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BIO102: GENERAL BIOLOGY II

MODULE 4: KINGDOM ANIMALIA/METAZOA

This kingdom houses all multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic
(depend on other organisms for food) and commonly referred to as animals.
General Characteristics
1. Animals are made up of multiple eukaryotic cells that form tissues, organs and
systems.
2. They can not manufacture food, thus, depend on other organisms for food.
3. Most animals can move from one place to another in search of food, shelter or to
avoid predation.
4. Reproduction varies among animals and may be either sexually or asexually.
5. They have specialized cells and tissues that perform specific functions (e.g.
nervous, circulatory, digestive, etc.).
6. Their cells lack cell walls
7. They exhibit a fixed growth pattern that often involves embryonic stages.
8. Animals have adapted certain features for survival which include camouflage
(e.g. chameleon), migration (e.g. birds) and bioluminescence (in deep-sea
organisms).
9. The kingdom is categorized into two sub-kingdoms Parazoa and Eumetazoa
based on possession of tissues and as well grouped as invertebrates and
vertebrates based on possession of vetebral column (back bone). Invertebrates
comprises of nine (9) phyla porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, nematoda,
nemertea, annelida, arthropoda, mollusca and echinodermata, while vertebrates
have one phylum.
Sub-kingdom: Parazoa (lack true tissues)
This sub-kingdom is made up of the simplest multicellular animals that lack true tissues
and organs. It has only one phylum, porifera.

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Phylum: Porifera (Sponges)

 These are sessile aquatic animals that are mostly marine (i.e. in oceans and seas),
but also fresh water (e.g. in lakes).
 They are usually colonial, i.e. they live together in groups and are dependent upon
each other, and are thus usually described as “cell-aggregates”.
 Sponges are the simplest and most primitive of animals.
 Their body is asymmetrical (i.e. irregular) and vase-shaped, with an internal
cavity and a single opening at the top. There is no digestive cavity and no mouth.
 The body wall consists of two layers of cells (i.e. diploblastic) and is perforated by
small pores. The body is also supported by a skeleton of spicules (small, sharp-
pointed skeletal elements) made of silica or calcium carbonate or fibre of spongin
(a structure of inter-connecting, coarse, collagen fibres).
 The gastric cavity/spongocoel (i.e. the inside of the body cavity) is lined by
flagellated collar cells. These collar cells beat their flagella to create water currents
that move water and food into and out of the sponge, through the small pores. In
this way the sponge is able to feed by filtering food present in the water current.
 Although sponges have some specialized cells, these cells are not arranged into
specific tissues or organs (i.e. sponges have no specific tissues or organs). Thus, a
sponge has no nervous system or brain to coordinate activities.
 Sponges reproduce both asexually, by budding or branching or gemmules; or
sexually, and are mostly hermaphroditic.
 Sponges lack complexity, but their body plan is ecologically and evolutionarily
successful.
 They provide habitats for various marine organisms and also have symbiotic
relationships with algae or bacteria.
 They are very vital in cleaning of aquatic ecosystems through water filtration.
 They have 3 major types of body construction; Asconoid, Syconoid and Leuconoid.

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 There are four (4) classes

 Calcarea (calcerous sponges having spicules) e.g Leucosolenia.
 Demospongiae (horn sponges, like bath sponges) e.g Spongilla.
 Scleropongiae (tropical reef sponges) e.g Merlia.
 Hexactinellida (glass sponges) e.g Hexasterophora.
Sub-kingdom: Eumetazoa (have true tissues)
This encompasses all other animals with more complex body structures, such as tissues
and organs. It has nine phyla which are grouped as either Radiata (animals with radial
symmetry) or Bilateria (animals with bilateral symmetry).
Phylum: Coelenterata/Cnidaria (i.e. Coelenterates/Cnidarians)
 These are all aquatic animals, mostly marine, with few freshwater species.
 They may be sessile or free-swimming, and are often colonial.
 They are diploblastic, radially symmetrical and the possession of true tissues,
i.e. they have specialized nerve, muscle and digestive tissues.
 They have a single internal body cavity (coelenteron), with only one opening to
the exterior that functions in transport and digestion.
 There is a ring of tentacles surrounding the mouth.
 Polymorphism is common (individuals of a species can exist in various body
forms), i.e. existing as either;
i. Hydroid Polyp, which has a cylindrical body and is sedentary (sessile),
usually attached to surfaces such as rocks, with the single opening (oral
end) directed upward.

