The Central Processing Unit

CPU is the hardware part of a computer that carries out the instruction of a computer program
by performing the basic arithmetic, logical and input/output operations of the system. CPU is
the brain of the computer where most operations, calculations and processes take place.
1. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) – it performs arithmetic and logical operation. ALU
carries out arithmetic operations on integer (whole number) and real (with a decimal
point) operands.
2. The control unit (CU) – it extracts instruction from the computer memory, decodes
and executes them and also transferring them to the ALU when necessary. The CU
controls the fetching of instructions from the main memory and the subsequent
execution of these instructions.
Control unit Functions
1. The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored program
instructions.
2. The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic logic unit and main
memory.
3. The control unit uses the instruction contained in the Instruction Register to decide
which circuits need to be activated.
4. The control unit coordinates the activities of the other two units as well as all peripheral
and auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.
5. The control unit instructs the arithmetic logic unit which arithmetic operations or
logical operations are to be performed.
6. The control unit is literally in control.
Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit
1. The arithmetic logic unit executes arithmetic and logical operations.
2. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
3. Logical operations compare numbers, letters and special characters.
4. Comparison operations test for three conditions: equal-to condition in which two values
are the same
5. less-than condition in which one value is smaller than the other
6. greater-than condition in which one value is larger than the other

7. Relational operations (=, <, >) are used to describe the comparison operations used by
the arithmetic logic unit.
8. The arithmetic logic unit performs logic functions such as AND, OR and NOT

What is the Memory Unit?

i. The memory unit is part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing.
ii. It may also be defined as the storage space in the computer where data to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored.
Although closely associated with the central processing unit, the memory unit is separated
from it.
Types of Memories in Computer
Memory is of two types:
i.Primary memory/main memory/internal memory
ii.Secondary memory/auxiliary memory/external memory
Primary Memory:
The primary memory is the memory that can be directly accessed by the CPU, the CPU
constantly interact with it, reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
Types of Primary memory
There are two types of primary memory:
i. RAM
ii. ROM
RAM (Radom Access Memory):
Random access memory also called the Read/Write memory, is the temporary memory of a
computer. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the
computer is on. The contents of RAM are cleared once the computer is turned off or if there
is a power cut.
Types of RAM
1. Dynamic RAM: Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a type of physical memory used in most
personal computers. The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly
refreshed (reenergized) or it will lose its contents.
2. Static RAM: Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of RAM that holds its data without external
refresh, for as long as power is supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM
(DRAM), which must be refreshed many times per second to hold its data contents
ROM (Read Only Memory)
Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and the contents of
which are not lost even when the computer is switched off or if there is a power cut. It
typically contains the manufacturer’s instructions.
Types of ROM
i. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM): This type of ROM can be re-programmed by
using a special device called a PROM programmer. Generally, a PROM can only be
changed/updated once.
ii. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM): This type of ROM can have its
contents erased by ultraviolet light and then reprogrammed by a PROM programmer. This
procedure can be carried out many times; however, the constant erasing and rewriting will
eventually render the chip useless.
iii. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM): These are also
erasable like EPROM, but the same work of erasing is performed with electric current. Thus,
it provides the ease of erasing it even if the memory is positioned in the computer. It stores
the computer system’s BIOS. Unlike EPROM, the entire chip does not have to be erased for
changing some portion of it. Thus, it even gets rid of some biggest challenges faced by using
EPROMs.
Differences between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
It is volatile (It loses data when power is It is non-volatile (retains data even when
turned off) power is off)
Data in RAM can be changed or deleted ROM is fixed or data cannot be modified.
RAM chip are bigger in size ROM chip are smaller in size

RAM chips are relatively expensive ROM chips are relatively less expensive

RAM stores all the applications and data ROM usually stores instructions that are
when the computer is running required for booting the computer

