UNIT- 2

COMPUTER NETWORKS
LECTURE NOTES

BBA 1st Sem 2024

REFERENCES BOOKS:
1. An Engineering Approach to Computer Networks - S. Keshav, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education.
2. Understanding communications and Networks, 3rd Edition, W. A. Shay, Cengage Learning.
3. Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, James F. Kurose, K. W.
Ross, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education.
4. www.geeksforgeeks.org

Outcomes:
• Students should be understand and explore the basics of Computer Networks and
Various Protocols.
• Student will be in a position to understand the World Wide Web concepts.
• Students will be in a position to administrate a network and flow of information further
• Student can understand easily the concepts of network security, Mobile
 1) NETWORK
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology. Two
computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites
can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later. They are usually connected together to make
larger networks, with the Internet being the most well-known example of a network of networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed system. The
key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of independent computers appears to its users as a single
coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software
on top of the operating system, called middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known
example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and presents a model in
which everything looks like a document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
• to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing). sharing physical resources such as
printers, and tape backup systems, is sharing information
• client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network
usage.
• communication medium among employees. Email (electronic mail), which employees generally use for a
great deal of daily communication.
• Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network
instead of by the phone company. This technology is called IP telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
• Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical computer screen
• doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This
new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.

2 Home Applications
• peer-to-peer communication
• person-to-person communication
• electronic commerce
• entertainment. (game playing,)

3 Mobile Users
• Text messaging or texting
• Smart phones,
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• m-commerce
• NFC (Near Field Communication)

4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it many unsolved social, political, and
ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of other applications allow people to share their
views with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like
gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like politics, religion, or sex. Views that are publicly
posted may be deeply offensive to some people. Worse yet, they may not be politically correct. Furthermore,
opinions need not be limited to text; high-resolution color photographs and video clips are easily shared over
computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g.,
verbal attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and that such content
must be censored. Different countries have different and conflicting laws in this area. Thus, the debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also make it easy for the people who run the network
to snoop on the traffic. This sets up conflicts over issues such as employee rights versus employer rights. Many
people read and write email at work. Many employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee
messages, including messages sent from a home computer outside working hours. Not all employees agree with
this, especially the latter part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the process of providing service to your mobile
device the network operators learn where you are at different times of day. This allows them to track your
movements. They may know which nightclub you frequent and which medical center you visit.

Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack often used to steal user data, including login
credentials and credit card numbers. It occurs when an attacker, masquerading as a trusted entity, dupes a victim
into opening an email, instant message, or text message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack), steal
data, send spam, and allows the attacker to access the device and its connection.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery,
accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device
or user and only by that device or user.
2 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they
are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
2) Data Communication

A data communications system has five components

I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2 Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating,
just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Representation
Text
Numbers
Images
Audio
Video
3) Data Flow

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure.

Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one- way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are
examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device
is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios
are both half- duplex systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c). One common example of
full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time.

4) Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed
time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors,
including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware,
and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more
throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data
to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the
network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data
losses.

5) Physical Structures

Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another.

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several
devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.

6) Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers in that
network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following formula (n is the
number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network have connections to
multiple other computers in that network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. In
the event that one of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues
to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
• Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data simultaneously.
• A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
• Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
• The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable option.
• Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
• The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.
STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration, every node
connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts
as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used in each
computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to connect computers together.
Advantages of star topology
• Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or switch.
• Easy to add another computer to the network.
• If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star
topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
• Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central
network device.
• The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network
can handle.
• If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers
are disconnected from the network
BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are
connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
• It works well when you have a small network.
• It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
• It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
• It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
• It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
• Bus topology is not great for large networks.
• Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
• Additional devices slow the network down.
• If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
 RING:

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data path. In a ring
network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their destination. Most ring
topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit
data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is broken, the
entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
• A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
• Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
• Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
• All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
• The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each
branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure
 7) Types of Networks based on size

