeminent.
 The system either can allow user to access the file of other users by default, or
it may require that a user specifically grant access to the files.

 These are the issues of access control and protection.

 To implementing sharing and protection, the system must maintain more file
and directory attributes than a on a single-user system.
128
 
 The owner is the user who may change attributes, grand access, and has the
most control over the file or directory.

 The group attribute of a file is used to define a subset of users who may share
access to the file.

 Most systems implement owner attributes by managing a list of user names
and associated user identifiers (user Ids).

 When a user logs in to the system, the authentication stage determines the
appropriate
user ID for the user. That user ID is associated with all of user’s processes
and threads. When they need to be user readable, they are translated, back to
the user name via the user name list.

 Likewise, group functionality can be implemented as a system wide list of

group names and group identifiers.

 Every user can be in one or more groups, depending upon operating system
design
decisions. The user’s group Ids is also included in every associated process
and thread.

0. Remote File System:

 Networks allowed communications between remote computers.


 Networking allows the sharing or resource spread within a campus or even
around the world. User manually transfer files between machines via
programs like ftp.

 A distributed file system (DFS) in which remote directories is visible from the
local machine.

 The World Wide Web: A browser is needed to gain access to the remote file
and

129
 separate operations (essentially a wrapper for ftp) are used to transfer files.

a) The client-server Model:

Remote file systems allow a computer to a mount one or more file systems
from one or more remote machines.
• A server can serve multiple clients, and a client can use multiple
servers, depending on the implementation details of a given client –server
facility.
• Client identification is more difficult. Clients can be specified by
their network name or other identifier, such as IP address, but these can be
spoofed (or imitate). An unauthorized client can spoof the server into
deciding that it is authorized, and the unauthorized client could be allowed
access.

b) Distributed Information systems:

 Distributed information systems, also known as distributed naming service,

have been devised to provide a unified access to the information needed for
remote computing.

 Domain name system (DNS) provides host-name-to-network address
translations for their entire Internet (including the World Wide Web). Before
DNS was invented and became widespread, files containing the same
information were sent via e-mail of ftp between all networked hosts.

c) Failure Modes:

 Redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID) can prevent the loss of a disk
from resulting in the loss of data.

Remote file system has more failure modes. By nature of the complexity of
networking system and the required interactions between remote machines, many
more problems can interfere with the proper operation of remote file systems.

d) Consistency Semantics:

o It is characterization of the system that specifies the semantics of

multiple users accessing a shared file simultaneously.
130

o These semantics should specify when modifications of data by one
user are observable by other users.

o The semantics are typically implemented as code with the file system.

o A series of file accesses (that is reads and writes) attempted by a user
to the same file is always enclosed between the open and close
operations.

o The series of access between the open and close operations is a file
session.

(i) UNIX Semantics:

The UNIX file system uses the following consistency semantics:

1. Writes to an open file by a user are visible immediately to other users

that have this file open at the same time.

2. One mode of sharing allows users to share the pointer of current location
into the file. Thus, the advancing of the pointer by one user affects all
sharing users.

(ii) Session Semantics:

The Andrew file system (AFS) uses the following consistency semantics:

1. Writes to an open file by a user are not visible immediately to other users
that have the same file open simultaneously.

2. Once a file is closed, the changes made to it are visible only in sessions
starting later. Already open instances of the file do not reflect this change.
(iii) Immutable –shared File Semantics:

o Once a file is declared as shared by its creator, it cannot be modified.

o An immutable file has two key properties:

131
 o Its name may not be reused and its contents may not be altered.
FILE PROTECTION

1. Need for file protection

 When information is kept in a computer system, we want to keep it safe from
physical damage (reliability) and improper access (protection).
Reliability is generally provided by duplicate copies of files. Many computers
have systems programs that automatically (or though computer-operator
intervention) copy disk files to tape at regular intervals (once per day or
week or month) to maintain a copy should a file system be accidentally
destroyed.

 File systems can be damaged by hardware problems (such as errors in

reading or writing), power surges or failures, head crashes, dirt, temperature
extremes, and vandalism. Files may be deleted accidentally. Bugs in the file-
system software can also cause file contents to be lost.
 Protection can be provided in many ways. For a small single-user system,
we might provide protection by physically removing the floppy disks and
locking them in a desk drawer or file cabinet. In a multi-user system,
however, other mechanisms are needed.

2. Types of Access
 Complete protection is provided by prohibiting access.

 Free access is provided with no protection.

 Both approaches are too extreme for general use.

 What is needed is controlled access.

 Protection mechanisms provide controlled access by limiting the types of file

access that can be made. Access is permitted or denied depending on several
factors, one of which is the type of access requested. Several different types
of operations may be controlled:

1. Read: Read from the file.

132
 2. Write: Write or rewrite the file.

3. Execute: Load the file into memory and execute it.

4. Append: Write new information at the end of the file.

5. Delete: Delete the file and free its space for possible reuse.

6. List: List the name and attributes of the file.

3. Access Control
 Associate with each file and directory an access-control list (ACL) specifying
the user name and the types of access allowed for each user.

 When a user requests access to a particular file, the operating system checks
the access list associated with that file. If that user is listed for the
requestedaccess, the access is allowed. Otherwise, a protection violation
occurs and the user job is denied access to the file.

 This technique has two undesirable consequences:
• Constructing such a list may be a tedious and unrewarding task, especially if we
do not know in advance the list of users in the system.
• The directory entry, previously of fixed size, now needs to be of variable size,
resulting in more complicated space management.

 To condense the length of the access control list, many systems recognize
three classifications of users in connection with each file:

Owner: The user who created the file is the owner.

Group: A set of users who are sharing the file and need similar access \is a
group, or work group.

Universe: All other users in the system constitute the universe.
FILE SYSTEM STRUCTURE

133
 All disk I/O is performed in units of one block (physical record) size which
will exactlymatch the length of the desired logical record.

Logical records may even vary in length. Packing a number of logical

records intophysical blocks is a common solution to this problem.

For example, the UNIX operating system defines all files to be simply a
tream ofbytes. Each byte is individually addressable by its offset from the
beginning (or end) of the file. In this case, the logical records are 1 byte. The
file system automatically packs and unpacks bytes into physical disk
blocks – say, 512 bytes per block – as necessary.
The logical record size, physical block size, and packing technique determine
how many logical records are in each physical block. The packing can be
done either by the user’s application program or by the operating system.
1. Access Methods

1. Sequential Access

The simplest access method is sequential access. Information in the file is

processed in order, one record after the other. This mode of access is by far
the most common; for example, editors and compilers usually access files in
this fashion.

