Electrical

Engineering
And Electronics
 Text
Required Text
– A. R. Hambley, "Electrical Engineering Principles and
Applications", Prentice Hall, Fifth Edition.
– Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku,
“Fundamentals of Electric Circuits”, McGraw-Hill,
fourth edition
– John Bird, “Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology”,
second edition
– James W. Nilsson, Susan A. Riedet,”ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS”
– A. E. Fitzgerald , Charles Kingsley, Jr. , Stephen D.
Umans ,”Electric Machinery” , McGraw-Hill, Sixth
Edition
 Syllabus
1.Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering (Current,
Voltage, Resistance, Conductance, Ohm’s Law)
2.Circuit Analysis (Kirkoff’s Voltage & Current Laws,
Voltage & Current Dividers, Node/Loop Analysis)
3.Equivalent Circuits (Thevenin, Norton, Source
Transformations, Superposition)
4.AC Analysis (Sinusoidal Signals, Complex Numbers,
Phasors, Phasor Circuits, AC Power, AC Thevenin)
5.Magnetic Circuits (Materials, Self-Inductance, Mutual-
Inductance, Transformers)
 Quizzes
• The quizzes will cover the topics
covered in the previous lectures and the
topics from the reading assignments
• The quizzes will be given at the
beginning of class so please be on-time!
 How to pass this course
• Read each section of the text before class
• Work out each example as you read
through the text (before class)
– I will work through the examples in class
• Do the homework by yourself
• Be sure to understand any example or
homework problem you got wrong
– Bring questions to your TA’s section
 Lecture 01
An Introduction
to
Electric Circuits
Standard symbols for
electrical components
 Basic Components
and Electric Circuits
 UNITS AND SCALES

• The fundamental unit of work or energy is the joule (J).

• One joule (a kg m2 s−2 in SI base units) is equivalent to 0.7376
foot pound-force (ft · lbf).
• Other energy units include the calorie (cal), equal to 4.187 J;
 Electric current and quantity of
electricity
Electrical current is the time rate of
flow of electrical charge through a
conductor or circuit element. The units
are amperes (A), which are equivalent
to coulombs per second (C/s).
 Electrical Current

i (t ) = dq (t )
t
dt
q(t ) =  i (t )dt + q(t0 )
t0
Reference directions can
be indicated by labeling
the ends of circuit
elements and using
double subscripts on
current variables. The
reference direction for
iab points from a to b.
On the other hand, the
reference direction for
iba points from b to a.
An electrical circuit consists of circuit elements, such
as voltage sources, resistances, inductances, and
capacitances, connected in closed paths by
conductors.
 In analyzing circuits, we frequently start
by assigning current variables i1, i2, i3, and
so forth.
 Direct Current
Alternating Current
• When a current is constant with time,
we say that we have direct current,
abbreviated as dc.
• On the other hand, a current that varies
with time, reversing direction
periodically, is called alternating
current, abbreviated as ac.
 .

Examples of dc and ac currents versus time.

Ac currents can have various
waveforms.
 Potential Difference and
Resistance
• For a continuous current to flow between two
points in a circuit a potential difference (pd) or
voltage V, is required between them.
•
• A complete conducting path is necessary to and
from the source of electrical energy. The unit of
pd is the volt V.
The voltage vab
has a reference
polarity that is
positive at point
a and negative
at point b.

Vab = - Vba
• The flow of electric current is subject to
friction. This friction, or opposition, is called
resistance R and is the property of a conductor
that limits current.
• The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
• 1 Ω is defined as the resistance which will
have a current of 1 ampere flowing
through it when 1 volt is connected across
it.
• i.e.
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
• 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑹 =
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
 Basic Electrical Measuring
Instruments
• An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and
must be connected in series with the circuit. Figure shows an
ammeter connected in series with the lamp to measure the
current flowing through it. Since all the current in the circuit
passes through the ammeter it must have a very low
resistance.
 Basic Electrical Measuring
Instruments
• A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure pd. And must
be connected in parallel with the part of the circuit whose pd
is required. In Figure, a voltmeter is connected in parallel with
the lamp to measure the pd across it. To avoid a significant
current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a very high
resistance.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring
resistance.
• A multimeter, or universal instrument, may
be used to measure voltage, current and
resistance. An ‘Avometer’ is a typical
example.
• Ohm’s law
• Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing
in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage V and inversely
proportional to the resistance R, provided
the temperature remains constant. Thus,
𝑉 𝑉
•𝐼 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 =
𝑅 𝐼

