Course : Educational Psychology and

Guidance (6501)
Semester : Autumn 2020
ASSIGNMENT NO 1
__________________________________

NAME: HASSAN MOAVIA

Roll NO : cb563091
 Question No .1
Explain the concept, nature and scope of Psychology. How does
educational psychology help the teacher for effective teaching?
Educational psychology involves the study of how people learn, including
topics such as student outcomes, the instructional process, individual
differences in learning, gifted learners. and learning disabilities.
Psychologists who work in this field are interested in how people learn and
retain new information
This branch of psychology involves not just the learning process of early
childhood and adolescence but includes the social, emotional cognitive
processes that are involved in learning throughout the entire lifespan . The
field of educational psychology incorporates a number of other disciplines.
including developmental psychology, behavioral psychology, and cognitive
psychology Some of the different topics that educational psychologists are
interested in include: Educational Technology: Looking at how different
types of technology can help students lean Instructional Design: Designing
learning materials Special Education: Helping students who may need
specialized instructions Curriculum Development: Creating curriculums can
maximize Organizational Learning: Studying how people learn in
organizational settings Gifted : Helping students who are I as gifted
learners Throughout a number of figures have played an important role in
the development of educational . Some of these well-known individuals
include: John Locke: An English philosopher who suggested the concept of
tabula rasa the idea that the mind is a blank slate at birth that knowledge is
developed though experience and learn William James: An psychologist
who was also known for his les of lectures titled "Talks to Teachers on ,"
which focused on how help students lean. Alfred Binet: A French who
developed the first tests. John Dewey: An influential and reformer who
wrote about progressive education and the importance of learning through
doing. Jean Piaget: A Swiss who is best known for his highly influential
theory of cognitive development Skinner: An American behaviorist who
introduced the concept of operational conditioning, His research on
important role in education today. Educational psychology is a relatively
young subfield that has experienced a tremendous amount of growth in
recent years. Psychology did not emerge as a separate science until the
late 1800s, so earlier interest in educational psychology was largely fueled
by educational philosophers. Many regard philosopher Johann Herbart as
the "father" of educational psychology. Herbart believed that a student's
interest in a topic had a tremendous influence on
the learning outcome and believed that teachers should consider this
interest along with prior knowledge when deciding which type of instruction
is most appropriate. Later, psychologist and philosopher William James
made significant contributions to the field. His seminal 1899 text Talks to
Teachers on Psychology is considered the first textbook on educational
psychology. Around this same period, French psychologist Alfred Binet was
developing his famous tests. The tests were originally designed to help the
French government identify children who had developmental delays to
create special education programs. In the United States, John Dewey had
a significant influence on education. Dewey's ideas were progressive, and
he believed that schools should focus on students rather than on subjects.
He advocated active learning and believed that hands-on experience was
an important part of the learning process. More recently, educational
psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed an important taxonomy designed
to categorize, and describe different educational objectives. The three
toplevel domains he described were cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
learning objectives. As with other areas of psychology, researchers within
educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives when
considering a problem The behavioral perspective suggests that al beba
yiors are leared through conditioning, Psychologists who take this
perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain
how learning happens. For example teachers might give out tokens that
can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy and toys to reward
good behavior. While such methods can be useful in some cases, the
behavioral has been criticized for failing to account for such things as
attitudes, cognitions, and intrinsic motivations for learning. The
developmental perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and
knowledge as they develop in Piaget's famous stages of cognitive
development are one example of an important theory looking at how
children grow intellectually. understanding how children thr dig at different
stages of development, educational tan better understand what c iren are
capable of al c point of their growth This can help educators create
instructional s and materials best aimed at certain age groups The
cognitive become more recent mainly because it accounts for our
things such as memories, beliefs, and motivations contribute to the
learning psychology for understanding how people think, learn,
remember, and process psychologists who take a cognitive perspective
are interested in understanding how kids become motivated to learn, how
they remember the time they learn, and how they solve problems, other
things. The constructivist and one of the most recent learning focus on
how children actively construct their knowledge of the world. Constructivism
tends to account more for the social and cultural page.