 The bulk of the operations on a file is reads and writes. A read operation reads
the next portion of the file and automatically advances a file pointer, which
tracks the I/O location. Similarly, a write appends to the end of the file and
advances to the end of the newly written material (the new end of file). Such
a file can be reset to the beginning and, on some systems, a program may be
able to skip forward or back ward n records, for some integer n-perhaps only
for n=1. Sequential access is based on a tape model of a file, and works as
well on sequential-access devices as it does on random – access ones.

2. Direct Access

134
  Another method is direct access (or relative access). A file is made up of fixed
length logical records that allow programs to read and write records rapidly
in no particular order. The direct- access methods is based on a disk model
of a file, since disks allow random access to any file block.

 For direct access, the file is viewed as a numbered sequence of blocks or
records. A

direct-access file allows arbitrary blocks to be read or written. Thus, we may

read block 14, then read block 53, and then write block7. There are no
restrictions on the order of reading or writing for a direct-access file.

Direct – access files are of great use for immediate access to large amounts
of information. Database is often of this type. When a query concerning a
particular subject arrives, we compute which block contains the answer, and
then read that block directly to provide the desired information.
As a simple example, on an air line reservation system, we might store all the
(for information about a particular flight example, flight 713) in the block
identified by the flight number.

 Thus, the number of available seats for flight 713 is stored in block 713 of the
reservation file. To store information about a larger set, such as people, we
might

compute a hash function on the people’s names, or search a small in-

memory index to determine a block to read and search.

3 Other Access methods

Other access methods can be built on top of a direct – access method these
methods generally involve the construction of an index for the file. The index
like an index in the back of a book contains pointers to the various blocks in

135
 find a record in the file. We first search the index, and then use the pointer to
access the file directly and the find the desired record.

With large files, the index file itself may become too large to be kept
inmemory. One solution is to create an index for the index file. The
primary index file would contain pointers to secondary index tiles, which
would point to the actual data items.
DIRECTORY STRUCTURE
There are five directory structures. They are

Single-level directory

Two-level directory

Tree-Structured directory

Acyclic Graph directory

General Graph directory

1. Single – Level Directory

The simplest directory structure is the single- level directory.
All files are contained in the same directory.

Disadvantage:

136
When the number of files increases or when the system has more than one user,
since all files are in the same directory, they must have unique names.
Directory

2. Two – Level Directory

In the two level directory structures, each user has her own user file directory
(UFD).
When a user job starts or a user logs in, the system’s master file directory (MFD)
is searched. The MFD is indexed by user name or account number, and each entry
points to the UFD for that user.
When a user refers to a particular file, only his own UFD is searched.
Thus, different users may have files with the same name.
Although the two – level directory structure solves the name-collision problem
Disadvantage:

 Users cannot create their own sub-directories.




3. Tree – Structured Directory
 A tree is the most common directory structure.

 The tree has a root directory. Every file in the system has a unique path name.


137
  A path name is the path from the root, through all the subdirectories to a
specified file.

 A directory (or sub directory) contains a set of files or sub directories.

 A directory is simply another file. But it is treated in a special way.

 All directories have the same internal format.

 One bit in each directory entry defines the entry as a file (0) or as a
subdirectory (1).

 Special system calls are used to create and delete directories.

 Path names can be of two types: absolute path names or relative path names.

 An absolute path name begins at the root and follows a path down to the
specified file, giving the directory names on the path.

 A relative path name defines a path from the current directory.


4. Acyclic Graph Directory.
An acyclic graph is a graph with no cycles.

To implement shared files and subdirectories this directory structure is used.

An acyclic – graph directory structure is more flexible than is a simple tree
structure, but it is also more complex. In a system where sharing is
implemented by symbolic link, this situation is somewhat easier to handle.
The deletion of a link does not need to affect the original file; only the link is
removed.


138
 Another approach to deletion is to preserve the file until all references to it
are deleted.

To implement this approach, we must have some mechanism for

determining that
the last reference to the file has been deleted.

ALLOCATION METHODS
The main problem is how to allocate space to these files so that disk space is
utilized effectively and files can be accessed quickly .

There are there major methods of allocating disk space:

139
 1. Contiguous Allocation

2. Linked Allocation

3. Indexed Allocation

1. Contiguous Allocation
The contiguous–allocation method requires each file to occupy a set
ofcontiguous blocks on the disk.
Contiguous allocation of a file is defined by the disk address and length (in
block units)of the first block. If the file is n blocks long and starts at
location b, then it occupies blocks b,. b+1, b+2,….,b+n-1.
 The directory entry for each file indicates the address of the starting block and
the length of the area allocated for this file.

Disadvantages:

1. Finding space for a new file.

 The contiguous disk space-allocation problem suffer from the problem

of external fragmentation. As file are allocated and deleted, the free
disk space is broken into chunks. It becomes a problem when the
largest contiguous chunk is insufficient for a request; storage is

140
 fragmented into a number of holes, no one of which is large enough to
store the data.

2 Determining how much space is needed for a file.

When the file is created, the total amount of space it will need must be found an
allocated how does the creator know the size of the file to be created?

If we allocate too little space to a file, we may find that file cannot be
extended.
The other possibility is to find a larger hole, copy the contents of the file to the
new space, and release the previous space. This series of actions may be
repeated as long as space exists, although it can be time –consuming. However,
in this case, the user never needs to be informed explicitly about what is
happening ; the system continues despite the problem, although more and more
slowly.

Even if the total amount of space needed for a file is known in ad vance pre-
allocation may be inefficient.

A file that grows slowly over a long period (months or years) must be
allocated enough space for its final size, even though much of that space may
be unused for a long time the file, therefore has a large amount of internal
fragmentation.

To overcome these disadvantages:

Use a modified contiguous allocation scheme, in which a contiguous chunk of

space called as an extent is allocated initially and then, when that amount is not
large enough another chunk of contiguous space an extent is added to the initial
allocation.

Internal fragmentation can still be a problem if the extents are too large, and
external fragmentation can be a problem as extents of varying sizes are allocated
and deallocated.