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ii. Umbrella-shaped Medusa that is free-swimming or floating, with the

convex side upward and the mouth located in the center of the
undersurface.
 Some coelenterates exhibit only the polyp form, some only the medusoid form,
while others pass through both in their life cycle (i.e. there is alternation of
generations).
 Coelenterates reproduce asexually by budding, or sexually; and individuals may be
hermaphrodite, as in hydra, or may have separate male and female individuals, as
in jellyfish.
 Representative members of this phylum include Hydra, Obelia, Actinia (sea
anemones), Aurelia (jelly fish) and coral polyps.

Polymorphism in Cnidarians Alternation of generation in Cnidarians (Obelia species)

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

 The platyhelminthes, show some advancement over the coelenterates and
poriferans. They possess a triploblastic, acoelomate and bilateral symmetrical
body with definite polarity of anterior and posterior ends.
 The range in size from a millimeter or less to some of the tapeworms that are many
meters in length. Their flattened bodies may be slender, broadly leaf-like or long
and ribbon-like. The flatworms have both free-living and parasitic forms.
 Body unsegmented and flattened dorso-ventrally; oral and genital apertures
mostly on ventral surface.
 Digestive system may be incomplete (anus absent) or even absent in some.
 A simple nervous system consisting of a pair of anterior ganglia.
 Simple sense organs; eyespot in some.
 Absence of respiratory, circulatory and skeletal systems.
 They are hermaphroditic, but rarely undergo self-fertilization.
 Excretory system consisting of two lateral canals with branches bearing flame
cells (Protonephridia). NB: Protonephridium is a type of Nephridium (an organ
concerned with excretion and the regulation of the water content of the body in
invertebrates).
 There are three main classes: Turbellaria, Trematoda, and Cestoda.
 Members of class Tubellaria are mostly free living; classes Monogenea, Trematoda
and Cestoda are entirely parasitic.
Diversity of Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
Characteristics Turbellaria Trematoda Cestoda

1. Named Planaria dugesia Fasciola species (Liver Taenia species

Example flukes) (Tapeworms)

Schistosoma species

2. Mode of life Free living, aquatic Parasitic in vertebrates. Endoparasitic in

vertebrate hosts

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3. Epidermis No cuticle. Thick cuticle replaces Thick cuticle replaces

Epidermis ciliated. epidermis with no cilia. epidermis with no cilia or
spines.
Spines often present.

4. Rhabdites Present. Absent Absent

Produce mucus.

5. Locomotion Active locomotion; Feeble locomotion; Very feeble movements;

No ciliated epidermis.
Cilia and Muscles No ciliated epidermis.
well developed. Muscles relatively poorly Muscles poorly
developed. developed.

6. Gut Eversible pharynx Much branched gut; Gut lacking; Food

present. Gut absorbed by body wall
Pharynx non-eversible.
usually much microvilli.
branched.

7. Suckers and No Suckers Two suckers, oral and Many suckers and hooks
Hooks ventral on scolex.
No hooks

8. Proglottides Absent Absent Body usually strobilated;

Proglottides are present.

9. Sense organs Eyes and Chemo- Poorly developed Poorly developed

receptors present

10. a. Development Usually direct. Complex larval stages Complex larval stages

b. Life cycle Simple Involves a Molluscan Involves a vertebrate host

intermediate host

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Planaria Species Fasciola Species (Liver flukes)

Taenia Species (Tapeworms) Head & Proglotid Region of Taenia Species

Phylum: Nemertea (Ribbon worms/Proboscis worms)

 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical with a fluid filled body cavity
called Rhynchocoel.
 Their body is unsegmented, flattened dorso-ventrally, larger and elongated
being drab or brightly coloured.
 They are widely distributed in various habitats and range in size from few
millimeters to meters (some may reach 30 meters in length).
 Excrete by means of Photonepridia and respire through body surface.
 Have a simple circulatory system with vessels walled by Lacunae to enable blood
(colourless), nutrients, gases, secretions and wastes circulation, and as well
regulate hydrostatic pressure.

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 Central nervous system consist of complex cerebral ganglion with four connected
lobes (brain), which give rise to a pair of longitudinal gangliated nerve cords from
the ventral lobe.
 Reproduce sexually, have separate sexes with freshwater species being
hermaphroditic. Fertilization maybe internal or external.
 Feed using a unique structure called Proboscis, which is used for locomotion and
capturing prey.
 They are mostly free-living with some being parasitic or commensals of other
organisms.
 Divided into two classes:
o Anopla (unarmed) : possess proboscis with no stylet, mouth is situated
underneath and behind brain (e.g. Gorgonorhynchus repens).
o Enopla (armed): all have stylet except Bdellonemertea, mouth is
underneath and infront/ahead of the brain (e.g. Amphiporus ochraceus).

