UNIT 1

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

1. Principles of EIA

• Prevention & Precautionary Principle: Identifies and mitigates environmental risks

before project implementation.

• Polluter Pays Principle: Ensures accountability for environmental damage.

• Sustainability: Balances development with environmental protection.

• Public Participation: Involves stakeholders in decision-making.

• Interdisciplinary Approach: Uses multiple scientific and social disciplines.

2. Concepts and Approaches

• Baseline Study: Assessment of existing environmental conditions before a project.

• Screening & Scoping:

o Screening: Determines if a project requires EIA.

o Scoping: Identifies key environmental issues.

• Mitigation Hierarchy: Avoid, Minimize, Mitigate, Offset.

• Lifecycle Assessment: Evaluates the environmental impact from resource extraction

to disposal.

• Cumulative Impact Assessment: Examines the combined effects of multiple projects.

3. Methods and Procedure

1. Screening – Identifies projects needing EIA.

2. Scoping – Defines the extent and key issues of the assessment.

3. Impact Assessment – Identifies and evaluates potential environmental impacts.

4. Mitigation Measures – Suggests alternatives to reduce environmental harm.

5. Public Consultation – Stakeholder engagement in the assessment.

6. EIA Report (Environmental Impact Statement - EIS) – Documents findings.

 7. Decision-Making – Approves, modifies, or rejects the project.

8. Post-Project Monitoring – Ensures compliance and measures impact.

4. Current Issues in EIA

• Weak Implementation: Poor enforcement of EIA norms.

• Political and Industrial Influence: Approvals given despite negative impacts.

• Lack of Public Participation: Inadequate involvement of affected communities.

• Exemptions and Dilution of Laws: Relaxations for certain projects.

• Delay in Approval Process: Slows down economic development.

• Climate Change Considerations: EIA needs to integrate carbon footprint

assessments.

5. POSCO Imbroglio (Case Study)

• Company: South Korean steel giant POSCO proposed a $12 billion steel plant in
Odisha.

• Environmental Concerns:

o Large-scale deforestation (forest clearance in Jagatsinghpur).

o Impact on local livelihoods (displacement of farmers and fisherfolk).

o Water and air pollution from steel production.

• Legal and Social Issues:

o Violation of Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.

o Resistance from local communities and NGOs.

o Delay due to environmental clearance and legal battles.

• Outcome:

o After years of protests and legal struggles, POSCO withdrew in 2017.

o Highlights the conflict between industrial development and environmental

protection.

1. Principles of EIA
EIA is based on several fundamental principles that guide its implementation. These
principles ensure that development projects are assessed for their environmental
consequences before approval.

1.1. Prevention & Precautionary Principle

• The Prevention Principle states that environmental damage should be prevented

before it occurs, rather than attempting to fix it later.

• The Precautionary Principle suggests that if there is scientific uncertainty about the
potential environmental harm of a project, precautionary measures should be taken
to avoid damage.

• Example: If a new industrial plant is suspected of releasing pollutants that may harm
a local water body, stricter regulations and monitoring should be enforced even if full
scientific evidence is not yet available.

1.2. Polluter Pays Principle

• This principle holds that industries and businesses responsible for environmental
degradation must bear the costs of managing and mitigating the damage.

• It discourages reckless exploitation of resources and encourages cleaner production

techniques.

• Example: If a mining company contaminates a river with toxic waste, it should be

responsible for cleaning up the pollution and compensating affected communities.

1.3. Sustainability Principle

• EIA ensures that economic development does not come at the cost of
environmental sustainability.

• Projects should be designed to meet present needs without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

• Example: A hydropower project should ensure minimal deforestation and implement

reforestation programs to balance the ecological impact.

1.4. Public Participation Principle

• Involves local communities, stakeholders, NGOs, and affected individuals in the

decision-making process.

• Ensures transparency and allows the concerns of marginalized groups to be

addressed.

• Public hearings and consultations are conducted to gather opinions before granting
environmental clearance.
 • Example: In large dam projects like the Narmada Dam, local tribal communities were
involved in discussions about the environmental and social impact before project
approval.

