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Static & Dynamic Characteristics

of Electrical Measuring
Instruments
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Characteristics of electrical measuring instruments:

The performance characteristics of electrical measuring instruments can be divided

into two categories:

1) Static characteristics
2) Dynamic characteristics
1) Static characteristics of Electrical Measuring
Instruments:
Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are either constant or
vary slowly with time.Under these circumstances, it is possible to define a set of criteria
that gives a meaningful description of the quality of measurement without interfering with
dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential equations.These criteria are called
static characteristics.

The main static characteristics are

i) Accuracy:

It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity being measured.Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformity to
truth.It the important static characteristic of electrical measuring instruments.

Accuracy can be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of errors and can be

expressed in the following ways:

a.Point accuracy:
This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.The specification of
this accuracy does not give any information about the accuracy at other points on the
scale or in the words, does not give any information about the general accuracy of the
instrument.

b.Accuracy as percentage of scale range:

When an instrument has uniform scale, it's accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale
range.

c.Accuracy as percentage of true value:

The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of
the quantity being measured within +0.5% or -0.5% of true value.
ii)Precision:

It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements i.e., given a fixed value

of quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements. The term precise means clearly or sharply defined.As an example of the
difference in meaning of the two terms accuracy and precision, suppose that we have an
ammeter which possesses high degree of precision by virtue of its clearly legible, finely
divided, distinct scale and a knife edge pointer with mirror arrangements to remove
parallax.It is also the important static characteristic of electrical measuring
instruments.

Let us say that its readings can be taken to 1/100 of an ampere. Now every
time we take a reading, the ammeter is as precise as ever, we can take readings down to
1/100 of an ampere and the readings are consistent and clearly defined. However, the
readings taken with this ammeter are not accurate, since they do not confirm to truth on
account of its faulty zero adjustment.
iii)Stability:

The ability of a measuring system to maintain standard of performance over prolonged

periods of time. Zero stability defines the ability of an instrument restore to zero reading
after the input quantity has been brought to zero, while other conditions remain the
same.
iV)Resolution:

If the input to an instrument increases slowly from some arbitrary non-zero value, it will
be observed that the output of the instrument does not change at all until there is a
certain minimum increment in the input. This minimum increment in what is input is
called resolution of the instrument.Thus, the resolution is defined as the smallest
incremental of the input quantity to which the measuring system responds.This is the
third most important static characteristic of electrical measuring instruments.

Resolving power or discrimination power is defined as the ability of the system to

respond to small changes of the input quantity. One of the major factors influencing the
resolution of an instrument is how finely its output scale is subdivided. If the input to an
instrument is increased very gradually from zero value, there will be some minimum value
of input below which no output change can be observed or detected. This minimum value
of input defines the threshold of the instrument.
V)Threshold:

If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value
defines the threshold of the instrument.In specifying threshold, the first detectable output
change is often described as being any noticeable measurable change.
vi)Drift :

It is a slow variation in the output signal of a transducer or measuring system

which is not due to any change in the input quantity. It is primarily due to changes in
operating conditions of the components inside the measuring system. The drift is
noticeable as zero drift and sensitivity drift.

Zero drift is a deviation observed in the instrument output with time from the
initial value, all the other measurement conditions are constant. This may be caused by a
change in component values due to variation in ambient conditions or due to
ageing.Typical units by which zero drift is measured are volts per °C in the case of a
voltmeter affected by changes in ambient temperature.This is often called the zero drift
coefficient related to temperature changes.
vii)Repeatability:

It is the characteristic of precision electrical measuring instruments. It

describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively
over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and
observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout. It is affected
by internal noise and drift.

It is expressed in percentage of the true value. Measuring transducers are in

continuous use in process control operations and the repeatability of the performance of
the transducer is more important than the accuracy of the transducer, from considerations
of consistency in product quality.
viii) Reproducibility:

It is the closeness with which the same value of the input quantity is measured at
different times and under different conditions of usage of the instrument and by different
instruments. The output signals and indications are checked for consistency over
prolonged periods and at different locations. Perfect reproducibility ensures
interchangeability of instruments and transducers.
ix) Dead Zone:

It is the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument. For instance, the input applied to the instrument may not be sufficient to
overcome the friction and will, in that case not move at all.