Problem
The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20
V is applied. Determine the value of the resistance.
𝑽 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎
From Ohm’s law, resistance 𝑹 = = = = 𝟐𝟓Ω
𝑰 𝟎.𝟖 𝟖
Prefix Name Meaning

M mega multiply by 1000 000 (i.e.×106)

K kilo multiply by 1000 (i.e.×103)

M milli divide by 1000 (i.e. × 10-3)

 micro divide by 1000 000 (i.e. × 10-6)

n nano divide by 1000 000 000 (i.e. × 10-9)

P pico divide by 1000 000 000 000 (i.e. × 10-12)

Rewrite the following as indicated:
(a) 1000 pF= . . . . . . nF
(b) 0.02 μF= . . . . . . pF
(c) 5000 kHz= . . . . . . MHz
(d) 47 k= . . . . . . M
(e) 0.32mA=. . . . . . μA

[(a) 1 nF (b) 20000 pF (c) 5MHz

(d) 0.047M (e) 320 μA]
 Conductance
1
G=
R
i = Gv
The units of conductance are 1/ Ω or ℧.

The units are called “mho”

• Problem
• Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a 2 kΩ
resistor in order that a current of 10 mA may flow.
• Resistance R = 2 kΩ = 2 × 103 = 2000 Ω
• Current I =10 mA =10 ×10-3 A
• From Ohm’s law, potential difference, V = IR = (0.01)
(2000) = 20 V
• Problem
• A coil has a current of 50 mA flowing through it
when the applied voltage is 12 V. What is the
resistance of the coil?
𝑽 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
• 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑹 = = = = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 Ω
𝑰 𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝟓𝟎
•
Problem
A 100 V battery is connected across a resistor and causes
a current of 5 mA to flow. Determine the resistance of
the resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to 25 V, what
will be the new value of the current flowing?
𝑽 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑹 = = −𝟑
=
𝑰 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝟎
= 𝟐𝟎 𝑲Ω
Current when voltage is reduced to 25 V,

𝑽 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟑
𝑰= = 𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑨
𝑹 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
 Conductors and insulators
A conductor is a material having a low resistance
which allows electric current to flow in it. All
metals are conductors and some examples
include copper, aluminum, brass, platinum, silver,
gold and carbon.

An insulator is a material having a high resistance

which does not allow electric current to flow in it.
Some examples of insulators include plastic,
rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica,
ceramics and certain oils.
 Electrical power and energy
Electrical power
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product
of potential difference V and current I. The unit of
power is the watt, W. Hence
P = V × I watts
From Ohm’s law, V = I × R, Substituting for V in
equation gives:
P = I ×R× I
i.e. P = R I2 watts
 𝑽
Also, from Ohm’s law, 𝑰 =
𝑹
Substituting for I in equation gives:
𝑽 𝑽 𝟐
𝑷=𝑽× = 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑹 𝑹
There are thus three possible
formulae, which may be used for
calculating power.
Problem
A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V
supply. Determine
(a) The current flowing in the bulb.
(b) The resistance of the bulb.
𝑽
Power P = V × I, from which, current 𝑰 =
𝑹
𝑷 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(a) Current 𝑰 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝑨
𝑽 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑽 𝟐𝟓𝟎
(b) Resistance 𝑹 = = = 𝟔𝟐𝟓 Ω
𝑰 𝟎.𝟒

Problem
Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4 mA
flows through a resistance of 5 kΩ
Power P = I2 R = (4 × 10-3)2 (5 × 103) = 0.08 watts
Problem
An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 Ω. What current will flow when
it is connected to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the
kettle.
𝑽 𝟐𝟒𝟎
Current 𝑰= = =𝟖𝑨
𝑹 𝟑𝟎
Power, P = VI = 240 × 8 = 1920 W = 1.92 kW
= power rating of the kettle
Problem
A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric motor, the
resistance of the winding being 100 Ω. Determine:
(a) The p.d. across the winding,
(b) The power dissipated by the coil.