2. Linked Allocation

141
Linked allocation solves all problems of contiguous allocation.

may be scattered any where on the disk. With linked allocation, each file is a
linked list of disk blocks, the disk blocks

The directory contains a pointer to the first and last blocks of the file. For
example, a file of five blocks might start at block 9, continue at block 16, then
block 1, block 10, and finally bock 25.

Each block contains a pointer to the next block. These pointers are not made
available to the user.

There is no external fragmentation with linked allocation, and any free block on
the free space list can be used to satisfy a request.

The size of a file does not need to the declared when that file is created. A file can
continue to grow as long as free blocks are available consequently, it is never
necessary to compacts disk space.

Disadvantages:

1. Used effectively only for sequential access files.

142
  To find the ith block of a file, we must start at the beginning of that file, and
follow the pointers until we get to the ith block. Each aces to a pointer
requires a disk read, and sometimes a disk seek consequently, it is
inefficient to support a direct- access capability for linked allocation files.

2. Space required for the pointers

 If a pointer requires 4 bytes out of a 512-byte block, then 0.78 percent of the
disk is being used for pointers, rather than for information.

 Solution to this problem is to collect blocks into multiples, called clusters,
and to

allocate the clusters rather than blocks. For instance, the file system may
define a clusters as 4 blocks, and operate on the disk in only cluster units.

3. Reliability
•Since the files are linked together by pointers scattered all over the disk hardware
failure might result in picking up the wrong pointer. This error could result in
linking into the free- space list or into another file. Partial solution are to use
doubly linked lists or to store the file names in a relative block number in each
block; however, these schemes require even more over head for each file.

File Allocation Table (FAT)

 An important variation on the linked allocation method is the use of a file

allocation table(FAT).

 This simple but efficient method of disk- space allocation is used by the MS-
DOS and OS/2 operating systems.

 A section of disk at beginning of each partition is set aside to contain the table.

 The table has entry for each disk block, and is indexed by block number.

 The FAT is much as is a linked list.

 The directory entry contains the block number the first block of the file.

143
 The table entry indexed by that block number contains the block number of the
next block in the file.

 This chain continues until the last block which has a special end – of – file value
as the table entry.

 Unused blocks are indicated by a 0 table value.

 Allocating a new block file is a simple matter of finding the first 0 – valued table
entry, and replacing the previous end of file value with the address of the new
block.

 The 0 is replaced with the end – of – file value, an illustrative example is the
FAT structure for a file consisting of disk blocks 217,618, and 339.

3. Indexed Allocation
 Linked allocation solves the external – fragmentation and size- declaration
problems of contiguous allocation.

 Linked allocation cannot support efficient direct access, since the pointers to
the blocks are scattered with the blocks themselves all over the disk and
need to be retrieved in order.

144

 Indexed allocation solves this problem by bringing all the pointers together
into one location: the index block.

Each file has its own index block, which is an array of disk–block
addresses.

 The ith entry in the index block points to the ith block of the file.

 The directory contains the address of the index block .

 To read the ith block, we use the pointer in the ith index – block entry to find
and read the desired block this scheme is similar to the paging scheme .
 When the file is created, all pointers in the pointers in the index block are set
to nil. when the ith block is first written, a block is obtained from the free
space manager, and its address is put in the ith index – block entry.
 Indexed allocation supports direct access, without suffering from external
fragmentation , because any free block on the disk may satisfy a request for
more space.

Disadvantages
1.Pointer Overhead

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 Indexed allocation does suffer from wasted space. The pointer over head of the
index block is generally greater than the pointer over head of linked allocation.
2. Size of Index block
If the index block is too small, however, it will not be able to hold enough
pointers for a large file, and a mechanism will have to be available to deal with
this issue:
Linked Scheme: An index block is normally one disk block. Thus, it can be
read and written directly by itself. To allow for large files, we may link together
several index blocks.

Multilevel index: A variant of the linked representation is to use a first level index
block to point to a set of second – level index blocks.

Combined scheme:

o Another alternative, used in the UFS, is to keep the first, say, 15 pointers of
the index block in the file’s inode.

§ The first 12 of these pointers point to direct blocks; that is for small ( no more
than 12 blocks) files do not need a separate index block

o The next pointer is the address of a single indirect block.

ü The single indirect block is an index block, containing not data, but rather the
addresses of blocks that do contain data.

o Then there is a double indirect block pointer, which contains the address of a
block that contain pointers to the actual data blocks. The last pointer would
contain pointers to the actual data blocks.

o The last pointer would contain the address of a triple indirect block.
FREE SPACE MANAGEMENT
 Since disk space is limited, we need to reuse the space from deleted files for
new files, if possible.

 To keep track of free disk space, the system maintains a free-space list.

146
  The free-space list records all free disk blocks – those not allocated to some
file or directory.

 To create a file, we search the free-space list for the required amount of space,
and allocate that space to the new file.

 This space is then removed from the free-space list.

 When a file is deleted, its disk space is added to the free-space list.

1. Bit Vector

o The free-space list is implemented as a bit map or bit vector.

o Each block is represented by 1 bit. If the block is free, the bit is 1; if

the block is allocated, the bit is 0.

o For example, consider a disk where block

o 2,3,4,5,8,9,10,11,12,13,17,18,25,26 and 27 are free, and the rest of the

block are allocated. The free space bit map would be

o 001111001111110001100000011100000 …

o The main advantage of this approach is its relatively simplicity and

efficiency infinding the first free block, or n consecutive free blocks
on the disk.

2. Linked List

 Another approach to free-space management is to link together all the free

disk blocks, keeping a pointer to the first free block in a special location on
the disk and caching it in memory.

 This first block contains a pointer to the next free disk block, and so on. In our
example, we would keep a pointer to block 2, as the first free block. Block 2
would contain a pointer to block 3, which would point to block 4, which
would point to block 5, which would point to block 8, and so on.

147

 However, this scheme is not efficient; to traverse the list, we must read each
block, which requires substantial I/O time. The FAT method incorporates
free-block accounting data structure. No separate method is needed.

3. Grouping

 A modification of the free-list approach is to store the addresses of n free

blocks in the first free block.

 The first n-1 of these blocks are actually free.

 The last block contains the addresses of another n free blocks, and so on.

The importance of this implementation is that the addresses of a large

number of
free blocks can be found quickly.