This perspective is heavily influenced by the work of proposed ideas such
as the zone of proximal development and instructional scaffolding. While
educational psychology may be a relatively young discipline, it will continue
to grow as people become more interested in understanding how people
learn. Division 15. devoted to the subject of educational psychology,
currently lists more than 2.000 members.
 Question No .2
Discuss different stages and aspects of cognitive development.
Critically analyze the role of heredity and environment in this
regard.?
The most
well-known and influential theory of cognitive development is that of French
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Piaget's theory, first published in
1952. grew out of decades of extensive observation of children, including
his own, in their natural environments as opposed to the laboratory
experiments of the behaviorists. Although Piaget was interested in how
children reacted to their environment, he proposed a more active role for
them than that suggested by learning theory. He envisioned a child's
knowledge as composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used to
organize past experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new
ones. Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary
processes that Piaget termed assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation refers to the process of taking in new information by
incorporating it into an existing schema. In other words, people assimilate
new experiences by relating them to things they already know. On the other
hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema itself changes to
accommodate new knowledge. According to Piaget, cognitive development
involves an ongoing attempt to achieve a balance between assimilation and
accommodation that he termed equilibrations At the center of Piaget's
theory is the principle that cognitive development occurs in a series of four
distinct. universal stages, each characterized by increasingly and abstract
levels of thought. These stages always occur in the same order and each
builds on what was learned in the previous stage. They are as follows:
stage (infancy): In this period, which has six sub-stages intelligence is
demonstrate though activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of
world is limited, but because it is based on physical interactions and .
Children acquire object at about seven months of age (memory). By
development (mobility) allows to child to begin developing new intellectual
abilities. Son Symbolic (language) abilities and developed at the end of this
stage Pre-perational stage Whaler hood and early childhood): In this Rich
has two sub stages, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of
symbols, use matures, and memory and imagination are de but thinking
adelthood his stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of
symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to
egocentric thought. Only 35 percent of high school graduates in
industrialized countries obtain formal operations, many people do not think
formally during adulthood. The most significant alternative to the work of
Piaget has been the information processing
approach, which uses the computer as a model to provide new insight into
how the human mind receives, stores, retrieves, and uses information
Researchers using information processing theory to study cognitive
development in children have focused on areas such as the gradual
improvements in children's ability to take in information and focus
selectively on certain parts of it and their increasing attention spans and
capacity for memory storage. For example. researchers have found that the
superior memory skills of older children are due in part to memorization
strategies, such as repeating items in order to memorize them or dividing
them into categories. Infancy As soon as they are born, infants begin
learning to use their senses to explore the world around them. Most
newborns can focus on and follow moving objects, distinguish the pitch and
volume of sound, see all colors and distinguish their und brightness, and
start anticipating events, such as sucking at the sight of a nipple. By three
months old, infants can recognize imitate the facial expressions of others,
such as smiling and frowning: and respond to familiar sounds. At six
months of age, babies are just beginning to understand how the world
around them works. They imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice
recognize parents. fear strangers, distinguish between animate and
inanimate objects, and base distance on the size of an object. They also
realize that if they drop an object, they can pick it up again. At lour to seven
months, babies can recognize their names. By nine months, infants can
imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties of
objects, understand simple words such as "10, and understand that an
object still exists even they cannot see it. They also begin to fest parental
responses behavior. such as Wood on the floor. They remember the
reaction and tese the parts again to see if they get the stone reaction.
tasks, such as picking up toys and putting them in a box. Toddlerhood
Between 18 months b a rs of age, have reached the stage of Piaget's
theory of cognitive development that involves thought. For instance, they
understand the permanence rurat people folythe displacement of objects.
and begin to use instruments . for more independence, which can present
challenges to parents concerned for their safety. They also understand
discipline and what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate, and they
understand the concepts of words like "please" and "thank you." Two-year-
olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about
ten new words per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of
emotions, such as love, trust, and
fear. They begin to understand some of the ordinary aspects of everyday
life, such as shopping for food, telling time, and being read to Preschool
Preschoolers, ages three to six, should be at the "preoperational stage of
Piaget's cognitive development theory, meaning they are using their
imagery and memory skills. They should be conditioned to learning and
memorizing, and their view of the world is normally very selfcentered.