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is a non-volatile memory. It is slower than the main memory. These are
used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories
instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Types of Secondary Memory
Secondary memory can be of the following types:
Magnetic: Data and information are stored and retrieved using magnetism
Examples
Magnetic disk
Magnetic tape
Hard disk
floppy disks
Optical: Optical storage devices employ light (laser beams) to store and retrieve data and
information
Examples
CD
VCD
DVD
Electronic: This holds data and information in the form of electric voltage
Example
Flash Memory
Others include Punch card
Secondary Storage Devices
1. Floppy Diskette
There are two standard sizes used these days which are 5 □((1 )/4) inches and 3 □(1/2) inches,
in size, commonly referred to as the mini-floppy and microfloppy. The capacity of 5 □((1 )/4)
inches floppy is 1.2 MB and that of 3 □(1/2) inches is 1.44 MB.
2. CD-ROM drives
They are of three types:
a. CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for (Compact Disc Read Only Memory), and it is mainly used to mass
produce audio CDs and computer games. Computer users can only read data and music from
the discs, but they cannot burn their information onto the discs, from their personal
computers.
b. CD-R
CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable) also known as WORM (Write Once Read Many) is a
blank disc that users can put into a CD-ROM drive to burn or make a copy of their personal
data, music, videos and information. CD-Recordable discs are designed for one-time
recording only.
c. CD-RW
The CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable) can be erased and returned to its original blank
state. New files can then be copied onto the rewritable disk. CD-RW never became as
popular as the CD-R because they are not compatible with most disc players to listen to
music. They are primarily used to move data from one computer to another or to copy files
that are only needed a few times.
3. DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)
DVD is very similar to a CD but it has a much larger capacity. A standard DVD can hold 4.7
GB of data. DVDs are of the same types as CDs along with different formats as explained
about CDs.
4. Combo Drives
These drives combine the function of a DVD drive and a CD-RW drive.
5. Hard disk: Largest in capacity
Differences between Primary and Secondary Memory
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
These devices are temporary (Volatile) These devices are permanent (Non-volatile)
These devices are expensive These devices are cheaper
They have less storage capacity They have storage capacities
They are usually faster They are slower
Directly accessed by the CPU Not directly accessed by the CPU

Internal memory External Memory

Units of Storage in Computer

i. Bit (b): Bits is an acronym that stands for Binary digITS. It is the Smallest Unit of data on
a binary computer. A single bit consists of 0 (zero) or 1 (one).
ii. Nibble: A nibble is a collection of four bits.
iii. Bytes (B): A byte consists of eight bits. It is the smallest item that can be individually
accessed by a program. It is the fundamental unit of storage on a binary computer.
iv. Word: A word is a collection 32 bits.
v. Kilobyte (KB): A Kilobyte consists of 210 (1,024) Bytes which is approximately 1000
Bytes.
vi. Megabyte (MB): One Megabyte consists of 220 (1,048,576) Bytes.
vii. Gigabyte (GB): A Gigabyte is a collection of 230 (1,073,741,824) Bytes.
viii. Terabyte (TB): A Terabyte consists of 240 (1,099,511,627,776) Bytes.
ix. Petabyte (PB): A Petabyte consists of 250 (1,125,899,906,842,624) Bytes.
x. Exabyte (EB): An Exabyte consists of 260 (1,152,921,504,606,846,976) Bytes.
xi. Zettabyte (ZB): A Zettabyte consists of 270 (1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424) Bytes.
xii. Yottabyte (YB): A Yottabyte consists of 280 (1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176)
Bytes.
Conversion from one Unit to another
The conversion process from one unit to another can be done using the following
relationships.
1 bit = 0 or 1
1 nibble = 4 bits
1 bytes = 8 bits
1 word = 16 bits
1 KB = 1024 bytes
1 MB = 1024 KB
1 GB = 1024 MB
1 TB = 1024 GB
1 PB = 1024 TB
1 EB = 1024 PB
1ZB = 1024 EB
1 YB = 1024 ZB
Example 1
Convert 1208bits to byte
Solution
We are required to convert 1204 bits to byte
Let the unknown byte be x
It implies that;
1208bits = xbyte
The relationship between bits and byte is
8bits = 1 byte
Cross multiplying we have
xbyte × 8bits = 1208bits × 1byte
Divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown unit of storage which is the 8bits
(xbyte × 8bits)/(8bits) = (1208bits × 1byte)/(8bits)
xbyte = (1208 byte)/8
xbyte = 151bytes
Therefore 1208bits = 151bytes
Example 2
Convert 330KB to byte
Solution
We are required to convert 330KB to byte
Let the unknown byte be x
It implies that;
330KB = xbyte
The relationship between kb and byte is
1KB = 1024byte
Cross multiplying we have
xbyte × 1KB = 330KB × 1024byte
Divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown unit of storage which is the 1 kb