4. Counting

We can keep the address of the first free block and the number n of
free contiguous blocks that follow the first block.
Each entry in the free-space list then consists of a disk address and a count.
Although each entry requires more space than would a simple disk address, the
overall list will be shorter, as long as the count is generally greater than1.
Recovery

148
Files and directories are kept both in main memory and on disk, and care must be
taken to ensure that system failure does not result in loss of data or in data
inconsistency.

1. Consistency Checking

 The directory information in main memory is generally more up to date than is

the corresponding information on the disk, because cached directory
information is not necessarily written to disk as soon as the update takes
place.

 Frequently, a special program is run at reboot time to check for and correct
disk inconsistencies.

 The consistency checker—a systems program such as chkdsk in MS-DOS
—compares

the data in the directory structure with the data blocks on disk and tries to fix
any inconsistencies it finds. The allocation and free-space-management
algorithms dictate what types of problems the checker can find and how
successful it will be in fixing them.
2. Backup and Restore

 Magnetic disks sometimes fail, and care must be taken to ensure that the data
lost in such a failure are not lost forever. To this end, system programs can
be used to back up data from disk to another storage device, such as a floppy
disk, magnetic tape, optical disk, or other hard disk.
Recovery from the loss of an individual file, or of an entire disk, may then be a
matter of restoring the data from backup.
A typical backup schedule may then be as follows:
 Day 1: Copy to a backup medium all files from the disk. This is called
a full backup.
 Day 2: Copy to another medium all files changed since day 1. This is
an incremental backup.
 Day 3: Copy to another medium all files changed since day 2.

 Day N: Copy to another medium all files changed since day N— 1. Then go
back to Day 1.

149
 UNIT V CASE STUDY

LINUX SYSTEM
Basic Concepts
 Linux looks and feels much like any other UNIX system; indeed, UNIX
compatibility has been a major design goal of the Linux project. However,
Linux is much younger than most UNIX systems. Its development began
in1991, when a Finnish university student, Linus Torvalds, began
developing a small but self-contained kernel for the 80386 processor, the
first true 32-bitprocessor in Intel’s range of PC-compatible CPUs. of
arbitrary files (but only read-only memory mapping was implemented in
1.0).
A range of extra hardware support was included in this release. Although
still restricted to the Intel PC platform, hardware support had grown to
include floppy-disk and CD-ROM devices, as well as sound cards, a range
of mice, and international keyboards. Floating-point emulation was provided
in the kernel for 80386 users who had no 80387 math coprocessor. System V
UNIX-style interprocess communication (IPC), including shared memory,
semaphores, and message queues, was implemented.

 At this point, development started on the 1.1 kernel stream, but numerous
bug-fix patches were released subsequently for 1.0. A pattern was adopted as
the standard numbering convention for Linux kernels. Kernels with an odd
minor-version number, such as 1.1 or 2.5, are development kernels; even
numbered minor-version numbers are stable production kernels. Updates for
the stable kernels are intended only as remedial versions, whereas the
development kernels may include newer and relatively untested
functionality.


 As we will see, this pattern remained in effect until version 3.was given a
major version-number increment because of two major new capabilities:
support for multiple architectures, including a 64-bit native Alpha port, and
symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) support. Additionally, the memory
management code was substantially improved to provide a unified cache for
file-system data independent of the caching of block devices.

150

 As a result of this change, the kernel offered greatly increased file-system and
virtual memory performance. For the first time, file-system caching was
extended to networked file systems, and writable memory-mapped regions
were also supported. Other major improvements included the addition of
internal kernel threads, a mechanism exposing dependencies between
loadable modules, support for the automatic loading of modules on demand,
file-system quotas, and POSIX-compatible real-time process-scheduling
classes.


 Improvements continued with the release of Linux 2.2 in 1999. A port to Ultra
SPARC systems was added. Networking was enhanced with more flexible
firewalling, improved routing and traffic management, and support for TCP
large window and selective acknowledgement. Acorn, Apple, and NT disks
could now be read, and NFS was enhanced with a new kernel-mode NFS
daemon. Signal handling, interrupts, and some I/O were locked at a finer
level than before to improve symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) performance.

The Linux System
 Linux kernel is composed entirely of code written from scratch specifically
for the Linux project, much of the supporting software that makes up the
Linux system is not exclusive to Linux but is common to a number of
UNIX-like operating systems. In particular, Linux uses many tools
developed as part of Berkeley’s BSD operating system, MIT’s X Window
System, and the Free Software Foundation’s GNU project.

 This sharing of tools has worked in both directions. The main system libraries
of Linux were originated by the GNU project, but the Linux community
greatly improved the libraries by addressing omissions, inefficiencies, and
bugs. Other components, such as the GNU C compiler (gcc), were already of
sufficiently high quality to be used directly in Linux. The network
administration tools under Linux were derived from code first developed for
4.3 BSD, but more recent BSD derivatives, such as FreeBSD, have
borrowed code from Linux in return. Examples of this sharing include the
Intel floating-point-emulation math library and the PC sound-hardware
device drivers.

151
 The Linux system as a whole is maintained by a loose network of developers
collaborating over the Internet, with small groups or individuals having
responsibility for maintaining the integrity of specific components.

A small number of public Internet file-transfer-protocol (FTP) archive sites act
as de facto standard repositories for these components. The File System
Hierarchy Standard document is also maintained by the Linux community as
a means of ensuring compatibility across the various system components.

This standard specifies the overall layout of a standard Linux file system; it
determines under which directory names configuration files, libraries,
system binaries, and run-time data files should be stored.

Linux Distributions
In theory, anybody can install a Linux system by fetching the latest revisions
of the necessary system components from the FTP sites and compiling them.
In Linux’s early days, this is precisely what a Linux user had to do. As
Linux has matured, however, various individuals and groups have attempted
to make this job less painful by providing standard, precompiled sets of
packages for easy installation.

These collections, or distributions, include much more than just the basic
Linux system. They typically include extra system-installation and
management utilities, as well as precompiled and ready-to-install packages
of many of the common UNIX tools, such as news servers, web browsers,
text-processing and editing tools, and even games.

The first distributions managed these packages by simply providing a means of
unpacking all the files into the appropriate places. One of the important
contributions of modern distributions, however, is advanced package
management. Today’s Linux distributions include a package-tracking
database that allows packages to be installed, upgraded, or removed
painlessly.