Preschoolers usually have also developed their social interaction skills,
such as playing and cooperating with other children their own age. It is
normal for preschoolers to test the limits of their cognitive abilities, and they
learn negative concepts and actions, such as talking back to adults. lying
and bullying. Other cognitive development in preschoolers are developing
an increased attention span, learning to read, and developing structured
routines, such as doing household chores. School age Younger school-age
children, six to 12 years old, should be at the "concrete operations" stage of
Piaget's cognitive development theory, characterized by the ability to use
logical and coherent actions in thinking and solving problems. They
understand the concepts of permanence and conservation by leaning that
yolume, weight, and numbers may remain constant despite changes in
outward appearance. These children should be able to build on past
experiences. using them to explain why some things happen. Their
attention span should increase with age, from being able to focus on a task
for about 15 minutes at age six to an houe by age nine. Adolescents, ages
12 through 18. should be at the formal operations" stage of Piaget's
cognitive development theory It is characterized by an increased
independence for thinking through problems and situations. Adolescents
should be able to understand purekstractions, such as plulosegay and
higher math concepts. During this age children should be able to leam and
apply generinformation needed to adapt to specific situations. They shald
also be able to leam specific infantigation and skills necessary for an
occupation. A major anyonent of the passage through adolessence is a
cognitive transition. Compared to childo adolescents think in ways that are
more danged, more efficient, and generally more com Rex. This ability can
be seen in five ways. First, during adolescence by come better able to
think about what is possible, instead of limiting their to what is real.
Whereas children's thinking is oriented to the here and now that is, to
things and events that they can observe directly adolescents are able to
consider observe against a backdrop of what is possible; they can think
hypothetically. Second, during the passage into adolescence, individuals
become better able to think about abstract ideas. For example, end to allow
to comprehend the sorts of higher-order, abstract logic inherent pros and
analogies. The adolescent's greater facility with abstract thinking also
permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to
social and ideological matters. This is clearly seen in the adolescent's
increased facility and interest in thinking about interpersonal relationships,
politics, philosophy, religion, and morality. Third, during adolescence
potentially negative byproduct of these advances is the tendency for
adolescents to develop a sort of egocentrism, or intense preoccupation with
the self. A fourth change in cognition is that thinking tends to become
multidimensional, rather than limited to a single issue. Whereas children
tend to think about things one aspect at a time. adolescents can see things
through more complicated lenses. Adolescents describe themselves and
others in more differentiated and complicated terms and find it easier to
look at problems from multiple perspectives. Being able to understand that
people's personalities are not onesidied or that social situations can have
different interpretations depending on one's point of view permits the
adolescent to have far more sophisticated and complicated relationships
with other people. Finally, adolescents are more likely than children to see
things as relative, rather than absolute. Children tend to see things in
absolute trois in black and white adolescents, in contrast, tend to see things
as relative. They are more likely to question, others' assertions and less
likely to accept facts as absolute truths. This increase in relativism can be
particularly exasperating to parents who may feel that their adolescent
children question everything just for the sake of argument. Difficulties often
arise, for example when adolescents begin seeing their parents values as
excessively relative Common problems Cognitive impairment is the general
loss or lack of developmenpof cognitive abilities. particularly autism and ,
learning disabilities are not caused by these conditions, nor are they
caused environmental influences such as cultural differences of propriate
instruction. A Parental concerns As of it is widely accented that a child's
intellectual ability is determined by a combination of heredity and although
a child's is unchangeable, there are definite ways tha in enhance their
child's development through environmental factors. They can provide
stimulating learning materials and experiences from an early age, read to
and talk with the world around them. As children mature, parents can both
talents. Although a supportive environment in early childhood provides a
clear advantage for children, it is possible to make up for early losses in
cognitive development if a supportive environment is provided at some later
period, in contrast to early disruptions in physical development, which are
often irreversible. When to call the doctor

If, by age three. a child has problems understanding simple directions or is

perplexed when asked to do something simple, the parents or primary
caregiver should consult a physician or pediatrician. The child may have a
delay in cognitive development, Parents should also consult a healthcare
professional if after age three, their child's cognitive development appears
to be significantly slower than their peers.