It is due to either static friction(stiction), backlash or hysteresis.Dead zone is also

known as dead band dead Space. All elastic mechanical elements used as primary
transducers exhibit effects of hysteresis, creep and elastic after- effect to some extent.
X)Backlash:

The maximum distance or angle through which any part of the mechanical
system may be moved in one direction without applying appreciable force or motion to
the next part in a mechanical sequence.
XI)Hysteresis:

Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when loading and
unloading whether it is a mechanical system or any electrical system or any other
system.Hysteresis is the difference in the readings of an instrument, which fixed value of
the input signal, which depends on whether that input value is approached from
increasing or decreasing values of input.That is upscale and down scale deflections do not
coincide when the measurement is made of the same value by the method of
symmetry.The non-coincidence between the loading and unloading curves is known as
hysteresis.
Xii)Linearity:

It defines the proportionality between input quantity and output signal. If the
sensitivity is constant for all values from zero to full scale value of the measuring system,
then the calibration characteristic is linear and is a straight line passing through the
origin.If it is an indicating or recording instrument the scale may be made linear.In case
there is a zero error the characteristic assumes the form of the equation given by
y=mx+c where y is output,x is input,m is slope and c is intercept.

Linearity is the closeness of the calibration curve of a measuring system to a

straight line.If an instruments calibration curve for desired input is not a straight line, the
instrument may still be highly accurate. In many applications, however, linear response is
most desirable.
Xiii)Range or Span:

Span and range are the two terms that convey the information about the lower
and apa calibration points.The range of indicating instruments is normally from zero to full
scale value and the Span is simply the difference between the full scale and lower scale
value.But same instruments operate under a bias so that they start reading, for example,
voltages from 5V to 25V only. The zero of these instruments is suppressed from indication
by means of a bias. In such case, the scale range is said to be from 5V to 25V and the
scale span is 25-5 i.e.,20V.
Xiv)Bias:

Bias describes a constant error which exits over the full range of measurement of an
instrument. The error is normally removable by calibration.
XV)Tolerance:

It is a term which is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error
which is to be expected in some value.While it is not, strictly speaking, a static
characteristic of measuring instruments, it is mentioned here because the accuracy of
some instruments, is sometimes quoted as a tolerance figure. Tolerance, when used
correctly, describe the maximum deviation of a manufactured component from some
specified value.Electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps
5%.
2) Dynamic characteristics of Electrical Measuring
Instruments :
Measurement systems having inputs dynamic in nature, the input varies from instant to
instant, so does the output.The behaviour of the system under such conditions is dealt by
the dynamic response of the system and its dynamic characteristics of electrical
measuring instruments are given below:
1. Dynamic error:

It is the difference of true value of the quantity changing with the time the value indicated
by the instrument provided static error is zero.Total dynamic error is the phase difference
between input and output of the measurement system.
2. Fidelity:

It is the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.In the
definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference is not included.Ideally a system
should have 100% fidelity and the output should appear in the same form as the input
and there is no distortion produced by the system. Fidelity needs are different for different
applications.
3. Bandwidth:

It is the range of frequencies for which its dynamic sensitivity is satisfactory.For

measuring systems, the dynamic sensitivity is required to be within 2% of its statics
sensitivity.

For other physical systems, electrical filters electronic amplifiers, the above criterion is
relaxed with the result that their bandwidth specification extend to frequencies at which
the dynamic sensitivity is 70.7 % of that at zero or the mid- frequency.
4. Speed of response:

It refers to its ability to respond to sudden changes of amplitude of input signal. It is

usually specified as the time taken by the system to come close to steady state
conditions, for a step input function. Hence the speed of response is evaluated from the
knowledge of the system performance under transient conditions and terms such as time
constant, measurement lag, settling time and dead time dynamic range are used to
convey the response of the variety of systems, encountered in practice.This is the
important dynamic characteristics of electrical measuring instruments.
5. Time constant:

It is associated with the behaviour of a first order system and is defined as the time taken
by the system to reach 0.632 times its final output signal amplitude. System having small
time constant attains its final output amplitude earlier than the one with larger time
constant and therefore, has higher speed of response.
6. Measurement lag:

It is defined as the delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the

measurand. This lag is usually quite small but it becomes quite significant where high-
speed measurements are required.

Measurement lag is of two types. In retardation type, the response of the instrument
begins immediately after a change in the measurand has occurred. In time delay type, the
response of the system begins after a delay time after application of the input.
7. Settling time:

It is the time required by the instrument or measurement system to settle down to

its final steady state position after the application of the input.For portable instruments, it
is the time taken by the pointer to come to rest within - 0.3% to +0.3% of its final scale
length while for panel type instruments, it is the time taken by the pointer to come to rest
within -1% to +1% of its final scale length.
Smaller settling time indicates the highest speed of response.Settling time is also
dependent on the system parameters and varies with the conditions under which the
system operates.This is also the important dynamic characteristics of electrical
measuring instruments.

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