1.5. Interdisciplinary Approach Principle

• EIA is not just an environmental study but also incorporates inputs from various
disciplines, including:

o Ecology – impact on forests, biodiversity, and wildlife.

o Geography – land use changes, natural hazards, and climate impact.

o Economics – cost-benefit analysis, resource allocation.

o Sociology – displacement, cultural impacts, and community livelihoods.

• Example: In highway construction, experts from environmental science, hydrology,

and social sciences work together to assess different impacts.

Why These Principles Matter?

• These principles form the foundation of a strong EIA system and help prevent
environmental disasters.

• They ensure that development is inclusive, environmentally responsible, and

sustainable.

• Without these principles, projects could lead to irreversible environmental damage,

affecting biodiversity, human health, and local livelihoods.

Would you like me to add real-world case studies for each principle?

2. Concepts and Approaches of EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) involves various concepts and approaches to

systematically analyze and minimize environmental risks. Let’s look at each of these in detail:

2.1. Baseline Study

• A baseline study assesses the existing environmental conditions of a project site

before any intervention occurs.

• It includes data on air quality, water resources, biodiversity, land use, and socio-
economic conditions.
 • This helps in comparing the “before” and “after” scenarios to determine the actual
impact of the project.

Example: Before constructing a hydroelectric dam, a baseline study would analyze the
river’s flow, fish species, and sediment transport to understand potential disruptions.

2.2. Screening & Scoping

EIA follows a step-by-step approach to determine which projects need assessment and what
aspects should be studied.

a) Screening

• The process of determining whether a project requires a full EIA or not.

• Small-scale projects with minimal environmental impact may be exempted from EIA
(e.g., a small school building vs. a large mining project).

• Categorization of projects:

o Category A: Requires full EIA (e.g., thermal power plants, major irrigation
projects).

o Category B: Requires limited EIA or Environmental Management Plan (e.g.,

townships, small industrial estates).

o Category C: No EIA required (e.g., small-scale rural roads).

Example: A nuclear power plant would automatically fall under Category A, requiring a
detailed EIA.

b) Scoping

• Identifies the key environmental issues to focus on during EIA.

• Determines the methods, data collection techniques, and stakeholder involvement.

• Helps in avoiding unnecessary data collection and focusing on major risks.

Example: For a highway project, scoping would focus on deforestation, wildlife

corridors, and noise pollution, rather than aspects like deep-sea ecosystems, which are
irrelevant.

2.3. Mitigation Hierarchy

A systematic approach to reducing environmental damage:

1. Avoid – Eliminate impact by choosing an alternative project site or method.

 2. Minimize – Reduce the impact through better design, pollution control, and
efficiency.

3. Mitigate – Implement measures to restore affected ecosystems.

4. Offset – Compensate for unavoidable damage through biodiversity conservation

programs elsewhere.

Example:

• A coal mining company may not be able to avoid deforestation, but it can minimize
tree cutting, mitigate by replanting trees, and offset by funding conservation projects
in another region.

2.4. Lifecycle Assessment (LCA)

• Evaluates environmental impacts at every stage of a project – from raw material

extraction to final disposal.

• Helps in identifying hidden environmental costs and long-term sustainability.

• Stages of LCA:

o Raw Material Extraction – Land degradation, deforestation.

o Processing & Manufacturing – Air and water pollution, energy consumption.

o Transportation & Distribution – Carbon footprint, fuel emissions.

o Usage & Operation – Waste generation, resource consumption.

o Disposal & Recycling – Waste management, landfill impact.

Example:

• A plastic bottle manufacturing plant would assess environmental impacts from

petroleum extraction (raw material) to plastic production, transportation, usage,
and disposal (recycling or landfill waste).

2.5. Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA)

• Examines the combined environmental effects of multiple projects in a region,

rather than assessing projects in isolation.

• Considers long-term and indirect impacts that might be ignored in individual EIAs.

Example:
 • A single dam project may have a limited impact, but when combined with multiple
dams on the same river, it can severely alter water flow, fish migration, and
sediment transport, leading to widespread ecological damage.

Why These Concepts Matter?