The types of networks are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its physical architecture. The three
primary network categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network differs in their characteristics such as
distance, transmission speed, cables and cost.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect devices within a
short range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and
wearables, to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from
person to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and
very low cost. This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer,
phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Types of PAN
• Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created by simply utilising
wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed using a USB.
Advantages of PAN
• PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
• It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
• It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
• It is easy and portable.
• Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
• Low network coverage area/range.
• Limited to relatively low data rates.
• Devices are not compatible with each other.
• Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
• Home and Offices
• Organizations and the Business sector
• Medical and Hospital
• School and College Education
• Military and Defense

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers through a
common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or
more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies involved in this network
are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low
cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of a LAN
• Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a privacy.
• High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate comparatively
to WAN.
• Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications transmission
medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
• Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance and LAN
installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
• The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special software required to
make a server.
• Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.
• LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each and every LAN
user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated
• LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
• Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an unauthorized user, can
cause a serious data security threat.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects
computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan
area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its
transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are
networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Advantages of MAN
• MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
• The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
• It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
• MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
• MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to monitor and
manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
• The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
• This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
• It provides less fault tolerance.
• The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance through a
shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can
also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range above 50km.
Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high
maintenance and very high cost. The most common example of WAN is the Internet.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Advantages of WAN
• It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data quickly and
cheaply.
• The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by WAN.
• The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.
• WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to exchange data and
do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
• The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
• Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
• The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high number of
connected system within the network.
 8) OSI Model

• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection

• Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
• Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different networking
technologies work together and interact
• It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
• Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
• All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network

Physical Layer
• Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
• Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
• Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
• Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic standards.
Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to transmit data is defined on the
Physical layer of the OSI Model
• Device example: Hub
• Used to transmit data

Data Link Layer

• Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer
• Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames across routers
• Encapsulation = frame
• Requires MAC address or physical address
• Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• Device example: Switch
• Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)
o Logical Link Control (LLC)
▪ –Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
▪ –Determines which computer has access to the network media at any given time
▪ –Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called frame
synchronization

Network Layer
• Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the other, called end-to-end
communications
• Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
• Device example: Router
• –Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to move data packets from
source to destination

Transport Layer
• Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments that can be sent to lower-level
layers for data transmission
• Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols
and applications can use
• Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing) so they can be reassembled in correct
order at destination
• Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
• May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination received segments
• May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without assurance of delivery
• Uses port addressing

Session Layer
• Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
• Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
• Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices
• Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment, termination, and restart or recovery
procedures

Presentation Layer
• Concerned with how data is presented to the network
• Handles three primary tasks: –Translation, –Compression, –Encryption
 Application Layer
• Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating system to communicate
on the network
• Examples
o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
o –E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to read e-mails and SMTP (Simple
Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-mails

The interaction between layers in the OSI model

An exchange using the OSI model

Summary

9) TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

–A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work together to allow
networked computers to communicate

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

 Application Layer
• Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific network
applications
• Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data delivery
• Typical protocols:
o FTP – File Transfer Protocol
▪ For file transfer
o Telnet – Remote terminal protocol
▪ For remote login on any other computer on the network
o SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
▪ For mail transfer
o HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
▪ For Web browsing
• Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers
Application Presentation Session

Transport Layer
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
o Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
o TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists – also called virtual
circuit
• UDP provides the functions:
o Dividing a chunk of data into segments
o Reassembly segments into the original chunk
o Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend
• Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
• Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
• Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session between the
respective computers

Internet Layer
• The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network
layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used
for error reporting.