Structure of a Nemertean Species A Nemertean Species

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Phylum: Nematoda (Round worms)

 These are referred to as round worms because they have uniformly
cylindrical/round bodies that are elongated and have tapering at both ends.
 They are non-segmented, triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical.
 They have a complete digestive tract (gut), with a mouth at one end and an anus at
the other.
 They also have a pseudocoelom, i.e. a false body cavity, which is like a second
body cavity besides the gut; it occupies a space between the mesoderm of the body
wall and the endoderm of the gut. Thus, they are referred to as being
pseudocoelomate.
 The whole body is covered by a thick, tough cuticle, which may have ridges or
spines.
 The body wall has four bands of longitudinal muscles, with no circular muscles.
 They have no blood-vascular system, but exhibit diffusion.
 The possess a primitive central nervous system.
 They reproduce sexually, with the sexes being separate.
 They are found in a great variety of habitats both aquatic and terrestrial; thus, they
are ubiquitous (everywhere).
 They are mostly free-living, but some are parasitic. Free-living forms are usually
minute and occur in soil, bottom of lakes, rivers, seas and in rotting materials.
Parasitic forms are usually larger and occur as internal parasites in almost all
plants and animals.
 Examples include Ascaris, Guinea worm, hookworms, filarial worms, and thread
worms.

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Structure of a Nematode

Phylum: Rotifera (Wheel Animalcules)

 These are the most common fresh water metazoans.
 They are mostly microscopic, about the same size as many protozoans; the largest
individuals reach 3mm in length.
 They are mostly free-living, but few are parasitic; the free-living forms are mostly
solitary and free-moving, but some are sessile and some colonial.
 They are triploblastic, acoelomate, and non-segmented.
 There is a pseudocoelom between the body wall and gut.
 The body is composed of a constant number of cells which lack cell membranes, i.e.
body is a Syncytium.
 The body is usually divided into head, trunk, and foot; and is always covered by a
cuticle, which may be ornamented.
 They have a crown of cilia at the head end, which is used for locomotion
(swimming); or they may crawl across a substrate by muscular movements. Most
are benthic (i.e. occurring on the bottom of the water bodies, attached to, or
resting on sediments).
 A complete alimentary canal is present, i.e. with mouth and anus; they also have a
muscular pharynx, with teeth for grinding.
 They have the nephridial excretory system, with flame cells; a bladder is also
present.
 There is no blood circulatory system.

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 All (except Bdelloida) reproduce sexually; sexes are separate. Parthenogenesis

(the development of an individual from an egg without that egg undergoing
fertilization) also occurs in some species.
 Example is Philodina.

Structure of a Rotifer A Rotifer Species

Phylum: Annelida
 The phylum is known for exhibition of body metamerism and specialization of the
head region into differentiated organs, such as tentacles, palps and eyespots.
 Annelids are the most highly organized animals capable of complex regeneration.
 They consists of the segmented worms. It is a large phylum, numbering  9000
species, the most familiar of which are the earthworms and freshwater worms
(oligochaetes) and the leeches (hirudineans). However  2/3 of the phylum is
composed of the marine worms (polychaetes), which are less familiar to most
people.
 Annelids are triploblastic, metamerically segmented and bilaterally symmetrical
coelomates, that are usually septate (i.e. having cross-walls or septa).
 Body wall with outer circular and inner longitudinal muscle layers of a thin cuticle,
chitinous setae often present (absent in leeches).
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 They lack jointed appendages.

 Blood system (circulatory system) closed and segmentally arranged.
 Digestive system complete (with mouth and anus).
 Excretory organs are paired metamerically segmented nephridia.
 Central nervous system consists of a dorsal brain (a pair of cerebral ganglia) and a
double solid, ventral ganglionated nerve cord.
 Sensory system well developed.
 They may be Hermaphroditic or have separate sexes.
 Larva if present is a trochophore.
 Members are typically free-living. Some are marine, some are fresh water; a few
are terrestrial.

Diversity of Annelids

Characteristics Class: Polchaeta Class: Oligo-Chaeta Class: Hirudinea

1. Named Example Nereis species (Ragworm), Libyodrilus species, Hirudo species (Leech)
Arenicola species, Mercierella Lumbricus terrestris
species (tube-worm)
(Earthworm)

2. Habitat Marine Damp soil Damp soil and

Fresh water Fresh water/marine Fresh water

3. Mode of life Free-living. Free-living. Ectoparasites of

vertebrates. Swimming
Locomotion Locomotion by lateral Locomotion by waves of by vertical undulation.
undulations of the body. thinning and extension. Movement on land by
looping.

4. Head Distinct head with Indistinct head; no eyes. Indistinct head; eyes
appendages and eyes usually present
present

5. Setae Many chaetae hence name Few small chaetae No chaetae

6. Parapodia Present Absent Absent

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7. Clitellum Absent (no cocoon) Present. Copulation & cross Present. Copulation &
fertilization in cocoon. cross fertilization in
Fertilization External cocoon.