(xbyte × 1KB)/(1KB) = (330KB × 1024byte)/(1KB)

xbyte = 330 × 1024bytes
xbyte = 337920bytes
Therefore 330kb = 337920bytes
Example 3
Convert 14200 KB to MB
Solution
We are required to convert 14200 to kilobyte
Let the unknown kilobyte be x
It implies that;
14200KB = xMB
The relationship between KB and MB is
1024KB = 1MB
Cross multiplying we have
xMB × 1024KB = 14200KB × 1MB
Divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown unit of storage which is the 1024 byte
(xMB × 1024KB)/(1024KB) = (14200KB × 1MB)/(1024KB)
xMB = (14200 × 1MB)/1024
xKB = 13.87MB
Therefore 1420KB =13.87MB
Example 4
Convert 1.44 MB to Byte (B)
Solution
We are required to convert 1.44MB to B
Let the unknown B be x
It implies that;
1.44MB = xB
The relationship between MB and B is
1MB = 1024 × 1024B
1MB = 1048576B
Cross multiplying we have
xB × 1MB = 1.44MB × 1048576B
Divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown unit of storage which is the 1MB
(xB × 1MB)/(1MB) = (1.44MB × 1048576B)/(1MB)
xB = (1.44 × 1048576B)/1
x B=1509949.44B
Therefore 1.44MB = 1509949.44B
Example 5
Two storage devices have capacities of 2KB and 2MB respectively:
i. Calculate the number of bits each can hold
ii. putting the two storage together, calculate the total capacity in bytes
Solution
2 KB to bits
Let the unknown bits be x
2KB = xbits
but 1KB = 8 × 1024bits
1KB = 8192bits
cross multiply
xbits × 1KB = 2KB × 8192bits
Divide both sides by 1 kb
(xbits × 1KB)/(1KB) = (2KB × 8102bits)/(1KB)
xbits = 16384bits
2KB = 16384bits

2 MB to bits
Let the unknown bits be y
2MB = ybits
but 1MB = 8 × 1024 × 1024bits
1MB = 8388608bits
cross multiply
ybits × 1MB =2MB × 8388608bits
Divide both sides by 1MB
(ybits × 1MB)/(1MB) = (2MB × 8388608bits)/(1MB)
ybits=16777216bits
2MB = 16777216bits

ii. Putting the two storages together

(16384 + 16777216)bits= 16793600bits
Next is to convert 16793600bits to bytes
Let the unknown bytes be z
16793600bits = zbytes
but 8bits = 1bytes
cross multiply
zbytes × 8bits = 16793600bits × 1bytes
Divide both sides by 8 bytes
(z bytes × 8 bits)/(8 bits) =(16793600 bits× 1 bytes)/(8bits)
z bytes=2099200 bytes
Therefore the two storage capacity in bytes is 2099200 bytes
Topic: Logic Circuit I (Standard Single Logic Gate)

Definitions of Logic Gate

1. A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit.
2. It is also defined as an electrical circuit, that performs one or more logical operations on
one or more input signals.
3. Logic gates are devices that implement Boolean functions, i.e. it does a logic operation on
one or more bits of input and give a bit as an output.
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in
one of the two binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels.
In most logic gates, the low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is
approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
Types of Standard Single Logic gate
There are three types of standard single logic gates. They are:
1. AND gate
2. OR gate
3. NOT gate
AND gate`
An AND gate will give a high output only if all of the inputs are high. For example, in a
simple lighting circuit with two switches in series, the lamp will light only if both switches
are pressed.
Logic Symbol for AND gate

Truth Table of the AND gate

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B C
o o o
o 1 o
1 o o

1 1 1

OR Gate
An OR gate is a digital logic gate that gives an output of 1 when any of its inputs are 1,
otherwise 0.
Logic Symbol for OR Gate
Truth Table of the OR Gate