Host-to-network layer
The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model. It combines
the link layer and the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model. At this layer, data is transferred
between adjacent network nodes in a WAN or between nodes on the same LAN.
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model
Figure shows Position of UDP, TCP, and SCTP in TCP/IP suite
10) THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend
our leisure time. Count the ways you've used the Internet recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a business associate,
paid a utility bill, read a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the Internet. Or maybe you
researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted with a fellow Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car. The Internet
is a communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

A Brief History

A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers. An internet (note the lowercase
letter i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other. The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase
letter I), a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private individuals as well as various
organizations such as government agencies, schools, research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use
the Internet. Millions of people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication system only came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices. Computers from different
manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the
Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share
their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small
network of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be
attached to a specialized computer, called an inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to one
another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was
a reality. Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB),
Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the
Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called
the Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end- to-end delivery of packets.
This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a
gateway. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internetworking Protocol (lP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher-level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The internetworking protocol became known as TCPIIP.
The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many
wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation
of the Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and
networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet
service providers (lSPs). There are international service providers, national service providers, regional service providers, and local
service providers. The Internet today is run by private companies, not the government. Figure 1.13 shows a conceptual (not
geographic) view of the Internet.
International Internet Service Providers:
At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that connect nations together.
National Internet Service Providers:
The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created and maintained by specialized companies. There are
many national ISPs operating in North America; some of the most well-known are SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS,
and internet Mel. To provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by complex switching
stations (normally run by a third party) called network access points (NAPs). Some national ISP networks are also connected to one
another by private switching stations called peering points. These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs. They
are at the third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.
Local Internet Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users. The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or
directly to national ISPs. Most end users are connected to the local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company that
just provides Internet services, a corporation with a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit organization,
such as a college or a university, that runs its own network. Each of these local ISPs can be connected to a regional or national
service provider.
11) WWW (World Wide Web)
The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client using a browser can access a service using a server.
However, the service provided is distributed over many locations called sites as shown in fig.
Figure shows Architecture of WWW

Client (Browser)

A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that interpret and display a Web document, and all use nearly the same architecture.
Each browser usually consists of three parts: a controller, client protocol, and interpreters.
The controller receives input from the keyboard or the mouse and uses the client programs to access the document.
After the document has been accessed, the controller uses one of the interpreters to display the document on the screen. The
interpreter can be HTML, Java, or JavaScript, depending on the type of document
The client protocol can be one of the protocols described previously such as FTP or HTTP.

Server
The Web page is stored at the server. Each time a client request arrives, the corresponding document is sent to the client. To improve
efficiency, servers normally store requested files in a cache in memory; memory is faster to access than disk. A server can also
become more efficient through multithreading or multiprocessing. In this case, a server can answer more than one

Figure shows Browser

Uniform Resource Locator

A client that wants to access a Web page needs the address. To facilitate the access of documents distributed throughout the world,
HTTP uses locators. The uniform resource locator (URL) is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the Internet. The
URL defines four things: protocol, host computer, port, and path.
The protocol is the client/server program used to retrieve the document. Many different protocols can retrieve a document; among
them are FTP or HTTP. The most common today is HTTP.
The host is the computer on which the information is located, although the name of the computer can be an alias. Web pages are
usually stored in computers, and computers are given alias names that usually begin with the characters "www".
The URL can optionally contain the port number of the server. If the port is included, it is inserted between the host and the path, and
it is separated from the host by a colon.
Path is the pathname of the file where the information is located. Note that the path can itself contain slashes that, in the UNIX
operating system, separate the directories from the subdirectories and files.

Figure shows URL

An HTTP cookie (also called web cookie, Internet cookie, browser cookie or simply cookie, the latter which is not to be confused
with the literal definition), is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored in a user's web browser while the user is browsing
that website
12) DNS (Domain Name System)

To identify an entity, TCP/IP protocols use the IP address, which uniquely identifies the connection of a host to the Internet. However,
people prefer to use names instead of numeric addresses. Therefore, we need a system that can map a name to an address or an address
to a name.
NAME SPACE
A name space that maps each address to a unique name can be organized in two ways: fiat or hierarchical.
Flat Name Space
In a flat name space, a name is assigned to an address. A name in this space is a sequence of characters without structure.

Hierarchical Name Space

In a hierarchical name space, each name is made of several parts. The first part can define the nature of the organization, the second
part can define the name of an organization, the third part can define departments in the organization, and so on.