8. Suckers No suckers No suckers Two suckers, anterior

and posterior.

9. Body segments External segmentation External segments Definite in number

corresponds with inner septa. correspond with inner septa. (34) subdivided by
Number indefinite. Number indefinite. annuli.

1 Sex and Gonads Sexes separate. Most Hermaphrodites; Gonads Hermaphrodites;

0. segments bear gonads. confined to few genital Gonads confined to few
segments. genital segments.

1 Larva Indirect. Trochophore present Direct development. No Direct development. No

1. (Development) larval stage. larval stage.

1 Coelom Spacious and septate Spacious and septate Non septate; occluded
2. by botryoidal tissue.
Body almost solid.

Diagrammatic Representation of Annelids

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Phylum: Arthropoda
 This is the largest and most successful phylum in the animal kingdom, containing
¾ of all known species of animals. Arthropods range in size from tiny water-fleas
to the giant crabs which may measure 3.5m from claw to claw with limbs
outstretched.
 They are diverse and extremely widespread, occurring in a wide range of habitats,
including the arctic ice, deserts, the deep ocean, ponds, the mountains, and the
skies; thus, they are ubiquitous (i.e. almost anywhere).
 They contribute greatly to the ecosystem as they serve as ectoparasites of
vertebrates, disease vectors, agents of pollination, destructors of buildings and
properties, agricultural pests, etc.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, metamerically segmented
coelomates that may be free-living, parasitic or sedentary.
 Metameric body is divided into three sections, basically consisting of head,
thorax, and abdomen. However, the body form varies between arthropod
groups, each having its characteristic type. For example, many crustaceans
have a cephalothorax and abdomen, while in arachnida, no clearly
marked thoracic region is recognizable; instead, they have a prosoma and
opisthosoma. NB: Metameric segmentation is the division of an animal’s
body (except at the head region) into a number of compartments (segments
or metameres) each containing the same organs.

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 Chitinous, jointed exoskeleton present (i.e. the body is enclosed within

hard, rigid exoskeleton, made of chitin); therefore ecdysis (i.e. moulting)
occurs during growth.
 Compound eyes may be present; these are unique to arthropods.
 Muscles are principally of the striated fibre type (for rapid actions).
 Each segment typically bears a pair of jointed appendages (but number
often reduced); appendages often modified for specialized functions e.g. for
locomotion or feeding or sensory purposes. NB: The name Arthropoda
means jointed legs.
 Coelom much reduced in adult; most of body cavity consisting of
haemocoel (sinuses, or spaces, in the tissues) filled with blood. Inter-
segmental septa are lacking.
 Circulatory system is open, with dorsal, tubular, contractile heart,
dorsally situated in haemocoel (i.e. the body cavity of arthropods and
molluscs, which is filled with blood).
 Complete digestive system; mouthparts modified from appendages and adapted
for different methods of feeding. The alimentary canal is lined with cuticle; anus is
terminal.
 Respiration is carried out in different ways by the various groups of
arthropods:
 Insects and Myriapods use small tubes, referred to as tracheae (air tubes).
 Aquatic arthropods use gills or diffusion across the body surface (cuticle).
 Arachnids have book-lungs which are enclosed gills.
 Paired excretory glands called coxal, antennal, or maxillary glands
present in some, homologous to metameric nephridial system of annelids;
some (i.e. terrestrial arthropods) with other specialized excretory organs,
called malphighian tubules.
 Central nervous system is present with a definite brain.

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 Arthropods have eyes which may be simple, and consist of only a few
photoreceptors, or may be compound and may have thousands of receptors
capable of forming a crude image.
 Growth is achieved by periodic moulting (ecdysis) which is controlled by
a complicated interplay between special hormones.
 Sexes usually separate, with paired reproductive organs and ducts; usually
internal fertilization; oviparous or ovoviviparous; often with
metamorphosis, parthenogenesis in some.

 Arthropoda is classified into six groups:

Arthropoda

Onychophora Myriapoda Insecta Trilobita Crustacea Chelicerata

a) Trilobita were a group of marine animals which are now extinct. Their fossils are
common in rocks of the Cambrain and Silurian periods.

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b) Onychophorans are extra-ordinary animals generally considered intermediate

between the arthropods and annelids because they combine annelid and arthropod
features, and are much studied as “evolutionary missing links” (i.e. between the two);
they are thus considered to be phylogenetically close to annelids or arthropods.
Features include regular body segmentation, paired limbs ending in claws,
respiration by tracheae, a haemocoelic body cavity and the general nature of
reproductive system. The Onychophorans are commonly referred to as “velvet
worms” or “walking worms”. Example is Peripatus, a caterpillar-like onychophoran
(velvet worms).

c) Crustaceans are characterized by two pairs of antennae, a pair of mandibles and

at least five pairs of legs, e.g., lobsters, crabs, barnacles, shrimps, copepods (cyclops).