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B C
o o o
o 1 1
1 o 1
1 1 1

A NOT gate is often called an inverter. A NOT gate is slightly different because it has just
one input. It will give a high output if the input is low and vice versa.
Logic Symbol for NOT Gate

Truth Table of the NOT gate

INPUT OUTPUT
A C
0 1
1 0

Logic Equations
Aside from representing the function of a logic gate with a truth table and grammatical
definition, the use of logic equations can be used to represent logic gates and circuits.
The AND gate Equation
The AND gate operation can be expressed by a Boolean algebra equation. For a 2-input AND
gate, the equation is:
X=A.B
The symbol for the AND operation is a centre dot (.). It does not mean multiplication. The
expression reads ‘X’ equal to A and B.
The OR Gate Equation
The OR gate operation can also be expressed by a Boolean algebra equation. For a 2-input
OR gate, the equation is:
X= A+B
The symbol for the OR operation is a +. It does not mean addition. The expression reads X
equal to A or B.
NOT Gate Equation
The NOT gate operation can also be expressed by a Boolean algebra equation
X= Ā
A complement bar (also called an over bar) is placed over the assigned input letter. The
expression reads ‘X’ is equal to not ‘A’.

Topic: Logic Circuit II (Alternative Logic Gate)

Definition of Alternative Logic Gate
Alternative logic gates are those that are the combination of two logic gates.
Types of Alternative Logic Gates
There are generally two types
1. NAND gate
2. NOR gate
NAND Gate
NAND gate is the combination of both an AND gate and a NOT gate. It operates the same as
an AND gate but the output will be the opposite.
Logic Symbol for the NAND Gate

Truth Table for NAND Gate

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B C
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NAND Gate Equation
The NAND gate equation can also be expressed by a Boolean algebra equation.
For 2 input NAND gate the equation is:

The expression is the same as the AND gate with an over bar above the entire portion of the
equation representing the input. This equation reads X equals A and B NOT.
NOR Gate
The NOR gate is the combination of both OR gate and a NOT gate. It operates the same as an
OR gate, but the output will be the opposite.
Logic symbol for the NOR gate

Truth Table for the NOR Gate

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B C
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

NOR Gate Equation

The NOR gate operation can also be expressed by a Boolean algebra equation. For a 2-input
NOR gate the equation is:

The expression reads X equals to A or B NOT.

Uses of Logic Gates
Logic gates can be used to:
i. build digital circuit
ii. design complex ICs
iii. construct a simple alarm
iv. control traffic light
XOR (Exclusive-OR) gate
The XOR gate acts in the same way as the logical either/or. The output is true if either, but
not both, of the input, is true. Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe that the
output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the input are the same.
Logic Symbol for the NOR Gate