Potential difference across winding,

V = I R = 5 × 100 = 500 V
(b) Power dissipated by coil,
P = I2 R = 52× 100 = 2500 watts = 2.5 K watts
Problem
The current/voltage relationship for two resistors A
and B is as shown in Figure. Determine the value of
the resistance of each resistor.
For resistor A
𝑽 𝟐𝟎
𝑹= =
𝑰 𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 Ω 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝑲Ω
For resistor B
𝑽 𝟏𝟔
𝑹= =
𝑰 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω 𝒐𝒓 𝟑. 𝟐 𝑲Ω
Electrical energy
Electrical energy = power × time
If the power is measured in watts and the
time in seconds, then the unit of energy is
watt-seconds or joules. If the power is
measured in kilowatts and the time in hours
then the unit of energy is kilowatt-hours,
often called the ‘unit of electricity’. The
‘electricity meter’ in the home records the
number of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an
energy meter.
Problem
A 12 V battery is connected across a load having a
resistance of 40Ω. Determine the current flowing
in the load, the power consumed, and the energy
dissipated in 2 minutes.
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
Current 𝑰= = = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑨
𝑹 𝟒𝟎
Power consumed, P = VI
= (12) × (0.3) = 3.6W
Energy dissipated = power × time
= (3.6) × (2 × 60 s) =432 J
(Since 1 J = 1Ws)
1. 60 μs is equivalent to:
(a) 0.06 (b) 0.00006 s
(c) 1000 minutes (d) 0.6 s

2. The current which flows when 0.1 coulomb is

transferred in 10 ms is:
(a) 1A (b) 10A
(c) 10mA (d) 100mA

3. The p.d. applied to a 1 k resistance in order that a

current of 100 μA may flow is:
1V (b) 100V
(c) 0.1V (d) 10V
4. The power dissipated by a resistor of 4 Ω when a
current of 5A passes through it is:
(a) 6.25W (b) 20W
(c) 80W (d) 100W

5. Which of the following statements is true?

a) Electric current is measured in volts
b) 200 k Ω resistance is equivalent to 2M
c) An ammeter has a low resistance and must be
connected in parallel with a circuit
d) An electrical insulator has a high resistance
6. A current of 3A flows for 50 h through a 6Ω
resistor. The energy consumed by the resistor is:
(a) 0.9 kWh (b) 2.7 kWh
(c) 9 kWh (d) 27 kWh

7. A 240V, 60Wlamp has a working resistance of:

(a) 1400 ohm (b) 60 ohm
(c) 960 ohm (d) 325 ohm
8. The largest number of 100W electric light
bulbs which can be operated from a 240V
supply fitted with a 13A fuse is:
(a) 2 (b) 7
(c) 31 (d) 18