Linux Licensing
The Linux kernel is distributed under version 2.0 of the GNU General Public
License (GPL), the terms of which are set out by the Free Software

152
 Foundation. Linux is not public-domain software. Public domain implies
that the authors have waived copyright rights in the software, but copyright
rights in Linux code are still held by the code’s various authors. Linux is free
software, however, in the sense that people can copy it, modify it, use it in
any manner they want, and give away (or sell) their own copies.

The main implication of Linux’s licensing terms is that nobody using Linux, or
creating a derivative of Linux (a legitimate exercise), can distribute the
derivative without including the source code. Software released under the
GPL cannot be redistributed as a binary-only product.

 If you release software that includes any components covered by the GPL,
then, under the GPL, you must make source code available alongside any
binary distributions. (This restriction does not prohibit making—or even
selling—binary software distributions, as long as anybody who receives
binaries is also given the opportunity to get the originating source code for a
reasonable distribution charge.)
SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION
 In its overall design, Linux resembles other traditional, nonmicrokernel UNIX
implementations. It is a multiuser, preemptively multitasking system with a
full set of UNIX-compatible tools. Linux’s file system adheres to traditional
UNIX semantics, and the standard UNIX networking model is fully
implemented. The internal details of Linux’s design have been influenced
heavily by the history of this operating system’s development.

 Although Linux runs on a wide variety of platforms, it was originally
developed exclusively on PC architecture. A great deal of that early
development was carried out by individual enthusiasts rather than by well-
funded development or research facilities, so fromthe start Linux attempted
to squeeze as much functionality as possible from limited resources. Today,
Linux can run happily on a multiprocessor machine with many gigabytes of
main memory and many terabytes of disk space, but it is still capable of
operating usefully in under 16 MB of RAM.

1. Components of a Linux System

The Linux system is composed of three main bodies of code, in line with most
traditional UNIX implementations:

153

Kernel. The kernel is responsible for maintaining all the important
abstractions of the operating system, including such things as virtualmemory
and processes.

System libraries. The system libraries define a standard set of functions

through which applications can interact with the kernel. These functions
implement much of the operating-system functionality that does not need the
full privileges of kernel code. The most important system library is the C
library, known as libc. In addition to providing the standard C library, libc
implements the user mode side of the Linux system call interface, as well as
other critical system-level interfaces.

System utilities. The system utilities are programs that perform

individual, specialized management tasks. Some system utilities are invoked
just once to initialize and configure some aspect of the system. Others —
known as daemons in UNIX terminology—run permanently, handling such
tasks as responding to incoming network connections, accepting logon
requests from terminals, and updating log files.

2. Kernel Modules

The Linux kernel has the ability to load and unload arbitrary sections of kernel
code on demand. These loadable kernel modules run in privileged kernel
mode and as a consequence have full access to all the hardware capabilities
of the machine on which they run. In theory, there is no restriction on what a
kernel module is allowed to do. Among other things, a kernel module can
implement a device driver, a file system, or a networking protocol.

Kernel modules are convenient for several reasons. Linux’s source code is
free, so anybody wanting to write kernel code is able to compile a modified
kernel and to reboot into that new functionality. However, recompiling,
relinking, and reloading the entire kernel is a cumbersome cycle to
undertake when you are developing a new driver. If you use kernel modules,
you do not have to make a new kernel to test a new driver—the driver can be
compiled on its own and loaded into the already running kernel. Of course,
once a new driver is written, it can be distributed as a module so that other
users can benefit from it without having to rebuild their kernels.

 The module support under Linux has four components:

154

1. The module-management system allows modules to be loaded into
memory and to communicate with the rest of the kernel.

2. The module loader and unloader, which are user-mode utilities, work
with the module-management system to load a module into memory.

3. The driver-registration system allows modules to tell the rest of the

kernel that a new driver has become available.

4. A conflict-resolution mechanism allows different device drivers to

reserve hardware resources and to protect those resources from accidental
use by another driver.

1. Module Management

 Loading a module requires more than just loading its binary contents into
kernel memory. The system must also make sure that any references the
correct locations in the kernel’s address space. Linux deals with this
reference updating by splitting the job of module loading into two separate
sections: the management of sections of module code in kernel memory and
the handling of symbols that modules are allowed to reference.

 Linux maintains an internal symbol table in the kernel. This symbol table does
not contain the full set of symbols defined in the kernel during the latter’s
compilation; rather, a symbol must be explicitly exported. The set of
exported symbols constitutes a well-defined interface by which a module
can interact with the kernel.

2. Driver Registration

 Once a module is loaded, it remains no more than an isolated region of

memory until it lets the rest of the kernel know what new functionality it
provides. The kernel maintains dynamic tables of all known drivers and
provides a set of routines to allow drivers to be added to or removed from
these tables at any time. The kernel makes sure that it calls a module’s
startup routine when that module is loaded and calls the module’s cleanup
routine before that module is unloaded. These routines are responsible for
registering the module’s functionality.

155
  A module may register many types of functionality; it is not limited to only
one type. For example, a device driver might want to register two separate
mechanisms for accessing the device. Registration tables include, among
others, the following items:

• Device drivers. These drivers include character devices (such as
printers, terminals, and mice), block devices (including all disk
drives), and network interface devices.
File systems. The file system may be anything that implements
Linux’s virtual file system calling routines. It might implement a
format for storing files on a disk, but it might equally well be a
network file system, such as NFS, or a virtual file system whose
contents are generated on demand, such as Linux’s /proc file system.

Network protocols. A module may implement an entire networking

protocol, such as TCP or simply a new set of packet-filtering rules for
a network firewall.

Binary format. This format specifies a way of recognizing,

loading, and executing a new type of executable file.

(3) Conflict Resolution

Commercial UNIX implementations are usually sold to run on a vendor’s own

hardware. One advantage of a single-supplier solution is that the software
vendor has a good idea about what hardware configurations are possible. PC
hardware, however, comes in a vast number of configurations, with large
numbers of possible drivers for devices such as network cards and video
display adapters. The problem of managing the hardware configuration
becomes more severe when modular device drivers are supported, since the
currently active set of devices becomes dynamically variable.

