The interaction of radiation

with matter

Myroslav Kavatsyuk
KVI – Center for Advanced Radiation Technology
[email protected]
 Radiation categories

charged particles neutral particles

heavy charged particles high-energy photons

fast electrons neutrons

neutrinos

“Coulomb”
“easily stopped” transfe
r

2
 Nomenclature high-energy photons

• high-energy photons = energy higher than ionisation

energies, so roughly >1 keV (<1 nm)
• in principle:
• X-rays: atomic transitions
• up to ~115 keV for uranium
• -rays: nuclear transitions
• from few eV to many MeV
• other sources of high-energy photons
• bremsstrahlung
• synchrotron radiation
• annihilation radiation
• to keep things simple: “-rays”

3
High-energy photons: 3 major interactions

• photo-electric effect
• Compton scattering
• pair production

1921 1927
Nobel prizes in physics

Arthur H. Compton
4
 Attenuation of gamma rays (1/2)

0 x

I0 I(x)

dx
dI dI(x)
all-or-nothing processes: ∝µI   I(x)
dx dx
: linear attenuation coefficient

I(x)  I0 e x

5
 Attenuation of gamma rays (2/2)

mean free path mass attenuation coefficient



x e -x dx 
1  
 0
 
 

e -x dx
0

half-thickness compound or mixture

x
 ln 2  
I(x)  I 0 e d1/2
() =∑ wi
ρ c i ρ () i

ln2  g  wi: weight fraction of element i

d 1/ 2  cm or 2 
  cm 

6
 Interaction cross section
target, n atoms/cm3

beam, I

number of “interactions” proportional with: N [/s]

– beam intensity I [/s]
– number of “reaction partners” encountered n t (t’) [/cm2]

N =  I t’

= cross section [cm2]

1 barn (b) = 10-24 cm2
7
 Photo-electric effect


E e
E

• interaction with whole atom

• K-electron most probable
• energy deposition:
– E e  E   E b (Eb: electron binding energy)  EEb
– electron cloud is “rearranged”:
• X-rays
• Auger electrons
– photo-electron preferentially emitted in a forward direction

8
 Photo-electric cross section in lead

absorption edges

K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, 1 st Edition

9
 Compton scattering (1/2)

e-
E
E 
E
E
1
m 0c 2  1  cos 

E m0c2 : electron rest mass (511 keV)

 : scattering angle

10
 Compton scattering (2/2)

angular distribution: Klein-Nishina formula

E
 2 re: classical electron radius = 2.82 x 10-13 cm
m0c

11
Compton scattering

12
Compton scattering

J. Kantele, Handbook of Nuclear Spectroscopy

13
Compton scattering

J. Kantele, Handbook of Nuclear Spectroscopy

14
Pair production
• nucleus for momentum conservation
• requires E > 2 m0c2 = 1022 keV
• kinetic energy (e– + e+) = E - 1022 keV
• e+ annihilates with an electron
– two 511 keV annihilation photons
– emitted back-to-back

15
 Dependence on atomic number and energy

type of interaction attenuation coefficient comment

dominates for low energies

photo-electric effect τ ∝µZ 4 . 5 E -3.
g
5
and heavy elements

dominates from ~0.5 to 5 MeV

Compton scattering  ∝ µ Z E-1
g (for most elements)
(0.1 to 10 MeV)

pair production κ∝µZ 2 ( E g −1022 keV ) E close to 1 MeV

κ∝µZ 2 ln ( E g ) E >> 1 MeV

dominates for high
energies and heavy
elements

Z : atomic
number 16
 Dominant interaction vs. energy and atomic number

Fig. 6-18 Predominating (most probable) interaction versus photon energy for absorbers of
different atomic numbers. Curves were generated using values obtained from reference 2.

Cherry, Sorenson, Phelps, Physics in Nuclear Medicine 4 th Edition 17

 Total -ray attenuation

=τ++κ

K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, 1 st Edition

18
 Half-thickness

J. Kantele, Handbook of Nuclear Spectroscopy

19
 Heavy charged particles

• protons, alpha particles, atomic ions

• primary interaction through Coulomb forces
(only at low energy, nuclear reactions are important for energy loss)

• Coulomb scattering by atomic electrons

– maximum energy transfer (head-on collision)

m: electron mass
M: mass heavy particle

for 10 MeV proton: Emax  20 keV

 energy loss in very many small steps
– Coulomb force has infinite range, so interaction with many electrons
simultaneously
 continuous, gradual, energy loss

20
 Heavy charged particles

• Coulomb interaction leads to:

– electron capture/loss by projectile
– excitation projectile
– excitation and ionisation of target atoms
• basis for detection
• kinetic energy is tranferred to -rays, X-rays, Auger electrons, ...
• many-faceted and complicated process