 Question No .3
Discuss the process of language development in children. Elaborate
major features and principles of language development given by B.F
Skinner.
Language development: Formning a Sense of Rights and Responsibilities
Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right and good compared to
what is wrong or - Language refers to changes in mom beliefs as a person
grows older and
gains maturity. Moral beliefs are related to, but not identical with, moral
behavior, it is possible to know the right thing to do, but not actually do it. It
is also not the same as knowledge of social conventions, which are
arbitrary customs needed for the smooth operation of society. Social
conventions may have a moral element, but they have a primarily practical
purpose. Conventionally, for example, motor vehicles all keep to the same
side of the street (to the right in the United States, to the left in Great
Britain). The convention allows for smooth, accident free flow of traffic. But
following the convention also has a moral clement, because an individual
who chooses to drive on the wrong side of the street can cause injuries or
even death. In this sense, choosing the wrong side of the street is wrong
morally, though the choice is also unconventional When it comes to
schooling and teaching, moral choices are not restricted to occasional
dramatic incidents, but are woven into almost every aspect of classroom
life. Imagine this simple exam to Suppose that you are teaching, reading to
a small group of secgad-graders, and the students reading a story out loud.
Should you give overy sevent the same amount of time ead, even though
some might benefit from having additional Or should you give me time to
the students who need extra help. et cu sf doindre bores classmates and
depriveapthers of equal shares of "floor time which one is more fait, and
which is more considerles Simple dilemmas like this happen every day all
grade levels simply because students and arse, and because class time
and a Baclict's energy are finite. Embedded in this rather ordid Dunple are
nioral thene s e fairness or justice, on the one hand, and about
consideration or are on the other. It is important to keep both themes in
mind when thinking about how students develop beliefs about right or
wrong. A morality of justice is about human rights and specifically, about
respect for fumess, impartiality, equality, and individuals' independen h
orality of care, on the other hand, is about human responsibilities more
specifically, about caring for others, showing consideration for individuals'
needs, and the entire example of each type of developmental theory,
beginning with the morality of justice. Kohlberg's morality of justice One of
the best-known explanations of how morality of justice develops was
developed by Lawrence Kohlberg and his associates (Kohlberg, Levine, &
Hewer, 1983: Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg. 1991). Using a stage model
similar to Piaget's. Kohlberg proposed six stages of

Language development, grouped into three levels. Individuals experience

the stages universally and in sequence as they form beliefs about justice.
He named the levels simply pre conventional, conventional, and (you
guessed it) post conventional. The levels and stages are summarized in
Table 1. Table 1: Moral stages according to Kohlberg Moral stage
Definition of what is "good" Pre conventional Level Stage 1: Obedience and
punishment Action that is rewarded and not punished Stage 2: Market
exchange
Action that is agreeable to the child and child's partner Conventional Level
Stage 3: Peer opinion
Action that wins approval from friends or peers Stage 4: Law and order
Action that con forms to the community customs or laws Post conventional
Level Stage 5: Social contract
Action that follows socially accepted ways of making Stage 6: Universal
principles
Action that is consistent with se chosen. general principal Pre conventiona
obedience and mutual advantage The preconvention level of Language
development coincides the preschool period of hand with Paget's
preoperational period of think a t this age the child is still relatively self and
insensitive to the moral effects actions on others. The result is a somewhat
s orientation to morality. Initially Dobbery's Stage 1 ), the child adopts an
ethics of punishment for ality of keeping out of trouble." The rightness and
wrongness of actions is determined by whether actions are rewarded or
punished by such as parents or teachers. If helping yourself to a cookie
brings affectionate smiles f o nts then taking the cookie is considered
morally "good." If it brings scolding instead, the itd. Thefelly bad he child
does not think eboutin hy an action might be praised or scolded; in fact,
says Kohiberg, he would be incapable at Stage 1 of considering the
reasons even if adults often Eventually the child learns no only to respond
to positive consequences, but also learns how to produce them by
exchanging favors with others. The new ability creates Stage 2. an ethics of
market exchange. At this stage the morally "good" action is one that favors
not only the child. but another person directly involved. A "bad" action is
one that lacks this reciprocity. If trading the sandwich from your lunch for
the cookies in your friend's lunch is mutually agreeable, then the trade is
morally good; otherwise it is not. This perspective introduces a type of
fairness into
effects on people not present or directly involved. In Stage 2. for example, it
would also be considered morally "good" to pay a classmate to do another
student's homework or even to avoid bullying or to provide sexual favors-
provided that both parties regard the arrangement as being fair.