Linux provides a central conflict-resolution mechanism to help arbitrate access
to certain hardware resources. Its aims are as follows:

To prevent modules from clashing over access to hardware resources

To prevent autoprobes—device-driver probes that auto-detect device

configuration— from interfering with existing device drivers

156
 To resolve conflicts among multiple drivers trying to access the same
hardware—as, for example, when both the parallel printer driver and the
parallel line IP (PLIP) network driver try to talk to the parallel port.
REQUIREMENTS FOR LINUX SSYTEM
ADMINISTRATOR
v Hardware-Abstraction Layer

The HAL is the layer of software that hides hardware chipset differences from
upper levels of the operating system. The HAL exports a virtual hardware
drivers. Only a single version of each device driver is required for each CPU
architecture, no matter what support chips might be present. Device drivers
map devices and access them directly, but the chipset-specific details of
mapping memory, configuring I/O buses, setting up DMA, and coping with
motherboard-specific facilities are all provided by the HAL interfaces.

v Kernel

The kernel layer ofWindows has four main responsibilities: thread scheduling,
low-level processor synchronization, interrupt and exception handling, and
switching between user mode and kernel mode. The kernel is implemented
in the C language, using assembly language only where absolutely necessary
to interface with the lowest level of the hardware architecture.

Kernel Dispatcher
The kernel dispatcher provides the foundation for the executive and the
subsystems. Most of the dispatcher is never paged out of memory, and its
execution is never preempted. Its main responsibilities are thread scheduling
and context switching, implementation of synchronization primitives, timer
management, software interrupts (asynchronous and deferred procedure
calls), and exception dispatching.

ü Threads and Scheduling

Like many other modern operating systems, Windows uses processes and
threads for executable code. Each process has one or more threads, and each
thread has its own scheduling state, including actual priority, processor
affinity, and CPU usage information.


157
 There are six possible thread states: ready, standby, running, waiting,
transition, and terminated. Ready indicates that the thread is waiting to
run. The highest-priority ready thread is moved to the standby state, which
means it is the next thread to run. In a multiprocessor system, each processor
keeps one thread in a standby state. A thread is running when it is executing
on a processor. It runs until it is preempted by a higher-priority thread, until
it terminates, until its allotted execution time (quantum) ends, or until it
waits on a dispatcher object, such as an event signaling I/O completion. A
thread is in the waiting state when it is waiting for a dispatcher object to be
signaled. A thread is in the transition state while it waits for resources
necessary for execution; for example, it may be waiting for its kernel stack
to be swapped in from disk. A thread enters the terminated state when it
finishes execution.

ü Implementation of Synchronization Primitives

Key operating-system data structures are managed as objects using common

facilities for allocation, reference counting, and security. Dispatcher objects
control dispatching and synchronization in the system. Examples of these
objects include the following:

The event object is used to record an event occurrence and to synchronize
this occurrence with some action. Notification events signal all waiting
threads, and synchronization events signal a single waiting thread.

The mutant provides kernel-mode or user-mode mutual exclusion

associated with the notion of ownership.

The mutex, available only in kernel mode, provides deadlock-free mutual

exclusion.

The semaphore object acts as a counter or gate to control the number of

threads that access a resource.

The thread object is the entity that is scheduled by the kernel dispatcher. It
is associated with a process object, which encapsulates a virtual address
space. The thread object is signaled when the thread exits, and the process
object, when the process exits.

158
 The timer object is used to keep track of time and to signal timeouts when
operations take too long and need to be interrupted or when a periodic
activity needs to be scheduled.

SETTING UP A LINUX MULTIFUNCTION

SERVER
Follow the steps below to avoid any complications during the hardware
installation:

1. Confirm that the printer you will use to connect to the DPR-1020 is operating
correctly.

2. When you have confirmed that the printer is operating correctly, switch its
power OFF.

3. Confirm that your network is operating normally.

4. Using a CAT 5 Ethernet cable, connect the DPR-1020 Ethernet Port (labelled
LAN) to the network.

5. While the printer is turned OFF, connect the USB printer cable to the printer and
then to the USB port on the Print Server.

6. Switch on the printer.

7. Insert the power adapter’s output plug into the DC 5V power socket on the rear
panel of the Print Server.

8. Connect the other end of the power adapter into a power outlet. This will supply
power to the Print Server. The blue LED on the Print Server’s front panel should
turn on and the Print Server’s self-test will proceed.

Power ON Self-Test

 When the DPR-1020 is powered ON, it automatically performs a Self-Test

on each of its major components. The final result of the Self-Test is signaled

159
 by the state of the USB LED indicator following the Self-Test. Preliminary
to the actual component tests, the three LED indicators are tested to confirm
their operation.

 Immediately after power-up, all three of the blue LEDs should illuminate
steadily for several seconds. Then the USB LED should light OFF
simultaneously. Irregularity of any of the three LEDs during these LED tests
may mean there is a problem with the LEDs themselves.

 The actual component tests immediately follow the LED tests. A normal (no
fault) result is signaled by simultaneous flashing of the LEDs three times,
followed by a quiescent state with all three LEDs dark.

 If the Self-Test routine traps any component error, then following the LED
tests the Self-Test will halt and the LEDs will continuously signal the error
according to the following table. In the event of any such error signal,
contact your dealer for correction of the faulty unit.

Getting Started

Below is a sample network using the DPR-1020. The DPR-1020 has a built- in
web configurator that allows users to easily configure the Print Server and manage
multiple print queues through TCP/IP.

Auto-Run Installation

160
 Insert the included installation CD into your computer’s CD-ROM drive to
initiate the auto-run program. If auto-run does not start, click My Computer > [CD
ROM Drive Letter].

The content of the installation CD-ROM includes:

• Install PS Software – click this to install the PS Software, which contains

PS-Link and PS-Wizard that can configure more settings for the MFP
Server, such as:

o Change the IP address

p Support the multi-functions (Print/Scan/Copy/Fax) of a MFP

printer, GDI printing, and other software from any MFP/GDI printer.

`- Easily add a printer to your computer.

ü View Quick Installation Guide – click this to preview the Quick

Installation Guide in PDF format for step-by-step instructions of the MFP
Server Installation.

ü View Manual – click this to preview the User Manual in PDF format
for detailed information regarding the MFP Server.

ü Install Acrobat Reader – click this to install Acrobat Reader for the
viewing and printing of PDF files found in this Installation CD-ROM.

ü Exit – click to close the Auto-Run program.