• paths are essentially straight because

– M >> me
 per interaction a small deflection
– interactions in all directions

K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, 1 st Edition 21

 Stopping power
0 x

E0 E(x)

dx

• stopping power  energy loss per unit of amount of

material
dE  MeV 
S e.g. 
• linear stopping power dx  cm 

dE  MeV 
S e.g. 2

• specific stopping power d(x)  g cm 

22
 Bethe-Bloch formula
Consider particle of charge ze, passing a stationary charge Ze

ze

b y
r
θ
x
Ze

Assume
●
Target is non-relativistic
●
Target does not move
Calculate
●
Energy transferred to target (separate)
 Bethe-Bloch formula

Force on projectile

Zze 2 Zze 2
Fx  cos   cos 
3

4 0 r 2
4 0b 2

Change of momentum of target/projectile

Energy transferred

p 2 Z 2 z 2e4 1
E  
2 M 2 M (2 0 ) (  c) b
2 2 2
 Bethe-Bloch formula
●
Energy transfer is determined by impact parameter b
●
Integration over all impact parameters:

b
db
ze
 Bethe-Bloch formula

Calculate average energy loss

There must be limit for Emin and Emax:

●
All the physics and material dependence is in the calculation of this
quantities
 Bethe-Bloch formula

Simple approximations:
From relativistic kinematics

Inelastic collision

Resulting formula:
 Bethe-Bloch formula

[ ]
2 2
e 2 4 p( ze) n 2 m0 c β
2
dE
− =
( )
dx 4 pe 0 m 0 c 2 β 2
ln
I
−ln ( 1−β 2
) −β 2

incoming particle: : v/c

v: velocity
ze: charge
absorber material: n: electron density (electrons/cm3)
I: average excitation and ionisation potential
~10 Z eV
electron: e: charge
m0: rest mass

28
 Bethe-Bloch formula

[ ]
2 2
e 2 4 p( ze) n 2 m0 c β
2
dE
− =
( )
dx 4 pe 0 m 0 c 2 β 2
ln
I
−ln ( 1−β 2
) −β 2

N Z N: atomic density (atoms/cm3)

n NZ A Z: atomic number
A NA: Avogadro constant
: density (g/cm3)
A: atomic weight

 2m c 2  2 
2 z Z
 
2
dE
  0.31 MeV cm 2 ln 0
 ln 1    
2 2

dx  A  I 

29
 Stopping power dependencies

[ ]
2
e 2 4 p( ze) n 2 m0 v
2
non-relativistic Bethe-Bloch
dE
− =
( )
dx 4 pe 0 m0 v 2
ln
I

dE z2 n
[...] changes slowly − ∝µ 2
dx v

dE 1 1
different energy − ∝µ 2 ∝µ
dx v E

different particle dE
− ∝µz 2
(same velocity) dx

dE
different material − ∝µn
dx

30
 Bragg-Kleeman rule

stopping power per atom of compounds/mixtures is additive

( )
1 dE
=∑ W i
N c dx c i ( )
1 dE
N i dx i
Nc, Ni: atomic density of compound, component
Wi: atomic fraction of component i

31
Stopping power example #1
protons in aluminum

n s
o
i ns
g
in ctro
v
o le
m
- ee
w r
slo ptu
ca

32
 Stopping power example #2
G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3 rd Edition

about same energy loss minima

 minimum ionizing particle
~2 MeV/(g/cm2) in light materials

33
 The Bragg peak

stopping power vs. distance travelled

basis for hadron (e.g. proton) therapy

34
Photon vs. proton radiation therapy

35
 Range of a charged particle

 distance travelled before

stopping
0 −1
R=∫
E0
( )
−
dE
dx
dE

range

charged particle track

projected range

of more practical use: projected range

(= “range”)

36
 Electrons

electron mass is small

 Coulomb interaction causes:
• large relative energy loss per interaction
• large deviations in path
 large accelerations cause energy loss
due to electromagnetic radiation: bremsstrahlung
 distance travelled >> projected range
 backscattering (low E and high Z)

G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3 rd Edition

37
 Electron energy loss

dE dE
= ( )( )
+
dE
dx dx c dx r
c: collisional
r: radiative

−( ) ( )
dE
=
e 2 2 p e2 n
dx c 4 pe 0 m 0 c 2 β 2
ln
[ m0 v 2 E
2
2 I (1−β ) 2
−( ln 2) ( 2 √ 1−β 2
−1+ β 2
) +(1−β 2
)+
1
8
( 1− √ 1−β 2 2
)
]
[ ]
2
−( ) ( )
dE
=
e 2 e n ( Z+1) E
dx r 4 pe 0 137 m20 c 4
4 ln
2E
−
m0 c 2 3
4

(dE dx) r E[ MeV] Z


(dE dx) c 700

38
Electron collisional vs. radiative energy loss

K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, 1 st Edition 39

Electron stopping power

minimum ionizing particle:

~0.5 to ~5 MeV: 1-2 MeV/(g/cm2)