Lobster Shrimp Copepod Barnacle

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d) Myriapods have five-segmented or six-segmented head with a single pair of

antennae. They are divided into 4 groups: Pauropoda, Symphyla, Diplopoda
(millipedes) and Chilopoda (centipedes). The first two have no common names, and
are small arthopods living in soil and other hidden places.

e) Chelicerata (arachnids and relatives) contain animals such as spiders, ticks,

mites and scorpions. They have body divided into 2 parts, the cephalothorax and
abdomen. There are no antennae but a pair of prehensile chelicerae, which serve a
variety of functions. There are 3 closely related classes, which form the components
of the subphylum Chelicerata: Merostomata (king-crab); Pycnogonida (sea-spiders)
and Arachnida (spiders and mites).

Tick Scorpion Mite Spider

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f) Insecta (i.e. Hexapoda) - The group can readily be distinguished from other
arthropods by the division of body into head, thorax and abdomen; presence of 3
pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings.
 Like the Myriapods, they respire by means of tracheae.
 They constitute 90% of all arthropods identified to date.
 The class is split into two sub-classes and 24 orders.
 They possess mandibles for chewing.
 All appendages attach to the thorax.
 Examples are: ants and bees, butterflies and moths, true flies, fleas, beetles,
lice, termites, cockroaches and grasshoppers.

Grasshopper Ant Tsetse-fly

Cockroach Termite Housefly

Phylum: Mollusca
 Molluscs are mostly marine organisms, but also have freshwater and terrestrial species.
 They are triploblastic coelomates, with the coelom is much reduced.
 They have soft, fleshy, unsegmented body, which is divided into:
i. Head, with tentacle and eyes;

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ii. Ventral muscular foot that functions in locomotion; and may be adapted for
crawling, burrowing or swimming; and
iii. A dorsal visceral mass (i.e. body mass) covered by a sheet of soft tissue known
as the Mantle, which secretes a calcareous shell; the shell protects them from
predators, physical damage and drying out. The visceral mass contains the
internal organs consisting of the gut, kidneys, heart, and reproductive organs.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, but asymmetry is common in gastropods (a
group/class of molluscs), due to torsion (i.e. twisting) of the visceral mass.
 They have a well-developed, open blood system; blue pigment (Haemocyanin) may be
present.
 Respiratory organs consist of paired ciliated gills (Ctenidia) that arise as outgrowths
of the mantle wall; or a ‘lung’ in the mantle cavity (which is found between the mantle
and the body mass.
 They reproduce sexually; their sexes are usually separate.
 Mollusca is a very successful phylum with a great number of species, second only to
arthropods.
 They are extremely diverse in form and modes of life; for instance, they live as
predators, herbivores, detritus feeders, parasites, and in other symbiotic relationships
with countless organisms.
 These diverse forms are arranged into seven classes, the three largest of which are:
Gastropoda (Gastropods)
 The gastropods make up the largest group of molluscs.
 They are terrestrial, marine, and freshwater.
 Asymmetrical with large foot and a flat, hard plate, which fills the opening to
the shell when the foot is withdrawn and protects the soft body.
 Have Radula, a chitinous tongue-like structure, with rows of teeth transversely
across its surface, located on the floor of the buccal cavity and used for rasping
(i.e. scraping) food.

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 Anus is anterior.
 Examples Helix species (Garden snail); Limax species (slug).

Bivalvia/Pelycopoda (Bivalves)
 All aquatic, bilaterally symmetrical and mostly sedentary.
 Shell consists of two hinged halves called valves; hence the term bivalve.
 Foot reduced in size and often used for burrowing in sand or mud.
 They have a complex filter-feeding mechanism that involves the use of gills.
 Anus is posterior.
 Examples Mytilus spp. (mussel); Ostrea spp. (oyster).

Cephalopoda (Cephalopods)
 Aquatic, bilaterally symmetrical large and most complex molluscs.
 Shell often reduced.
 Foot adapted for fast swimming; it is also modified to form part of the head and
tentacles, thus the term cephalopods (i.e. “head-footed”).
 Have radula and horny beak.
 Anus is posterior.
 Examples Squid and Octopus.