Conventional justice: conformity to peers and society As children move into
the school years, their lives expand to include a larger number and range of
peers and eventually) of the community as a whole. The change leads to
conventional morality, which are beliefs based on what this larger array of
people agree on--hence Kohlberg's use of the term "conventional." At first,
in Stage 3. the child's reference group are immediate peers, so Stage 3 is
sometimes called the ethics of peer opinion. If peers believe, for example,
that it is morally good to behave politely with as many people as possible,
then the child is likely to agree with the group and to regard politeness as
not merely an arbitrary social convention, but a moral good." This approach
to moral is a bit more stable than the approach in Stage 2. because the
child is taking into account the reactions not just of one other person, but of
many. But it can still lead if the group settles on beliefs that adults
consider morally wrong. like "Shop lifting for candy bars is fun and
desirable." Eventually, as the child becomes a youth and the social world
expands even more, he or she acquires even larger numbers of peers and
friends. He or she is therefore more likely to encounter disagreements
about ethical issues and beliefs. Resolving the complexities Icad to Stage
4. the ethics of Inw and order, in which the young person increasingly
frames moral beliets in terms of what the majority of society believes. Now.
an action is morally good if it is legal or at approved by most people,
including people whom the youth does not know personally. This attitude
leads to an even more stable set of in the previous stage. Ligh it is still not
immune from ethical mistakes. A community or society may agree, for
example, that people of a certain race should be treated with disrespect, or
that a hicory owner is entitled to dump waste water into a

a debate about an issue can sometimes be morally sound even if they

contradict each other. Paying attention to due process certainly seems like
it should help to avoid mindless conformity to conventional moral beliefs.
As an ethical strategy, though, it too can sometimes fail. The problem is
that an ethics of social contract places more faith in democratic process
than the process sometimes deserves, and does not pay enough attention
to the content of what gets decided. In principle (and occasionally in
practice), a society could decide democratically to kill off every member of
a racial minority, for example, but would deciding this by due process make
it ethical? The realization that ethical means can sometimes serve
unethical ends leads some individuals toward Stage 6, the ethics of self
chosen, universal principles. At this final stage, the morally good action is
based on personally principles that apply both to the person's immediate
life as well as to the larger and society. The universal principles may
include a belief in democratic due process , but also other principles, such
as a belief in the dignity of all human life or the sacredness of the natural
environment. At Stage 6. the universal principles will guide a person's
beliefs even if the principles mean disagreeing occasionally with what is
customary (Stage 4) or even with what is legal (Stage 5). Gilligan's morality
of care As logical as they sound, Kohlberg's stages of moral justice are not
sufficient for understanding the development of moral beliefs. To see why
suppose that you have a student who asks for an extension of the deadline
for an assignment. The justice orientation of Kollberg's theory would prompt
you to consider issues of whether granting the request is fair. Would the
late student be able to put more effort into the assignment than other
student? Would extension place a difficult demand on you, since you
would have less time to mark the assignments? These are important
related to the rights of students and ibc teacher. lor adding to these,
however, are having to do with the responsibilities that you and requesting
student have for each other and for others. Does the student have a valid
persyal reason (illness, death in T etc.) for the being late Wallithe lose
Definition of what is morally good
Table 2: Positions of Language development according to Gilligan Position
1: Survival
Action that considers one's personal needs only onentation Position 2.