9. The energy used by a 1.5kW heater in

5 minutes is:
(a) 5 J (b) 450 J
(c) 7500 J (d) 450 000 J
The Ampere
Current is a measure of the rate at which charge carriers flow. The
standard unit is the ampere. The abbreviation is A. Often, current is
specified in terms of milliamperes, abbreviated mA, where 1 mA = 0.001 A.
• A current of a few milliamperes will give you a startling shock. About 50 mA
will jolt you severely, and 100 mA can cause death if it flows through your
chest cavity.
• An ordinary 100-watt light bulb draws about 1 A of current in a household
utility circuit.
• An electric iron draws approximately 10 A;
• An entire household normally uses between 10 and 50 A, depending on the
size of the house and the kinds of appliances it has, and also on the time of
day, week, or year.
Electrical potential and e.m.f.
The unit of electric potential is the volt (V), where one
volt is one
joule per coulomb. One volt is defined as the difference
in potential between two points in a conductor, when
carrying a current of one ampere, dissipates a power of
one watt, i.e.
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 = = =
𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔
• A change in electric potential between two points in an electric
circuit is called a potential difference.
• The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of energy
such as a battery or a generator is measured in volts.
Resistance and conductance
Resistance is a measure of the opposition that a circuit offers to
the flow of electric current. The unit of electric resistance is the
ohm (Ω), where one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined as
the resistance between two points in a conductor when a constant
electric potential of one volt applied at the two points produces a
current flow of one ampere in the conductor. Thus,
𝑽
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔 𝑹 =
𝑰
where, V is the potential difference across the two points, in volts,
and I is the current flowing between the two points, in amperes.
When 1 V is placed across 1 Ω of resistance, assuming that the
power supply can deliver an unlimited number of charge carriers,
there is a current of 1 A. If the resistance is doubled to 2 Ω, the
current decreases to 0.5 A. If the resistance is cut by a factor of 5
to 0.2 Ω, the current increases by the same factor, to 5 A.
 Circuit Elements
We classify circuit elements as passive and active.
Passive elements cannot generate energy. Common examples of
passive elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors. We will
see later than capacitors and inductors can store energy
but cannot generate energy.
Active elements can generate energy. Common examples of
active elements are power supplies, batteries, operational
amplifiers.
For the present time we will be concerned only with sources.
The types of sources we consider are
independent and dependent.
 Ideal independent voltage source
An ideal independent voltage source is characterized as having
a constant voltage across its terminals, regardless of the load
connected to the terminals.
The ideal voltage source can supply any amount of current.
Furthermore, the ideal independent voltage source can supply
any amount of power.
The standard symbols of the ideal independent voltage source
are shown below.

Most often
+ Sometimes
_ used E
v(t) used
 Ideal independent current sources
An ideal independent current source is characterized as
providing a constant value of current, regardless of the load.

If the current source is truly ideal, it can provided any value

of voltage and any amount of power.

The standard symbol used for the ideal independent current

source is shown below.

i(t) 1 amp V 1 meg 

-
V=?
DEPENDENT SOURCES
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active
element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-
shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. Since the control of the
dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of
some other element in the circuit, and the source can be
voltage or current.

(a) Dependent voltage source,

(b) Dependent current source.
Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as
transistors, operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits. An
example of a current-controlled voltage source is shown on the
right-hand side of Fig., where the voltage of the voltage source
depends on the current I through element C. Students might be
surprised that the value of the dependent voltage source is V
(and not A) because it is a voltage source. The key idea to keep
in mind is that a voltage source comes with polarities in its
symbol, while a current source comes with an arrow,
irrespective of what it depends on

The source on the

right-hand side is a
current-controlled
voltage source.
 10  20 

Iy
30 
A circuit with a current
+
5V _ 10Iy 12  controlled dependent
voltage source.

10  20 

30 
+
A circuit with a voltage
5V
+_ 4vx vx 12  controlled dependent
_
current source
Problem
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by
each element in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10
For P4, we should note that the voltage is 8 V (positive at
the top), the same as the voltage for P3, since both the
passive element and the dependent source are
connected to the same terminals. (Remember that
voltage is always measured across an element in a
circuit.) Since the current flows out of the positive
terminal,
P4 = 8(−0.2I) = 8(−0.2 × 5) =−8 W Supplied power
We should observe that the 20-V independent voltage
source and 0.2I dependent current source are supplying
power to the rest of the network, while the two passive
elements are absorbing power. Also,
P1 + P2 +P3 +P4 = -100 +60 +48 – 8 = 0
The total power supplied equals the total power
absorbed.
The 5-A current is out of the positive
terminal (or into the negative terminal);
hence,
P1 = 20(−5) =−100 W Supplied power
For P2 and P3, the current flows into the
positive terminal of the element in each
case.
P2 = 12(5) = 60 W Absorbed power
P3 = 8(6) = 48 W Absorbed power
Figure . depicts the current-voltage characteristic of three
different resistive elements. Determine the resistance of each,
assuming the voltage and current are defined in accordance with
the passive sign convention.
The following experimental data is acquired for an
unmarked resistor, using a variable-voltage power
supply and a current meter. The current meter readout is
somewhat unstable, unfortunately, which introduces
error into the measurement.

(a)Plot the measured current-versus-voltage

characteristic.
(b)Using a best-fit line, estimate the value of
the resistance