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Phylum: Echinodermata
 Members of this phylum have spiny skins and are relatively large.
 They are triploblastic coelomates, exclusively marine, slow-moving and benthic.
 The body is unsegmented, with a pentamerous radial symmetry (a five-way radial
symmetry), with five similar body parts arranged around a central core. The larval
stages however, are bilaterally symmetrical.
 They have no head; the mouth is centrally placed at the ventral side of the body.
 They have no brain; the nervous system consists of oral and radial nerve cords.
 There are no excretory organs; Blood system is rudimentary, and gaseous exchange is
by diffusion.
 They have a unique water vascular system; this is a system of interconnecting, fluid-
filled tubes/canals which operates like a hydraulic pump, and serves in movement and
feeding.
 The anus and the opening of the water vascular system is aboral (i.e. on the upper),
opening to the outside on the upper surface of the body.
 Reproduction is sexual; sexes are separate, and fertilization is external.
 Major classes are:
a. Stelleroidea (Starfish): members are star-shaped, flattened with arms not sharply
separated and few calcareous plates in body wall (movable spines).
b. Echinoidea (Sea-urchins): are globular with no arms, but have numerous
calcareous plates in body wall that are relatively long and movable.

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Phylum: Chordata
 Members of this phylum are characterized by the presence of a flexible skeletal rod
composed of highly vacuolated turgid cells enclosed in a tough connective tissue coat
that extends along the length of the animal, dorsal to the gut and ventral to the central
nervous system called the Notochord, at some stage in their development.
 The central nervous system is dorsal and tubular (i.e. a hollow dorsal nerve cord).
 They have paired visceral (pharyngeal) clefts (gill slits) that perforate the lateral walls
of the pharynx at some stage in life history.
 They possess a ventral heart and are metamerically segmented with segmented muscle
blocks on either side of the body.
 Post anal tail is often present.
 They are divided into two subphyla; Protochordata, and Vertebrata.
Sub-phylum: Protochordata
 These are the lower chordates, and are referred to as “invertebrate chordates”,
that is, they have characteristics of both invertebrates and chordates.
 Members of these groups are filter-feeding, marine organisms.
 They have no definite heart, and no kidneys.
 Apart from these characteristics they have little else in common, and sometimes
each class is classified as a separate sub-phylum.
 There are three main classes: Hemichordata (Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus),
Urochordata (Gona) and Cephalochordata (Brachiostoma/amphioxus).

Balanoglossus species Gona species Brachiostoma species

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Subphylum Vertebrata/Craniata
 The majority (95%) of chordates belong to the sub-phylum vertebrata.
 In adult vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by a vertebral column (backbone).
 Vertebrates have a well-developed/advanced CNS, including a large brain
protected by a skull; and a dorsal nerve chord (spinal cord).
 They also possess well-developed sense organs.
 They have a complex heart and circulatory system which is ‘closed’ (i.e. blood is
enclosed within blood vessels).
 Kidneys serve as excretory organs.
 There is an internal skeleton (i.e. endoskeleton) of bone or cartilage.
 The pharyngeal clefts (gill slits) are few in number.
 The bilaterally symmetrical body is divided into a head, trunk and a tail.
 There are one or two pairs appendages (i.e. projections of the body), in the form of
fins or limbs.
 The coelom in vertebrates is large, and contains the vital organs.
 The six main classes are: Pisces, Cyclostomata, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and
Mammalia.
Class: Pisces (Fishes)
 Fishes are the undisputed masters of the aquatic environment, showing
perfect adaptation to aquatic life.
 Paired limbs are pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion.
 Lateral line system (a system of receptors for detecting vibrations) is
well developed.
 Besides an endoskeleton, there is an exoskeleton of placoid or cycloid
scales.
 They lack middle or external ear and are ectothermic (cold-blooded).
 Fishes reveal an extraordinary range of sexual reproductive strategies;
most fishes are oviparous (egg-producing, with external fertilization +

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external development of eggs and embryos). Ovoviviparous and

viviparous fishes also exist.
 With about 21,700 named living species, the fishes out number the four
terrestrial vertebrate classes combined.
 The class is further sub-divided into: Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.
Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fishes)
 Body fusiform (spindle-shaped), with a heterocercal caudal fin;
paired pectoral and pelvic fins, two dorsal median fins; pelvic fins in
male modified for claspers (copulatory organs), fin rays present.
 Endoskeleton entirely cartilaginous while exoskeleton is made of
placoid (tooth-like) scales and mucous glands.
 Respiration by means of 5-7pairs of gills with separate and exposed
gill slits; no operculum except in chimaeras.
 Swim-bladder or lung is absent.
 Sexes separate; eggs produced; internal fertilization.
 Mouth ventral; jaws present.
 Examples: sharks, skates, rays.

Shark Ray
Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes)
 Bony endoskeleton with an exoskeleton of cycloid scales and
mucous glands.
 Mouth terminal; jaws present.
 Respiration by means of 4 pairs of gills; gills covered by operculum.