Ensures Development is Environmentally Sustainable – Reduces irreversible damage.

Prevents Short-Sighted Decision-Making – Considers long-term impacts.
Enhances Public & Stakeholder Trust – Increases transparency.
Reduces Legal & Social Conflicts – Avoids opposition and protests.

Would you like any additional examples or case studies for better understanding?

3. Methods and Procedure of EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) follows a structured process to evaluate the

environmental consequences of a proposed project before making decisions. The EIA
procedure ensures that environmental factors are considered alongside economic and social
aspects.

3.1. Steps in the EIA Process

1. Screening

• Determines whether a project requires an EIA or not.

• Projects are categorized based on size, location, and potential environmental risks.

• Categorization (as per Indian EIA Notification, 2006):

o Category A: Large-scale projects with significant environmental impacts (e.g.,

thermal power plants, oil refineries).

o Category B1: Requires full EIA due to moderate risks (e.g., townships, small-
scale industries).

o Category B2: No EIA required, only Environmental Management Plan (e.g.,

minor construction projects).

Example: A large dam project automatically falls under Category A, requiring a detailed
EIA.

2. Scoping
 • Identifies key environmental issues to be analyzed.

• Determines study boundaries and methods of assessment.

• Involves stakeholders, government bodies, and scientific experts.

Example: For a coastal highway project, scoping would focus on marine biodiversity
impact, erosion risks, and local fishing communities rather than aspects like mining
pollution, which is irrelevant.

3. Impact Assessment

• Evaluates the direct, indirect, cumulative, and transboundary impacts of a project.

• Impacts analyzed include:

o Physical – Land use change, deforestation.

o Biological – Wildlife and biodiversity loss.

o Social & Economic – Displacement of communities, job creation.

o Cultural – Impact on historical and religious sites.

Example: A mining project may degrade soil, pollute water sources, and displace tribal
communities.

4. Mitigation Measures

• Suggests ways to avoid, reduce, or compensate for environmental harm.

• Hierarchy of Mitigation:

o Avoid – Select alternative sites or processes.

o Minimize – Use eco-friendly technologies.

o Mitigate – Implement restoration programs.

o Offset – Compensate damage through conservation programs.

Example: A wind farm near bird migration routes may install avian-friendly turbine
designs to reduce bird collisions.

5. Public Consultation

• Engages local communities, NGOs, and stakeholders in decision-making.

 • Public hearings provide an opportunity to express concerns and suggest
alternatives.

• Ensures social acceptance and reduces potential conflicts.

Example: In POSCO steel plant project (Odisha), public opposition by tribal communities
played a major role in its cancellation.

6. EIA Report (Environmental Impact Statement - EIS)

• Summarizes findings of the assessment, including:

o Baseline environmental conditions

o Predicted impacts

o Proposed mitigation measures

o Monitoring plans

• Submitted to the regulatory authority for review.

Example: The EIA report for the Mumbai Coastal Road Project assessed impacts on
mangroves, marine ecosystems, and traffic congestion.

7. Decision-Making

• The regulatory authority approves, modifies, or rejects the project based on EIA
findings.

• Decision criteria:

o Environmental feasibility

o Sustainability

o Public acceptance

• If a project is approved, environmental clearance is granted with specific conditions.

Example: The Sterlite Copper Plant (Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu) was shut down after
environmental violations despite initial approval.

8. Post-Project Monitoring

• Ensures that the project complies with environmental norms.

 • Measures actual vs. predicted impacts to address deviations.

• Continuous environmental audits and reporting.

Example: Post-monitoring of Delhi Metro Phase 3 focused on air quality, noise levels,
and tree transplantation success.

3.2. Methods of EIA

1. Checklists

• Lists potential environmental impacts and assesses their significance.

• Simple and systematic but lacks in-depth analysis.

Example: Used for small-scale projects like rural roads and schools.

2. Matrices

• Evaluates cause-effect relationships between project activities and environmental

components.

• More detailed than checklists.

Example: Used in large industrial projects like oil refineries.

3. Network Analysis

• Shows interactions between multiple environmental factors.

• Helps in understanding indirect and cumulative impacts.