Conventional Action that considers others' needs or preferences, but not
Care
one's own
Position 3: Integrated care
Action that attempts to coordinate one's own personal needs
with those of others Position I. caring as survival The most basic kind of
caring is a survival orientation in which a person is concerned primarily with
his or her own welfare. If a teenage girl with this ethical position is
wondering whether to get an abortion, for example, she will be entirely
with the effects of the abortion on herself. The morally good
choice will be whatever creates the last stress for herself and that disrupts
her own life the least. Responsibilities to others the baby, the father, or her
family) play little or no part in her thinking. As a moral position, a survival
orientation is obviously not satisfactory for classrooms on a widespread
scale. If every student only looked out for himself or life might become
rather unpleasant! Nonetheless, there are situations in which focusing
primarily on yourself is both a sign of good mental health and relevant to
teachers. For a child who has been bullied at school or sexually abused at
home, for example, it is both healthy and morally desirable to folk out about
how bullying or abuse has affected the Don others' news, including the
bully's or Speaking out in this case, requires a survival orientation find is
healthy because the child moral tog is caring for others, in which a person
is about others' happiness and welfare, and its reconciling og integrating
others Deeds where they conflict with each other. In considering solution,
for examples at this position would think primarily about what other
people prefer. Do the father, her parents, and/or her doctor want her to
keep the The morally good choice becomes whatever will please others
the best. This position is not than Position 1. ethically and intellectually,
because it requires coordinating t' needs and values. But it is often morally
insufficient because it ignores one crucial person: the self.. In classrooms,
students who desirable in some ways, they can be eager to please,
considerate, and hilting in and at working cooperatively with others.
Because these qualities are usually welcome in a busy classroom, teachers
can be tempted to reward students for developing and using them. The
problem with rewarding Position 2 ethics, however, is that doing so
neglects the student's development-his or her own academic and personal
goals or values. Sooner or later. personal goals, values, and identity need
 attention and care, and educators have a responsibility for assisting
students to discover and clarify them. Position 3: integrated caring The
most developed form of moral caring in Gilligan's model is integrated
caring, the coordination of personal needs and values with those of others.
Now the morally good choice takes account of everyone including yourself,
not everyone except yourself. In considering an abortion, a woman at
Position 3 would think about the consequences for the father, the child,
and her family, but also about the consequences for herself. How would
bearing a child affect her own needs, values, and plans? This perspective
leads to moral beliefs that are more comprehensive, but ironically are also
more prove to dilemmas because the widest possible range of individuals
are being considered. In classrooms, integrated caring is most likely to
surface whenever teachers give students wide. sustained freedom to make
choices of students have little about their actions, there is little room for
considering anyone's needs or values, whether their own or others. If the
teacher says simply: "Do the homework on page 50 and turn it in fomorrow
morning," then the main issue becomes compliance, not moral choice. But
suppose instead that she says something like this: "Over the next two
months, figure out an inquiry project about the use of water resources in
our town. Organize it any way you wanfo-talk to people, read widely about
it, and share it with the class in a way that all of us, including yourself, will
find meaningful." An assignment like this poses moral challenges that are
not only educational, but also moral, since it requires students to make
value judgments, Why? For one thing, students must decide what aspect of
the topic really matters to them. Such a decision is partly a matter of
personal values. For another thing, student Dave to consider how to make
the topic meaningful or important others in the class. Third, the tine line for
is
 Question NO.4
Write brief but up comprehensive note on the followings Mastery
Learning?
It appears to be a simple task to d o what we mean by be term learning.
After all we have spent our entire lives learning new things. When asked to
provide a definition of learning we usually offer such Knowing something
sound know before Gaining knowledge and skills.
Benefiting from instruction Developing your intelligence. Acquiring a
different perspective on the world. Learning as a phenomenon has always
fascinated people in many different disciplines, and there are many
theories and thoughts about what l is. Learning is relatively permanent
change in mental processing, emotional functioning, and/or behavior as a
result of experience.
Learning is the process of understanding, clarifying, and applying the
meaning of the knowledge acquired. Furthermore, it can also be an
exploration, discovery, refinement, and extension of the learner's meaning
of knowledge Overall, learning occurs when an individual's behavior or
knowledge changes. Learning has also been defined from the perspectives
of two major bodies of learning theory to explain how people learn:
behaviorism and Behaviorism - views learning as a change in observable
behavior or performance resulting from external r that stimulate change.