J. Kantele, Handbook of Nuclear Spectroscopy 40

 Stopping high-energy electrons
Interactions of a high-energy electron includes:
●
Energy loss due to bremsstrahlung (extra photon is created):

Radiation length mean distance over which the electron energy is

reduced to 1/e of its original value due to radiation loss only

●
Generated photons have high energy → will be converted into e +e- pairs
Shower of particles will be generated:
EM shower
 Stopping high-energy electrons
Interactions of a high-energy electron includes:
●
Energy loss due to bremsstrahlung (extra photon is created):

Radiation length mean distance over which the electron energy is

reduced to 1/e of its original value due to radiation loss only

The mean free path of a high energy photon for pair production is 9/7
of a radiation length

The Moliere radius is a good scaling variable for describing the

transverse dimension of an electromagnetic shower

X0 – characteristic scale to calculate dimensions of a detector

 Straggling
energy loss is a stochastic process
 energy straggling
 range straggling
 angular straggling

range

J. Kantele, Handbook of Nuclear Spectroscopy 43

Range example: hydrogen, helium ions

K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, 1 st Edition 44

 Electron range: examples

G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection

and Measurement, 3rd Edition

45
 Electron range: examples
K.S. Krane, Introductory
Nuclear Physics, 1st Edition

46
 Cherenkov radiation (1/2)
• a charged particle travelling faster than the speed of light in a
medium emits light, so-called Cherenkov radiation
c v  n1
v  n: refractive index
n c

• energy threshold

( √
E th =m0 c 2 −1+ 1+
1
n2 −1 ) m0c2: electron rest mass

47
 Cherenkov threshold energy
G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection
and Measurement, 3rd Edition

48
 Cherenkov radiation (2/2)
• Cherenkov photons are emitted under a fixed angle

1
cos  =
n Photograph of a super-
sonic jet air-plane

• yield per unit wavelength  1/2

(breaks down at short  as n1) NASA

49
 Cherenkov light yield
d2N 1 1
 370 z 2 sin 2(E) ze: charge of particle
dE dx eV cm
G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection
and Measurement, 3rd Edition

50
 Cherenkov radiation: example

spent nuclear fuel under water at the La Hague reprocessing plant

51
 Neutrons

• no Coulomb interaction, only strong interaction

• short range & atomic nucleus is small:
 interaction probability << than charged particles/photons (~108)

• as the result of an interaction:

– neutron disappears, creating secondary radiation
• mostly heavy charged particles (p,d,t,) (basis for detection)
– scattering in which energy and direction are significantly changed
• can give rise to recoil nuclei (basis for detection)
 attenuation of a collimated beam is exponential

52
 Neutrons

type of interaction depends mostly on the neutron energy

– fast neutrons (> ~0.5 eV)

• elastic scattering (most effective on light nuclei), gives recoil nuclei
• inelastic scattering, gives recoil nuclei
• scattering results in neutron energy loss (neutron is moderated)
• neutron capture (resulting in the emission of charges particles (p,d,t,))
– resonant

– slow neutrons
• elastic scattering
– small energy loss, so no good for detection, but thermalizes neutrons
(~25 meV at room temperature)
• eventually captured by nucleus followed by gamma ray: (n,)
– most effectively by B, Cd, In, Gd

53
 Neutrinos

• no electromagnetic or strong interaction, only weak interaction

 very small interaction probability
e.g. cross section ~ 10-43 cm2
1 cm3 of material contains ~1024 protons
interaction probability ~10-43 x 1024 ~ 10-19 /cm
1019 cm (10 light-years) required for a good capture probability

• neutrino interaction results in secondary radiation,

which is then detected

• interaction possibilities and probabilities are different for the

3 neutrino flavours: electron-, muon-, and tau-neutrino

54
 Neutrino detection schemes
• inverse beta-decay
– detect e+ (annihilation) and/or Y (radiochemical detection)

• neutrino capture by a nucleus (Homestake experiment)

– detection of 37Ar

• water-Cherenkov detection: scattering off electrons

– all neutrino flavours but with different cross sections
– detected via Cerenkov radiation from the scattered electrons (E > 5 MeV)
– Cherenkov cone tells incoming direction and particle type
– e.g. (Super)-Kamiokande

• heavy water: 3 options, all 3 neutrino flavours can be distinguished

– scattering off electrons (all 3 flavours, different cross sections)
 e + d  p + p + e– detect e– via Cherenkov, only e
 +d+n+p deuteron break-up, detect neutron, all 3 flavors,
same cross section
– e.g. SNO (Sudbury Neutrino Observatory)
55
 Super-Kamiokande
• 1 000 m underground
• 41.4 m tall, 39.3 m diameter
• 50 000 tonnes ultra-pure water
• 11 146 20” and 1 885 8” photomultiplier tubes

56
 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory

• 2 km underground
•1000t onnesofheavywat er
•6- metreradiusacryli
cvessel
•9600phot omul t
ipli
ertubes

57