Example: Used in river basin management projects.

4. GIS & Remote Sensing

• Uses spatial data to analyze land use, deforestation, and pollution.

• Provides high accuracy and predictive modeling.

Example: Used in urban planning, deforestation mapping, and disaster risk analysis.

Why is EIA Important?

 Prevents Environmental Degradation – Identifies risks before damage occurs.
Ensures Sustainable Development – Balances economic growth with environmental
protection.
Reduces Legal Conflicts – Ensures compliance with environmental laws.
Enhances Public Participation – Builds trust and transparency.

Would you like additional case studies or real-life examples?

4. Current Issues in EIA

Despite being a crucial tool for environmental protection, Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) faces several challenges in its implementation. These issues arise due to administrative
inefficiencies, political and industrial influences, and evolving environmental concerns like
climate change.

4.1. Weak Implementation & Poor Enforcement

• Many projects violate environmental norms but continue operations due to poor
monitoring and enforcement.

• Regulatory bodies lack capacity for effective compliance checks.

• Example: The Sterlite Copper Plant (Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu) was allowed to
operate despite pollution complaints, leading to protests and eventual shutdown.

Solution: Strengthen regulatory agencies like MoEFCC & State Pollution Control Boards,
increase penalties for violations, and enhance transparency in compliance reporting.

4.2. Political and Industrial Influence

• Large industries often influence EIA approvals despite negative environmental

consequences.

• The "Ease of Doing Business" approach has led to dilution of environmental norms
in favor of rapid economic growth.

• Example: The POSCO steel plant project in Odisha received environmental clearance
despite concerns over forest destruction and tribal displacement.

Solution: Establish an independent environmental tribunal, ensure scientific

assessments over political pressures, and implement whistleblower protections for
environmental activists.
4.3. Lack of Public Participation & Transparency

• Public hearings are often rushed, manipulated, or bypassed in favor of developers.

• Local communities and affected stakeholders have limited access to EIA reports due
to complex technical language or restricted availability.

• Example: The Vedanta bauxite mining project in Niyamgiri (Odisha) faced resistance
as tribal voices were initially ignored in the decision-making process.

Solution: Conduct transparent public hearings, make EIA reports accessible in local
languages, and ensure meaningful community engagement.

4.4. Exemptions & Dilution of Laws

• Recent amendments to EIA laws have relaxed norms for certain categories of
projects, reducing environmental scrutiny.

• The EIA Notification 2020 was criticized for:

o Ex-post facto clearance: Projects can begin without prior approval.

o Exemptions for certain industries: High-risk sectors like coal mining and
highways were given relaxed norms.

• Example: The Hubballi-Ankola railway line (Karnataka) was exempted from strict EIA
norms despite threats to the Western Ghats ecosystem.

Solution: Reverse weakening of EIA laws, ensure strict pre-clearance requirements, and
uphold precautionary principles.

4.5. Delay in Approval Process

• The lengthy approval process slows down economic development, leading to

pressure for fast-tracking clearances.

• Example: The Mumbai Coastal Road Project faced legal and procedural delays,
affecting urban infrastructure development.

Solution: Balance efficiency with environmental scrutiny, introduce digitization for

faster approvals, and strictly adhere to timelines without bypassing due process.

4.6. Climate Change Considerations

 • Current EIA methodologies do not fully integrate climate risk assessments such as
carbon footprint, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events.

• Example: Large infrastructure projects like airports and highways often ignore
climate resilience leading to increased vulnerability to floods and storms.

Solution: Introduce climate impact assessment in EIA reports, mandate carbon audits,
and promote nature-based solutions (e.g., mangrove restoration for coastal resilience).

Conclusion & Way Forward

Strengthen Implementation – Improve monitoring, enforcement, and penalties.

Ensure Transparency & Public Participation – Make reports accessible, conduct fair
hearings.
Resist Political & Industrial Influence – Independent regulatory bodies needed.
Integrate Climate Change Factors – Include carbon footprint and climate resilience in
EIA.
Improve Approval Mechanism – Balance environmental concerns with economic
growth.