Exa: challenger.jhda.edu, challenger.berkeley.edu, and challenger.smart.com

DOMAIN NAME SPACE
To have a hierarchical name space, a domain name space was designed. In this design the names are defined in an inverted-tree structure
with the root at the top. The tree can have only 128 levels: level 0 (root) to level 127.

Domain name
Label
Each node in the tree has a label, which is a string with a maximum of 63 characters. The root label is a null string (empty
string). DNS requires that children of a node (nodes that branch from the same node) have different labels, which guarantees
the uniqueness of the domain names.
Domain Name
Each node in the tree has a domain name. A full domain name is a sequence of labels separated by dots (.). The
domain names are always read from the node up to the root. The last label is the label of the root (null). This means that a
full domain name always ends in a null label, which means the last character is a dot because the null string is
nothing. Below Figure shows some domain names
Domain names and labels
Domain
A domain is a subtree of the domain name space. The name of the domain is the domain name of the node at
the top of the subtree.

DISTRIBUTION OF NAME SPACE:

The information contained in the domain name space must be stored. However, it is very inefficient and also unreliable to have just
one computer store such a huge amount of information. In this section, we discuss the distribution of the domain name space

1 Hierarchy of Name Servers

distribute the information among many computers called DNS servers. we let the root stand alone and create as many domains
(subtrees) as there are first-level nodes
 2 Zone
Since the complete domain name hierarchy cannot be stored on a single server, it is divided among many servers. What a server is
responsible for or has authority over is called a zone. We can define a zone as a contiguous part of the entire tree

3 Root Server
A root server is a server whose zone consists of the whole tree. A root server usually does not store any information about domains but
delegates its authority to other servers, keeping references to those servers. There are several root servers, each covering the whole
domain name space. The servers are distributed all around the world.

4 Primary and Secondary Servers

A primary server is a server that stores a file about the zone for which it is an authority. It is responsible for creating, maintaining, and
updating the zone file. It stores the zone file on a local disk

A secondary server is a server that transfers the complete information about a zone from another server (primary or secondary) and
stores the file on its local disk. The secondary server neither creates nor updates the zone files
DNS IN THE INTERNET
DNS is a protocol that can be used in different platforms. In the Internet, the domain name space (tree) is divided into three different
sections: generic domains, country domains, and the inverse domain

1 Generic Domains
The generic domains define registered hosts according to their generic behavior. Each node in the tree defines a domain, which is an
index to the domain name space database
2 Country Domains
The country domains section uses two-character country abbreviations (e.g., us for United States). Second labels can be organizational,
or they can be more specific, national designations. The United States, for example, uses state abbreviations as a subdivision of us
(e.g., ca.us.).
3 Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used to map an address to a name.
 RESOLUTION

Mapping a name to an address or an address to a name is called name- address resolution

1 Resolver
DNS is designed as a client/server application. A host that needs to map an address to a name or a name to an address calls a DNS
client called a resolver. The resolver accesses the closest DNS server with a mapping request. If the server has the information, it
satisfies the resolver; otherwise, it either refers the resolver to other servers or asks other servers to provide the information.
2 Mapping Names to Addresses
In this case, the server checks the generic domains or the country domains to find the mapping.
3 Mapping Addresses to Names
To answer queries of this kind, DNS uses the inverse domain
4 Recursive Resolution
The client (resolver) can ask for a recursive answer from a name server. This means that the resolver expects the server to supply the
final answer.. When the query is finally resolved, the response travels back until it finally reaches the requesting client. This is called
recursive resolution and is shown in FIG
Recursive resolution
5 Iterative Resolution
If the client does not ask for a recursive answer, the mapping can be done iteratively. If the server is an authority for the name, it sends
the answer. If it is not, it returns (to the client) the IP address of the server that it thinks can resolve the query
6 Caching
Each time a server receives a query for a name that is not in its domain, it needs to search its database for a server IP address. Reduction
of this search time would increase efficiency. DNS handles this with a mechanism called caching

13) Client Server Architecture

Client-server architecture is a fundamental concept in system design where a network involves multiple clients and a server. Clients
are devices or programs that request services or resources, while the server is a powerful machine providing these resources or
services. This architecture allows efficient data management and resource sharing, making it popular in web applications, databases,
and other network-based systems. By separating roles and distributing tasks, client-server architecture enhances performance,
scalability, and security.