Truth Table for the XOR Gate

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XOR Equation

Or

XOR as a Simple Comparator

The XOR gate can be used to construct a Simple Comparator. A comparator is a
combinational logic circuit that compares the magnitudes of two binary quantities to
determine which one has the greater magnitude. XOR can the used as a basic comparator.
Topic: Computer Data Conversion
Class: SSS Two
Definition of Terms
Data Conversion
Data conversion is the transformation of computer data from one format to another.
Registers
Registers are temporary storage areas for instruction or data.
It can also be defined as a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU.
Registers are not part of the memory; but rather, they are additional storage locations that
offer the advantage of speed. Register works under the direction of the control unit to accept,
hold and transfer instruction or data and perform arithmetic or logical comparison at high
speed. Registers are the fastest memory available for use in the PC because they are hard-
wired right into the processor logic.
Address
A memory address is an identifier for a memory location at which a computer program or a
hardware device can store data and later receive it.
Bus
A bus is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits, etc.) which can be shared by
multiple hardware components to communicate with one another. The purpose of buses is to
reduce the number of "pathways" needed for communication between components, by
carrying out all communications over a single data channel. This is why the metaphor of a
"data highway" is sometimes used. If only two hardware components communicate over the
line, it is called a hardware port (such as a serial port or parallel port).
A bus is characterized by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This
amount, expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data are
sent simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. The term,
"width" refers to the number of bits a bus can transmit at once. In addition, the bus speed is
also defined by its frequency (expressed in Hertz), the number of data packets sent or
received per second. Each time that data is sent or received is called a cycle. This way, it is
possible to find the maximum transfer speed of the bus, the amount of data which it can
transport per unit of time, by multiplying its width by its frequency.
Example: What is the speed of a bus with a width of 16 bits and a frequency of 133 MHz?
Solution
Types of Computer Buses
Internal Bus: The internal bus (sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short). The
internal bus allows the processor to communicate with the system's central memory (the
RAM).
Expansion Bus: The expansion bus (sometimes called the input/output bus) allows various
motherboard components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors,
hard drives, CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with one another. However,
it is mainly used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to the
input/output
Address bus: carries memory addresses from the processor to other components such as
primary storage and input/output devices. The address bus is unidirectional, that is, data only
move in one direction.
Data bus: carries the data between the processor and other components. The data bus is
bidirectional, that is, data can move in two directions (to and fro simultaneously)
Control bus: carries control signals from the processor to other components. The control bus
also carries the clock's pulses. The control bus is unidirectional, that is, data only move in one
direction.
Types of Register and their Functions
There are many types of registers; some of them are examined below:
Memory Data Register (MDR): This register contains the data to be stored in the computer
storage or the data after a fetch from the computer storage.
Current Instruction Register (CIR): CIR stores the instruction currently being executed or
decoded.
Memory Address Register (MAR): MAR holds the memory address of data and instruction.
Program Counter (PC): PC is commonly called instruction pointer (IP) and sometimes
called instruction address register. It is a register that holds the address of the memory
location of the next instruction when the current instruction is executed by the
microprocessor.
Accumulator Register: This register is used for storing the results that are produced by the
system.
Functions of Registers
Functions of the registers are:
i.Registers hold the address of memory where the CPU wants to read or write data
ii. They hold the contents of data instruction read from or written in memory
iii.They are used to specify the address of a particular I/O device
iv. Registers are used for exchanging data between the I/O module and the processor
v. They store current instructions being executed or coded
vi. Registers allow the bits of its content to be moved to left or right (shift register)
vii.They hold the memory addresses of data and instructions during the execution phase
viii. Registers store the result produced by the system
Differences between Registers and Main Memory
Register Main Memory
Registers are located inside the processor Main memory is located outside the processor
They are very fast They are slow
They are small in capacity They are large in capacity

Fetch-Execute Cycle
The fetch-execute cycle is the sequence the computer follows to transform data from one
format to another.
The steps in the processing cycle are as follows:
Fetch the next instruction: The program counter contains the address of the next instruction
to be executed; the control unit goes to the address in the memory specified in the program
counter, makes a copy of the contents and places the copy in the instruction register.
Decode the Instruction: To execute the instruction in the instruction register, the control unit
has to determine what the instruction is.
Get Data If Needed: It may be that the instruction to be executed requires additional
memory accesses to complete its task. If this is the case, the control unit must get the content
of the memory location.
Execute the Instruction: Once an instruction has been decoded and any data fetched, the
control unit is ready to execute the instruction. Execution involves sending signals to the
arithmetic/logic unit to carry out the processing. When the execution is complete, the cycle
begins again.
Fetch-Execute Cycle Flow Diagram
Factors Affecting the Speed of Data Transfer
i. The amount of RAM: The larger the size of the computer RAM the faster the speed of
data transfer and vice versa.
ii. The speed and generation of your CPU (the system clock): The speed of the computer
is measured in Hertz (Hz) which is the number of tasks it can process per second. A computer
with a specification 2GHz can process 2 billion tasks in one second. This implies that the
faster the speed of the computer the faster the speed of data transfer.
iii. The size of the Register on your CPU: The speed of data transfer will be faster if the
size of the register is also large and vice versa.
iv. The Bus width: The larger the width of a bus, the faster the number of bits that bus can
transmit at once.
v. The Bus speed: High bus speed will favour faster speed of data transfers
vi. The amount of Cache memory: Cache memory is a temporary memory that holds
frequently accessed data and instructions for faster and more efficient processing by the CPU.
The higher the size of cache memory the faster the speed of data transfer. The downside of
the cache memory is that it trades off capacity for speed.