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
The domain name, or network name, is a unique name followed by a standard
Internet suffixes such as .com, .org, .mil, .net, etc. You can pretty much name your
LAN anything if it has a simple dial-up connection and your LAN is not a server
providing some type of service to other hosts directly. In addition, our sample
network is considered private since it uses IP addresses in the range of 192.168.1.x.
Most importantly, the domain name of choice should not be accessible from the
Internet if the above constraints are strictly enforced. Lastly, to obtain an "official"
domain name you could register through InterNIC, Network Solutions or

161
Register.com. See the Resources section later in this article for the Web sites with
detailed instructions for obtaining official domain names.

Hostnames


 Another important step in setting up a LAN is assigning a unique hostname
to each computer in the LAN. A hostname is simply a unique name that can
be made up and is used to identify a unique computer in the LAN. Also, the
name should not contain any blank spaces or punctuation. For example, the
following are valid hostnames that could be assigned to each computer in a
LAN consisting of 5 hosts: hostname 1 - Morpheus; hostname 2 - Trinity;
hostname 3 - Tank; hostname 4 - Oracle; and hostname 5 - Dozer. Each of
these hostnames conforms to the requirement that no blank spaces or
punctuation marks are present. Use short hostnames to eliminate excessive
typing, and choose a name that is easy to remember.

 Every host in the LAN will have the same network address, broadcast
address, subnet mask, and domain name because those addresses identify the
network in its entirety. Each computer in the LAN will have a hostname and
IP address that uniquely identifies that particular host. The network address
is 192.168.1.0, and the broadcast address is 192.168.1.128. Therefore, each
host in the LAN must have an IP address between 192.168.1.1 to
192.168.127.

SETTING UP LOCAL NETWORK SERVICES

 Linux is increasingly popular in the computer networking/telecommunications
industry. Acquiring the Linux operating system is a relatively simple and

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 inexpensive task since virtually all of the source code can be downloaded
from several different FTP or HTTP sites on the Internet. In addition, the
most recent version of Red Hat Linux can be purchased from computer retail
stores for between $25 and $50, depending on whether you purchase the
standard or full version. The retail brand is indeed a worthwhile investment
(vs. the free FTP or HTTP versions) since valuable technical support is
included directly from the Red Hat Linux engineers for at least a year. This
can be very helpful if, for instance, you can not resolve an
installation/configuration problem after consulting the Red Hat Linux
manuals.
This article describes how to put together a Local Area Network (LAN)
consisting of two or more computers using the Red Hat Linux 6.2 operating
system. A LAN is a communications network that interconnects a variety of
devices and provides a means for exchanging information among those
devices. The size and scope of a LAN is usually small, covering a single
building or group of buildings. In a LAN, modems and phone lines are not
required, and the computers should be close enough to run a network cable
between them.

 For each computer that will participate in the LAN, you'll need a network
interface card (NIC) to which the network cable will be attached. You will
also need to assign a unique hostname and IP address to each computer in
the LAN (described later in this article), but this requires a basic
understanding of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

Introduction to TCP/IP

 TCP/IP is the suite of protocols used by the Internet and most LANs
throughout the world. In TCP/IP, every host (computer or other
communications device) that is connected to the network has a unique IP
address. An IP address is composed of four octets (numbers in the range of 0
to 255) separated by decimal points. The IP address is used to uniquely
identify a host or computer on the LAN. For example, a computer with the
hostname Morpheus could have an IP address of 192.168.7.127. You should
avoid giving two or more computers the same IP address by using the range
of IP addresses that are reserved for private, local area networks; this range
of IP addresses usually begins with the octets 192.168.

 LAN network address The first three octets of an IP address should be the
same for all computers in the LAN. For example, if a total of 128 hosts exist
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 in a single LAN, the IP addresses could be assigned starting with
192.168.1.x, where x represents a number in the range of 1 to 128. You
could create consecutive LANs within the same company in a similar
manner consisting of up to another 128 computers. Of course, you are not
limited to 128 computers, as there are other ranges of IP addresses that allow
you to build even larger networks.

 There are different classes of networks that determine the size and total
possible unique IP addresses of any given LAN. For example, a class A
LAN can have over 16 million unique IP addresses. A class B LAN can have
over 65,000 unique IP addresses. The size of your LAN depends on which
reserved address range you use and the subnet mask (explained later in the
article) associated with that range (see Table 1.).

Address ranges and LAN sizes

Network and broadcast addresses

Another important aspect of building a LAN is that the addresses at the two
extreme ends of the address range are reserved for use as the LAN's network
address and broadcast address. The network address is used by an application to
represent the overall network. The broadcast address is used by an application to
send the same message to all other hosts in the network simultaneously.
• For example, if you use addresses in the range of 192.168.1.0 to
192.168.1.128, the first address (192.168.1.0) is reserved as the network address,
and the last address (192.168.1.128) is reserved as the broadcast address.
Therefore, you only assign individual computers on the LAN IP addresses in the
range of 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.127:

Network address: 192.168.1.0

Individual hosts: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.127
Broadcast address: 192.168.1.128

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Subnet masks

 Each host in a LAN has a subnet mask. The subnet mask is an octet that uses
the number 255 to represent the network address portion of the IP address
and a zero to identify the host portion of the address. For example, the
subnet mask 255.255.255.0 is used by each host to determine which LAN or
class it belongs to. The zero at the end of the subnet mask represents a
unique host within that network.

Assigning IP addresses in a LAN

There are two ways to assign IP addresses in a LAN. You can manually
assign a static IP address to each computer in the LAN, or you can use a
special type of server that automatically assigns a dynamic IP address to
each computer as it logs into the network.

 Static IP addressing

Static IP addressing means manually assigning a unique IP address to

each computer in the LAN. The first three octets must be the same for
each host, and the last digit must be a unique number for each host. In
addition, a unique hostname will need to be assigned to each
computer. Each host in the LAN will have the same network address
(192.168.1.0), broadcast address (192.168.1.128), subnet mask
(255.255.255.0), and domain name (yourcompanyname.com). It's a
good idea to start by visiting each computer in the LAN and jotting
down the hostname and IP address for future reference.