Would you like more real-life case studies or policy recommendations?

POSCO Imbroglio: A Case Study of Environmental vs. Industrial Conflict

The POSCO (Pohang Iron and Steel Company) project in Odisha was one of India's largest
proposed foreign direct investments (FDI), but it became a symbol of environmental and
social conflict. The project, announced in 2005, faced strong opposition from local
communities, environmental activists, and legal challenges, ultimately leading to its
cancellation in 2017.

1. Background of the POSCO Project

• Company: POSCO (South Korea) proposed a $12 billion (₹52,000 crore) steel plant
in Jagatsinghpur, Odisha.

• Scale: It was planned as India’s largest foreign direct investment (FDI) in the steel
sector.

• Land Acquisition: Required 4,004 hectares (9,900 acres), including forest and
agricultural land.

• Capacity: Proposed 12 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) steel plant with an
integrated captive port and power plant.
 • Strategic Importance:

o Expected to generate employment and boost economic growth.

o Aligns with India’s push for industrialization and foreign investment.

2. Environmental Concerns

• Deforestation & Biodiversity Loss

o The project required clearance of over 2,700 acres of dense forest,

threatening wildlife and coastal ecosystems.

o The region was home to mangroves, which act as natural barriers against
cyclones and floods.

• Impact on Water Resources

o POSCO’s steel plant demanded 86 million liters of water per day from the
Mahanadi River, raising concerns about water scarcity for agriculture and
drinking water in nearby villages.

• Air & Water Pollution

o Steel plants produce high carbon emissions and pollutants such as sulfur
dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM2.5),
affecting air quality and health.

o Industrial waste from steel production could pollute coastal waters and harm
fisheries.

3. Social and Legal Issues

• Displacement of Local Communities

o The project would have displaced more than 20,000 people, including
farmers, fisherfolk, and betel leaf cultivators.

o Resistance from villagers (especially in Dhinkia, Gobindpur, and Nuagaon

villages) led to mass protests and legal battles.

• Violation of Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

o The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006, grants tribal and forest-dependent
communities the right to their land.
 o POSCO’s land acquisition ignored local gram sabha (village council)
resolutions rejecting the project.

o The MoEFCC (Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change) initially

gave clearance but was later forced to review and suspend it due to legal
challenges.

• Police Crackdown & Human Rights Violations

o The Odisha government allegedly used force and police action to suppress
protests.

o Activists like Prafulla Samantray and Medha Patkar raised concerns about
human rights violations.

• Legal and Bureaucratic Delays

o Multiple legal challenges in the National Green Tribunal (NGT) and Supreme
Court delayed the project.

o Environmental clearances were revoked and reinstated multiple times,

leading to uncertainty for investors.

4. Outcome & Final Withdrawal (2017)

• POSCO struggled for over a decade to secure all approvals but faced persistent
protests and legal hurdles.

• In 2017, POSCO officially withdrew from the project, citing land acquisition
problems, environmental issues, and delays.

• The land allocated to POSCO was later transferred to JSW Steel for a new steel plant
proposal, again triggering similar protests.

5. Lessons from the POSCO Controversy

Need for Transparent Environmental Clearances

• The case exposed loopholes in India’s Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

process.

• Gram sabha consent must be respected before granting clearances.

Balancing Industrial Growth with Environmental Protection

• Large-scale industrial projects must consider ecological and social sustainability.

 • Alternative sites and sustainable steel production methods should be explored.

Strengthening the Rights of Local Communities

• The Forest Rights Act and Land Acquisition Laws must be implemented fairly.

• Community participation in decision-making is crucial.

Reforming EIA to Address Industrial vs. Environmental Conflicts

• EIA policies must factor in long-term environmental and social costs.

• Independent environmental tribunals should be empowered to hold corporations

accountable.

Conclusion: A Case of Development vs. Environment

The POSCO case remains a landmark example of the challenges in balancing economic
development with environmental sustainability and social justice. While large industrial
investments are crucial for growth, ignoring ecological and social concerns leads to conflict
and project failures. Future industrial policies must ensure that environmental safeguards
and local rights are upheld to prevent such conflicts.