To be considered learning, a change in performance must come about as a
result of the learner's interaction with the environment - views learning as
occurring when a new experience alters some unobservable mental
processes that may or may not be manifested by a change in behavior or
performance As a myself, my idea of learning is that it is lifelong, and it is a
dynamic process by which we acquire new knowledge or skills and alter
our thoughts, feelings. attitudes, and actions. We human beings. at our
best, we do things for a reason or goal and strive to make meanings of our
lives. People develop a knowledge base through conditioningy the
environment: or through seeking information and thinking about the subject
based on their maturation and prior knowledge. When knowledge is
purposely put into practice it leads to behavioral competenee and, through
reflection, to wisdom Phases in Information Processing The information
processing cycle, in the context of computers and computer processing,
has Tour stages: input, processing. output and storage (IPOS). Howeyer, at
sound levels within a computer, some processing devices actually only use
throc of these stages input, processing and output - hout the need to store
data. Each of these stages plays an important role in the collection, analys
and distribution actions performed by a computer system. Input Processing
Data must enter t em before it can be processed into cither stored data Cry
Formation output. The input stay of IPOS provides the means and
mechanisms thuruths which data enters the IPOS model. Sonderarts
believe the input process itself could holded into as many as three stages:
collection, partion and input. However, the generacy of the input stage is
that data is input into a system some form of an input An input device is
able to collect a crat its source or poihopheasurement. The source of data
entered into the system by a human is through a keyboard, microphone or
perhaps even the movement of eyes or more hody part. Other forms of
input devices such as thermometers. Serisors and clocks, a sudah the
general definition of input devices. The input stage of could also be
referred to as the encoding stage. Data Processing
Once data enters the model is processed to mer stort data or information.
The processing agent is typically some form of software or firmware, with a
specific action taken on a particular type of data. In a portable or desktop
computer, it is common for the processing agent to be active even before
the data enters. In fact, it is also common for the processing software to
request data and guide its input process. Processing can range from
relatively small and simple to very large and complex. Regardless.

the sole purpose of the processing stage is to the raw input data into a
form that can be stored for later use or provide information output for
further processing or interpretation Output Processing Output processing in
IPOS sends information to a display screen, a printer, a plotter, a speaker
or some other medium that human senses can interpret. However, the
output stage could store the data in a new format or transform the
processed data into an input to another module as well. For most users,
output means either a display on a monitor screen or a printed document or
graphic. Output can also mean data information or coding. Storage
Processing The storage stage of can occur directly from or to the
processing or the output stages. The storage stage can serve as a pseudo-
input or pseudo-output stage for the processing stage. The processing
stage may need to store data for later disc or recall previously stored data
for processing new data from the input stage. The output stage may store
processed data as information for display by another IPOS module when
needed. The storage stage does not only store data or information on a
fixed storage medium, such as a hard disk, but can also store data and
information on removable media, such as a flash drive, CD-ROM or DVD.
 Question NO.5
Comparatively discuss the behaviorist and Cognitive theories of
learning. Explain the underlying concepts and assumptions with the
help of relevant examples.
Associative learning is a theory that states that ideas reinforce each other
and can be linked to one another. This lesson will explain the theory of
associative learning as well as provide some practical, real-life examples of
this type of Seaming Associative Learning Sit back and De your eyes.
Relax yourself and get ready to recall some really accific details Imagine
your adher's left eyebrow. Not her right eyebrow. Not her eves. Just left
eyebrow, Hard, isn't it? Will you try to envision your inother's eyebrow, you
see her yes. cheeks. forehead, nose,

Associative learning can be a powerful classroom management and

teaching tool and has many uses in the class roon man he used to help
students connect with information more deeply and recall that greater
accuracy Associative Learning and Behavior Associative learning is a
forum can be modified or learned based on a stimulus And means that
can be learned or unlearned based on the response it generates. For
example, a student might know that if she misbehaves in class (stimulus),
she will not be permitted to go out for recess (response). This type of can
be helpful in classroom management. Much like conditioning, associative
memory can be called upon bused on the relationship between two stimuli.
Using both positive and negative (stimuli used to change

behavior), teachers can help students modify their behavior. Some

examples of positive reinforcement are: Awarding good grades for work
that is well done. Allowing students lo watch a video for finishing an
assignment. Verbally rewarding students for their effort and hard work.