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 Swim bladders often present.

 Sexes separate; eggs produced; fertilization external.
 Body usually fusiform; with a homocercal tail fin;
 Examples: Mud-fish, salmon, cod, tilapia, sea-horse, perch.

Diagrammatic Representation of Bony fish

Class: Cyclostomata (Jawless Fishes)
 They are jawless (no jaws) with a circular sucker-like mouth, with a
cartilaginous skeleton.
 They are ectothermic and may either be parasitic or scavengers.
 They are categorized into: Myxini and Cephalaspidomorphi.
Myxini (Hagfish)
 Comprises of Hagfishes which are slime-producing eel-like jawless fish,
also known as slime eels.
 They have no backbone .
 The class has 67 known extant species which are classified into one
order, Myxinifomes. Example Eptatretus stoutii.

Diagram of a Hagfish
Cephalaspidomorphi (Lamprey)
 Lampreys are by far some of the most primitive fish, along with hagfish.

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 They are called cyclostomes, meaning ’round mouths’ which refers to

their lack of jaws.
 Instead of jaws, lampreys have round sucker mouths.
 They have a skeleton made of cartilage.
 Have about 40 species. Example: Cephalaspis lyellii, Petromyzon species.

Diagram of a Lamprey

Class: Amphibia (Amphibians)

 The amphibians are a transitional group of vertebrates, neither fully aquatic
nor truly terrestrial, thus, referred to as quasiterrestrial, hovering between
aquatic (juveniles) and land (adult stages) environments.
 There are more than 3,900 species of amphibians, which are grouped into
three orders: Urodela/Caudata (salamanders), Anura (frogs and toads)
and Gymnophiona (caecilians - earthworm-like amphibians).
 Skeleton mostly bony, with varying number of vertebrae; notochord does
not persist; exoskeleton absent.
 Body forms vary from an elongated trunk with distinct head, neck, and tail to
a compact, depressed body with fused head and trunk and no intervening
neck.
 Limbs, usually four (tetrapod), although some are legless; webbed feet often
present.
 Mouth usually large with small teeth in upper or both jaws; two nostrils
open into mouth cavity.
 Skin smooth and moist with many glands; scales are absent.
 Middle ear is present but there is no external ear.
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 Respiration by lungs and skin (in adults) and by gills (in tadpoles i.e. larvae);
gills may persist throughout life in some.
 Circulation with three-chambered heart (2 atria + one ventricle), and a
double circulation through the heart; skin abundantly supplied by with
blood vessels.
 They are ectothermic (i.e. poikilothermic/cold blooded).
 Excretory system of paired Mesonephric kidneys; urea is the main
excretory nitrogenous waste.
 Sexes are separate; fertilization is mostly internal in salamanders and
caecilians, and mostly external in frogs and toads; metamorphosis usually
present.

Class: Reptilia (Reptiles)

 The class Reptilia were the first truly terrestrial vertebrates, having more
than 7,000 identified species.
 Have four main orders: Testudines (Tortoises and turtles), Squamata
(Snakes and lizards), Crocodilia (Crocodiles) and
Rhynchocephalia/Sphenodonta (Tuatara - Sphenodon)
 Body forms are varied, compact in some, elongated in others.
 Skin is tough and dry bearing exoskeleton of horny epidermal scales
often with bony dermal plates to resist desiccation.
 Limbs are paired, usually with five toes (pentadactyl), and adapted for
climbing, running or paddling; and is absent in snakes and some lizards.

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 Respiration by lungs and have evolved efficient strategies for water

conservation.
 Three-chambered heart; four-chambered heart in crocodiles.
 They are ectothermic, and have paired metanephric kidneys with uric acid being
the main nitrogenous waste.
 Sexes are separate; fertilization is internal.
 Eggs are covered with calcareous or leathery shells, which contains food and
protective membranes for supporting embryonic development on dry land.

Class: Aves (Birds)

 Birds are the most studied most observable and most melodious vertebrates.
With more than 8,600 species distributed over nearly the entire earth, birds
far outnumber all other vertebrates except the fishes.
 They are found in forests and deserts, in mountains and grasslands, and on
all oceans.
 With their powers of flight and wide distribution, most species of birds are
more easily detected than are many animals.
 Feathers are the single unique feature that distinguishes birds from other
animals.