What is Client-Server Architecture?

Client-server architecture is a cornerstone of modern system design, where the network infrastructure is structured to include multiple
clients and a central server. In this model, clients are devices or programs that make requests for services or resources, while the server
is a powerful machine or software that fulfills these requests. Communication between clients and the server follows a request-response
protocol, such as HTTP/HTTPS for web services or SQL for database queries.
• This architecture allows for efficient data management and resource allocation by centralizing critical functions on the server, which
can handle complex processing and large-scale data storage.
• Clients manage user interactions and send specific requests to the server, which processes these requests and sends back appropriate
responses.
• The client-server architecture is highly scalable, as it can accommodate more clients by scaling the server’s capabilities or adding
additional servers.
• This design is prevalent in various applications, including web services, database management, and email systems, providing a
robust framework for developing and managing complex, distributed systems efficiently.

Importance in System Design

Client-server architecture is critically important in system design for several reasons:
• Centralized Management: By centralizing resources and services on a server, this architecture simplifies maintenance, updates,
and security management. Administrators can efficiently monitor and manage data, apply updates, and enforce security policies from
a single location.
• Scalability: Client-server architecture supports scalability. As the number of clients grows, additional servers can be added, or
existing server capacities can be expanded to handle increased demand without significantly altering the overall system architecture.
• Resource Optimization: This model allows for optimized resource allocation. Servers are designed to handle intensive processing
and large data storage, while clients are optimized for user interactions and requests. This separation ensures efficient use of system
resources.
• Reliability and Availability: With robust server infrastructure, client-server systems can ensure high reliability and availability.
Redundancies, backups, and load balancing techniques can be implemented on the server side to minimize downtime and ensure
continuous service availability.
• Enhanced Security: Centralized servers enable better security controls and data protection measures. Sensitive data can be securely
stored on servers, and access can be tightly controlled and monitored. Encryption and authentication mechanisms can be more
effectively implemented.
Key Components of Client Server Architecture
Client-server architecture in system design involves several key components that work together to ensure efficient communication,
resource management, and service delivery. Here are the main components:
• Client: The client is a device or application that requests services or resources from the server. It initiates communication with the
server and processes the results returned by the server.
• Server: The server is a powerful machine or application that provides services or resources to clients. It processes client requests,
performs the necessary computations or data retrieval, and sends back the appropriate responses.
• Network: The network facilitates communication between clients and servers. It enables data exchange using various protocols and
ensures reliable connectivity.
• Protocols: Protocols are standardized rules that govern data transmission and communication between clients and servers. They
ensure that data is transmitted in a secure, reliable, and understood manner.
• Middleware: Middleware is software that acts as an intermediary between clients and servers. It provides additional functionalities
like authentication, logging, message queuing, and transaction management.
• Database: A database is a structured collection of data stored on the server. It stores and manages data that clients request, ensuring
data consistency, integrity, and security.
• User Interface (UI): The UI is the part of the client application that interacts with the user. It provides a means for users to input
data and view results returned by the server.
• Application Logic: Application logic refers to the code and algorithms that define the application’s functionality. It processes user
inputs, interacts with the server, and manages the flow of data between the client and the server.
Steps for Client-Side Design and Server-Side Design
Designing a client-server architecture involves distinct steps for both the client-side and server-side development. Here are the steps for
each:

1. Client-Side Design

Client Side Design

• User Requests a Website: The process begins when a user requests a website by entering a URL in the browser or clicking a link.
• CDN Serves HTML Files: A Content Delivery Network (CDN) quickly serves the HTML files, which contain links to the
JavaScript files needed for the website.
• Browser Downloads HTML and JavaScript: The browser first downloads the HTML file and then proceeds to download the
linked JavaScript files. During this phase, the site may not be fully visible to the user, as it waits for the JavaScript to render the content.
• Browser Downloads the JavaScripts: The browser continues to download the JavaScript files specified in the HTML.
• JavaScript Execution and API Calls: Once downloaded, the JavaScript is executed. During execution, the JavaScript makes API
calls to the server to fetch the necessary data. At this stage, placeholders may be visible to the user while the actual data is being fetched.
• Server Responds with Data: The server responds to the API requests with the required data. This data is sent back to the client-side
application.
• Data Fills Placeholders: The data fetched from the APIs fills the placeholders in the client interface. The page becomes fully
interactive and visible to the user.

2. Server-Side Design

Server Side Design

• User Requests a Website: The process starts when a user requests a website.
• Server Creates “Ready to Render” HTML Files: The server processes the request and generates HTML files that are ready to be
rendered.
• The Browser Can Quickly Render the HTML but the Site Isn’t Interactive: The browser receives and renders the HTML
quickly, allowing the user to see the content immediately, but the site is not yet interactive.
• The Browser Downloads the JavaScript: The browser then downloads the necessary JavaScript files.
• The User Can View Content and the Interactions Can Be Recorded: The user can view the content while the JavaScript is being
downloaded. User interactions can be recorded even though the site is not fully interactive yet.
• The Browser Executes the JS Framework: Once the JavaScript is downloaded, the browser executes the JavaScript framework
(e.g., React, Angular).

Real-World Examples of Client-Server Architecture:

Some are some real-world examples of Client Server Architecture are:

1. Banking Systems: Online banking applications use client-server architecture to enable customers (clients) to interact
securely with bank servers. Clients can perform transactions, check balances, and manage accounts through web or mobile applications.
2. Enterprise Applications: Large organizations use client-server architecture for various internal systems such as ERP
(Enterprise Resource Planning), CRM (Customer Relationship Management), and document management systems. Clients (employees
or users) access centralized servers to retrieve and update data related to business operations.
3. Telecommunications: Telecom networks rely heavily on client-server architecture for services like voice-over-IP (VoIP),
video conferencing, and messaging applications. Clients (users’ devices or applications) communicate through servers that manage call
routing, signaling, and media streaming.
4. Internet of Things (IoT): IoT ecosystems often employ client-server architecture for managing devices and collecting
sensor data. Devices act as clients that send data to servers for processing, storage, and analysis. Examples include smart home systems
and industrial IoT applications.
5. Healthcare Systems: Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems and telemedicine platforms utilize client-server architecture
to securely manage patient records, facilitate remote consultations, and exchange medical data between healthcare providers and
patients.

14) Internet and Services

The internet offers a range of services to its consumers. We can upload and download the files/ data via the internet as it i s a pool of
knowledge. We can access or obtain information as needed. It is quite popular because of the variety of senders available on the Internet.
Web services have grown in popularity as a result of these offerings. To access/exchange a large amount of data such as softw are, audio
clips, video clips, text files, other documents, etc., we require internet services. We must use an Internet service to connect to the Internet.
Data can be sent from Internet servers to your machine via Internet service. Some of the internet services are FTP, Telnet, V oIP, etc. In
this article, we will learn about different types of internet services.

How to connect your computer to the Internet?

Before moving further first of all we will understand how to connect our computer to the internet. So to establish the connec tion follow
the following steps:
Step 1: Install the hardware, such as a modem and an Ethernet cable, as well as the important software like LAN driver, etc.
Step 2: Use an ethernet cable or a wireless link to establish a preliminary connection.
Step 3: Navigate to the router’s default IP address.
Step 4: Use the login name and password provided by the ISP to connect to the internet.
Step 5: Save your preferences.