 Dynamic IP addressing

Dynamic IP addressing is accomplished via a server or host called

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Program) that automatically
assigns a unique IP address to each computer as it connects to the
LAN. A similar service called BootP can also automatically assign
unique IP addresses to each host in the network. The DHCP/ BootP
service is a program or device that will act as a host with a unique IP
address. An example of a DHCP device is a router that acts as an
Ethernet hub (a communications device that allows multiple host to be
connected via an Ethernet jack and a specific port) on one end and
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 allows a connection to the Internet on the opposite end. Furthermore,
the DHCP server will also assign the network and broadcast
addresses. You will not be required to manually assign hostnames and
domain names in a dynamic IP addressing scheme.
SETTING UP Xen , Vmare ON LINUX HOST AND
ADDING GUEST OS
What Is VMware Player?

 VMware Player is a free desktop application that lets you run virtual
machines on a Windows or Linux PC.

 VMware Player is the only product on the market that lets you run virtual
machines without investing in virtualization software, making it easier than
ever to take advantage of the security, flexibility, and portability of virtual
machines. VMware Player lets you use host machine devices, such as CD
and DVD drives, from the virtual machine.

 VMware Player provides an intuitive user interface for running preconfigured

virtual machines created with VMware Workstation, ESX Server, VMware
Server, and GSX Server. On Windows host machines, VMware Player also
opens and runs Microsoft Virtual PC and Virtual Server virtual machines
and Symantec Backup Exec System Recovery (formerly LiveState
Recovery) system images. VMware Player makes VMware virtual machines
accessible to colleagues, partners, customers, and clients, whether or not
they have purchased VMware products. Anyone who downloads VMware
Player can open and run compatible virtual machines.

What You Can Do with VMware Player

With VMware Player, you can:

 Use and evaluate prebuilt applications-Download and safely run

prebuilt application environments in virtual machines that are
available from the Virtual Appliance Marketplace
at http://vam.vmware.com.The Virtual Appliance Marketplace
includes virtual machines from leading software vendors, including
Oracle, Red Hat, Novell, BEA, SpikeSource, IBM, and MySQL, as

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 well as virtual machines that are preconfigured with popular open
source software.

 Transform software distribution-Simplify software distribution by
shipping preconfigured software in virtual machines. End users can
experience the benefits of your products immediately, without setup
hassles. VMware Player is ideal for shipping evaluation copies or beta
software. You can package complex, sophisticated applications,
complete with a full working environment, in a virtual machine that
can be used by anyone who downloads VMware Player.

 Collaborate with colleagues-VMware Player makes it easy for
support, development, and QA to share customer scenarios in virtual
machines.

Features in VMware Player

 VMware Player is a free desktop application for running virtual machines.

VMware Player does not include features found in other VMware products,
such as the ability to create virtual machines.
 VMware Player provides the following features:
 You can connect, disconnect, and use configured host devices, including
USB devices, in the virtualmachine.

 You can set preferences, such as how devices are displayed in VMware
Player.

 You can change the amount of memory allocated to the virtual machine.

 You can drag and drop files between a Linux or Windows host and a Linux,
Windows, or Solaris guest.(Linux hosts and Linux and Solaris guests must
be running X Windows.) You can use this feature if theperson who created
the virtual machine you are running also installed VMware Tools in it.

 You can copy and paste text between a Windows or Linux host and a
Windows, Linux, or Solaris guest.

 You can use this feature if the person who created the virtual machine you
are running also installed VMware Tools in it.

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  You can copy and paste files between a Windows or Linux host and a
Windows, Linux, or Solaris guest.

 You can use this feature if the person who created the virtual machine you
are running also installed VMware Tools in it.

To install VMware Player on a Linux host

1 Log on to your Linux host with the user name you plan to use when
running VMware Player.

2 In a terminal window, become root so you can perform the initial

installation steps:
su - ‐
3 Mount the VMware Player CD ROM.

4 Change to the Linux directory on the CD.

5 To use the RPM installer, skip to Step 6. To use the tar installer, follow
these steps:

a. If you have a previous tar installation, delete the VMware Player

distribution directory before installing from a tar file again. The
default location of this directory is:

/tmp/vmware-player-distrib

b Copy the tar archive to a temporary directory on your hard drive, for
example,

/tmp:

cp VMware-<xxxx>.tar.gz /tmp

VMware-<xxxx>.tar.gz is the installation file. (In the filename,

<xxxx-xxxx> is a series of numbers representing the version and build
numbers.)

c Change to the directory to which you copied the file:

cd /tmp
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 d Unpack the archive:

tar zxpf VMware-<xxxx>.tar.gz

e Change to the installation directory:

cd vmware-player-distrib

f Run the installation program:

./vmware-install.pl

g Press return to accept the default values at the prompts.

h Press return (Yes) when prompted to run vmware-config.pl.

i Skip to Step 7.

Adding Guest OS

To install the OS from an ISO image in a virtual machine:

1. Save the ISO image file in any location accessible to your host. For example:

Windows: C:\Temp or %TEMP%

Linux: /tmp or /usr/tmp

Note: For best performance, place this image on the host computer's hard drive.
However, to make the ISO image accessible to multiple users, you can also place
the ISO image on a network share drive (Windows) or exported filesystem (Linux).
If your OS install spans multiple discs, you need to use an ISO image of each disc
and place them all of them in a location accessible to the host.

2. Create a new virtual machine. Go to File > New > Virtual Machine.

3. Select Typical to accept Workstation's recommendations for various settings

(such as processors, RAM, and disk controller type). Select Custom if you want to
select these options yourself.
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4. On the Guest Operating System Installation screen, when prompted where to
install from, select Installer disc image file (iso).

5. Click Browse, and navigate to the location where you saved the ISO image file.

6. Click next, and proceed through the new virtual machine wizard.

7. Before you click Finish, to create the virtual machine, deselect Power on this
virtual machine after creation.

8. Edit the virtual machine settings so that its virtual CD/DVD device is configured
to use the ISO image rather than the physical CD/DVD drive:

a.Select the tab for the virtual machine you just created.

b.Click Edit virtual machine settings.

c.On the Hardware tab, select the CD/DVD drive.

d.On the right side:

i.Select Connect at power on.

ii.Use ISO image file.

iii.Click Browse and navigate to where you saved the ISO image file.

e.Click OK.

9. Power on the virtual machine.

When you are finished installing the guest OS, you can edit the virtual machine
settings so that it is once more set to use the host computer's physical drive. You
do not need to leave the drive set to connect at power on.

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