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 Body is usually spindle-shaped (to reduce air resistance during flight), with
four divisions: head, neck, trunk and tail; neck disproportionately long for
balancing and food gathering.
 Limbs are paired, with the forelimbs usually adapted for flying; the
posterior pair is variously adapted for perching, walking and swimming; foot
chiefly with four toes.
 Birds have epidermal covering of feathers and leg scales.
 They also have skeleton with air cavities; jaws covered with horny beaks;
and no teeth.
 They have a circulatory a system of four-chambered heart.
 They are endothermic (warm-blooded).
 Lungs are the sole respiratory organs.
 They have an excretory system of metenephric kidney.
 Sexes are separate; fertilization is internal; large, heavily-yoked eggs with
a calcareous shell are laid.
 There are no larval stages, and the embryo develops an amnion and allantois.
 Birds are broadly classified into 2 groups:
 Ratite: (flightless birds) - which are large, running birds with very small
wings; e.g. Ostrich, Emu, Kiki, Cassowary.
 Carinate: (flying birds) - e.g. Pigeon, Fowl, Thrush, Penguins, Sparrow,
Eagle, Hawk, Kingfisher, Flamingo.
 Body weight reduced considerably by presence of hollow, air-filled spaces
(in endoskeleton).
 A high metabolic rate and an energy-rich diet which provides energy for flight.
 A highly efficient respiratory system consisting of a system of air sacs
arranged to pass air through the lungs during both inspiration and
expiration.

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 An efficient high-pressure circulation, possession of sharp eyesight,

good hearing and superb coordination for flight.
 Powerful flight, leg muscles, wings for lift and support, and a tail for
steering and landing control.

Examples of Flying Birds

Examples of Non-flying Birds

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Class: Mammalia (Mammals)

 All mammals (female adults) possess dermal milk-glands (mammary glands); and
only mammals possess them; these glands secrete milk used to nourish the
developing young.
 All mammals are at least partially hairy.
 They also have integument with sweat, scent and sebaceous glands.
 The skull has a double occipital condyle (a bony knob which articulates
with the first vertebra).
 The brain, especially the forebrain, is relatively large and highly
developed, thus, enabling them to learn a variety of behavior patterns; they
also have highly elaborated sense organs and special senses, e.g. those of
hearing, smell and touch.
 The vertebrae are gastrocentrous, i.e. each consists of a centrum and
neural arch.
 Mammalians have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs (reduced or absent in
some) adapted for many forms of locomotion: terrestrial, aquatic and aerial.
 They have external ear in addition to middle and inner ear; tympanic
membrane (ear drum) is supported by a tympanic bone with 3 minute
auditory ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) in the middle ear.
 Mammals have respiratory system of lungs with alveoli (thin-walled sacs
surrounded by blood vessels through whose surfaces gas exchange occurs).
 A muscular diaphragm completely separates the thoracic cavity (containing
the lungs) from the abdominal cavity.
 Circulatory system of a 4-chambered heart separating completely the
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
 Birds and mammals are characterized by the retention of a single aortic
arch. In mammals it is the left, and in Aves, the right.

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 Excretory system of metanephric kidneys, with ureters that usually open

into a bladder.
 Sexes are separate; fertilization is internal; eggs develop in a uterus with
placental attachment (NB: the placenta is rudimentary in marsupials and
absent in the Monotremata); foetal membranes (amnion, chorion, and
allantois) are present.
 All mammals are viviparous except the monotremes (Monotremata).
 They possess adaptation for the protection and nourishment of the newly
born young.
 Mammals are endothermic/homoiothermic (homeothermic).
 The mammalian teeth are specialized, with different types of teeth for
different functions; the pattern and arrangement of teeth reveal whether an
animal is a carnivore, herbivore, insectivore, or an omnivore.
 The class is divided into three sub-classes:
 Subclass: Prototheria (Triconodonta, Symmetrodonta (Both extinct) and
Monotremata (duck-billed platypus and spiny ant-eaters).
 Sub class: Allotheria (Multituberculata - extinct)
 Sub class: Theria/(Modern Mammals)
 Marsupialia (Marsupials) e.g. oposums, kangaroos, koalas.
 Insectivora (insect-eating mammals) e.g. sorek (shrew), hedgehogs, moles.
 Rodentia (gnawing mammals/rodents) e.g. mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, guinea
pigs.
 Lagomorpha (rodent-like mammals) e.g. rabbits, hares.
 Carnivora (flesh eating mammals) e.g. cats, dogs, bears, wolves, seals, sea lions.
 Perissodactyla (odd-toed hoofed mammals/ungulates) e.g. horses, asses, zebras,
rhinoceroses.
 Artiodactyla (even-toed hoofed mammals/ungulates) e.g. cattle, sheep, goats,
camels, deer, antelopes.
 Sub-ungulata/Proboscidea (proboscis/trunked mammals) e.g. elephants and
related extinct mammoths.
 Cetacea (fully aquatic mammals) e.g. dolphins, whales.

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 Chiroptera (flying mammals), bats.

 Primates e.g. lemurs, monkeys, apes, humans.

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