Internet services

To access/exchange a large amount of data such as software, audio clips, video clips, text files, other documents, etc., we n eed internet
services. You must use an Internet service to connect to the Internet. Data can be sent from Internet servers to your machine via Internet
service. Some of the commonly used internet services are :
• Communication Services
• Information Retrieval Services
• File Transfer
• World Wide Web Services
• Web Services
• Directory Services
• Automatic Network Address Configuration
• Network Management Services
• Time Services
• Usenet
• NewsGroup
•Ecommerce
Now let us discuss them one by one
1. Communication Services: To exchange data/information among individuals or organizations, we need communication services.
Following are some of the common communication services:
• IRC(Internet Relay Chat): Subscribers can communicate in real-time by connecting numerous computers in public spaces called
channels.
• VoIP: It stands for Voice over Internet Protocol, which describes how to make and receive phone calls over the internet. A larger
number of people believe VoIP is a viable alternative to traditional landlines. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technique that
helps us make voice calls via the Internet rather than over a traditional (or analog) phone line. Some VoIP services may let you call only
other VoIP users, while others may let you call anyone with a phone number, including long-distance, mobile, and local/international
lines. If you have an internet connection you can easily call anyone without using a local phone service because VoIP solutio ns are based
on open standards, they can be used on any computer. More than just setting up calls is what VoIP service providers do. Outgoing and
incoming calls are routed through existing telephone networks by them.
• List Server (LISTSERV): Delivers a group of email recipients’ content-specific emails.
• E-Mail: Used to send electronic mail via the internet. It is a paperless method for sending text, images, documents, videos, etc from
one person to another via the internet.
• User Network (USENET): It hosts newsgroups and message boards on certain topics, and it is mostly run by volunteers.
• Telnet: It’s used to connect to a remote computer that’s connected to the internet.
• Video Conferencing: Video conferencing systems allow two or more people who are generally in different locations to connect live
and visually. Live video conferencing services are necessary for simulating face-to-face talks over the internet. The system can vary from
very simple to complex, depending on the live video conferencing vendors. A live video-based conference involves two or more
individuals in separate locations utilizing video-enabled devices and streaming voice, video, text, and presentations in real-time via the
internet. It allows numerous people to connect and collaborate face to face over large distances. Tools available for this pu rpose are
Zoom, FreeConference, Google Hangouts, Skype, etc.
2. Information Retrieval Services: It is the procedure for gaining access to information/data stored on the Internet. Net surfing or
browsing is the process of discovering and obtaining information from the Internet. When your computer is linked to the Inter net, you
may begin retrieving data. To get data, we need a piece of software called a Web browser. A print or computer-based information retrieval
system searches for and locates data in a file, database, or other collection of data. Some sites are:
• www.geeksforgeeks.org: Free tutorials, millions of articles, live, online, and classroom courses, frequent coding competitions,
industry expert webinars, internships, and job possibilities are all available. A computer-based system for searching and locating data in
a file, database, or another source.
• www.crayola.com: It includes advice for students, parents, and educators on how to be more creative.
3. File Transfer: The exchange of data files across computer systems is referred to as file transfer. Using the network or internet
connection to transfer or shift a file from one computer to another is known as file transfer. To share, transfer, or send a file or logical
data item across several users and/or machines, both locally and remotely, we use file transfer. Data files include – documents,
multimedia, pictures, text, and PDFs and they can be shared by uploading or downloading them. To retrieve information from th e internet,
there are various services available such as:
• Gopher: A file retrieval application based on hierarchical, distributed menus that is simple to use.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): To share, transfer, or send a file or logical data item across several users and/or machines, both
locally and remotely.
• Archie: A file and directory information retrieval system that may be linked to FTP
4. Web services: Web services are software that uses defined messaging protocols and are made accessible for usage by a client or other
web-based programs through an application service provider’s web server. Web services allow information to be exchanged across we b-
based applications. Using Utility Computing, web services can be provided.
5. World Wide Web: The internet is a vast network of interconnected computers. Using this network, you can connect to the world wide
web (abbreviated as ‘www’ or ‘web’) is a collection of web pages. The web browser lets you access the web via the internet.
6. Directory Services: A directory service is a set of software that keeps track of information about your company, customers, or both.
Network resource names are mapped to network addresses by directory services. A directory service provides users and administ rators
with full transparent access to printers, servers, and other network devices. The directory services are :
• DNS (Domain Number System): This server provides DNS. The mappings of computer hostnames and other types of domain names
to IP addresses are stored on a DNS server.
• LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): It is a set of open protocols that are used for obtaining network access to stored
data centrally. It is a cross-platform authentication protocol for directory services and also allows users to interact with other directory
services servers.
7. Automatic Network Address Configuration: Automatic Network Addressing assigns a unique IP address to every system in a
network. A DHCP Server is a network server that is used to assign IP addresses, gateways, and other network information to cl ient
devices. It uses Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol as a common protocol to reply to broadcast inquiries from clients.
8. Network Management Services: Network management services are another essential internet service that is beneficial to network
administrators. Network management services aid in the prevention, analysis, diagnosis, and resolution of connection problems . The two
commands related to this are:
• ping: The ping command is a Command Prompt command that is used to see if a source can communicate with a specific destination
& get all the possible paths between them.
• traceroute: To find the path between two connections, use the traceroute command.
9. Time Services: Using facilities included in the operating system, you may set your computer clock via the Internet. Some services
are:
• Network Time Protocol (NTP): It is a widely used internet time service that allows you to accurately synchronize and adjust your
computer clock.
• The Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP): It is a time-keeping protocol that is used to synchronize network hardware. When a
full implementation of NTP is not required, then this simplified form of NTP is typically utilized.
10. Usenet: The ‘User’s Network’ is also known as Usenet. It is a network of online discussion groups. It’s one of the first networks
where users may upload files to news servers and others can view them.
11. News Group: It is a lively Online Discussion Forum that is easily accessible via Usenet. Each newsgroup contains conversations on
a certain topic, as indicated by the newsgroup name. Users can use newsreader software to browse and follow the newsgroup as well as
comment on the posts. A newsgroup is a debate about a certain topic made up of notes posted to a central Internet site and distrib uted
over Usenet, a global network of news discussion groups. It uses Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP).
12. E-commerce: Electronic commerce, also known as e-commerce or e-Commerce, is a business concept that allows businesses and
individuals to buy and sell goods through the internet. Example: Amazon, Flipkart, etc. websites/apps.