Giving students a 'punch' in their punch card each time they do something
well. When the punch is full, the student receives a reward. By using
positive reinforcement, teachers can condition students to associate good
work and good behavior with a reward. On the other hand, negative
reinforcement can be used to punish students for poor behavior. Some
examples of negative reinforcement are: Removing recess from students
who act out in class. Taking points off of work that is tumed in late. Not
allowing a student who is misbehaving to sit with his friends Using a chart
to document the number of times a student has misbehaved (using
stickers). When the chart line is full, the student loses a classroom privilege
Associative Learning and Teaching Associative memory can be a powerful
teaching tool. Because associative learning relies on the principle that
ideas and experience can be linked together and ultimately reinforce one
another, association can be used to help students remember information +
Theories of learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conceloning Cognitive
Theme Social Learning . These are explain Classical Conditioning
Classical of conditioning in which an ponds to some stimulus that would
not o produce such as response. 11 is the process of learning 16 Gal a
particular thing is the Vironment with a prediction of what will happen next
Classical conditioning the association of such an event with another
desired event resulting in behavior, is one of the skies understand
processes of leurning When we think of the subconditioning the first name
that comes to our mind is Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist. The
normal stimulus for a fr ames the age ya Bu ten the mouth waters at the
mere sight of luscious peach. Wh Meanifier deserted in Parking about it.
Thus, one situation is substituted for another to elicit behavior. This is
called conditioning. In the case of classical conditioning, a simple surgical
procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva
secreted by a dog. When Pavlov presented one dog with a piece of meat,
the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld
the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did
not salivate. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the
bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would
salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered. In
classical conditioning, learning involves a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus. Here, the meat was unconditioned stimulus; it
invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way. The reaction that took
place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred was called the
unconditioned response. Here, the bell was a conditioned stimulus. When
the bell was paired with the meat it eventually produced a response when
presented alone. This is a conditioned response Operant conditioning The
second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning, Here, we learn
that a particular behavior is usually followed by a reward or punishment.
What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard psychologist B.F.
Skinner did for operant conditioning. Operant conditioning argues that
one's beltavior will depend on different situations. People will repeatedly
behave in a specific way from where they will get benefits. On the other
hand, they will try to avoid a bchavior from where they will get nothing.
Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences to specific forms of
behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior. In one famous
experiment displaying operant learning, the psychologist BF Skinner
trained rats to press to get food. In this experiment, u hungry rat placed in
a box a lever attached to some concealed food. At first, the rat round the
box randomly. In this process, opened to press the lever, and the food
dropped into them. The dropping of food-reinforced the response of
pressing the lever. After repeating the price of pressing the lever followed
such as a practice or using our memory One example might be that you
were taught how to tell time by looking at a.clock. Someone taught you the
meaning of the big hand and little hand, and you might have had to practice
telling the time when you were first learning it. This process of learning was
entirely inside your mind and didn't involve any physical motions or
behaviors. It was all cognitive meaning an internal thought process.
The theory has been used to explain mental processes as they are
influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which eventually bring
about learning in an individual. On the other hand, ineffective cognitive
processes result in learning difficulties that can be seen anytame during the
lifetime of an individual Social Learning Theory The social learning theory
also called observational leaming, stresses the ability of an individual to
learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told
about something One can learn things by observing models, parents,
teachers, peers. motion pictures, TV artists, bosses, and others. Many
patterns of behavior are learned by watching the behaviors of others and
observing its consequences for them. In this theory, it is said that the
influence of models is the central issue. 4 processes have been found to
determine the influence that a model will have on an individual. These
processes are: Attention process People learn from a model only when
they recognize and pay attention to its critical features If the learner is not
attentive they would not able to learn anything. We tend to be most
influenced by attractive models, repeatedly available, which we think is
important, or we see as similar to us. Retention process A model's
influence depends on how well the individuals remember the nodels'
actions after the model is no longer readily available. Motor process After a
personely seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching mu?
be converted to doing. It invorecall the model's behaviors and performing
own fiction und matching them with those of the model This process then
0 At last, we can say that social leaming theory is a function of
consequences. It also acknowledges the exista observational learning and
the importance of perception in learning. In this case, a person who wants
to leam should identify the target behavior and select the appropriate model
and modernegut they pu t ea favorable learning environment and observe
the model