15) HUB, SWITCH AND ROUTER

 16) Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Point of
difference Internet Intranet Extranet

Accessibility of Public Private Private

network

To share information with suppliers and

Global system. Specific to an organization. vendors it makes the use of public
Availability network.

Restricted area upto an organization and

All over the world. Restricted area upto an organization.
Coverage some of its stakeholders or so.

Accessible only to the members of

It is accessible to everyone It is accessible only to the members of
Accessibility of organization and external members with
connected. organization.
content logins.

No. of computers It is largest in number of The minimal number of devices are The connected devices are more
connected connected devices. connected. comparable with Intranet.

Owner No one. Single organization. Single/ Multiple organization.

It’s purpose is to share It’s purpose is to share information

It’s purpose is to share information
Purpose of the information throughout the between members and external,
throughout the organization.
network world. members.
 Point of
difference Internet Intranet Extranet

It is dependent on the user of

It is enforced via firewall that separates
the device connected to It is enforced via firewall.
internet and extranet.
Security network.

Employees of the organization which

General public. Employees of the organization.
Users are connected.

Policies behind There is no hard and fast rule Policies of the organization are
Policies of the organization are imposed.
setup for policies. imposed.

It is maintained by CIO. HR or It is maintained by CIO. HR or

It is maintained by ISP. communication department of an communication department of an
Maintenance organization. organization.

It is more economical to use. It is less economical. It is also less economical.

Economical

It is the network of networks. It is derived from Internet. It is derived from Intranet.

Relation

What we are normally using WIPRO using internal network for its DELL and Intel using network for its
Example is internet. business operations. business operations.