CHAPTER 9: DETERMINING TIME SETTING OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness, water-
cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and admixtures. Setting tests are used to
characterize how a particular cement pastes sets. For construction purposes, the initial set must not
be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Additionally, setting times can give some
indications of whether or not a cement is undergoing normal hydration (PCA, 1998). Normally, two
setting times are defined (Mindness and Young, 1981):
1. Initial Set - occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
2. Final Set - occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some
load.
These particular times are just arbitrary points used to characterized cement they do not have
any fundamental chemical significance. They describe the setting of the cement and are not tied to
the setting time of concrete.
Both common setting time tests that vicat needle and the gillmore needle, define initial set and
final set based on the time at which a needle of particular size and weight either penetrates a cement
paste sample to a given depth or fails to penetrate a cement paste sample. The vicat needle test is
more common and tends to give shorter times than the gillmore needle test. Table 1 shows ASTM
C150 set times.
Test Method Set Type Time Specification
Vicat Initial > or = 45 minutes
Final < or = 375 minutes
Gillmore Initial > or = 60 minutes
Final < or = 600 minutes
Standard Test Methods:
AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191 - time setting of hydraulic cement (Vicat).
AASHTO T 154 - time setting of hydraulic cement (Gillmore).
ASTM C266 - time of setting of hydraulic cement paste (Gillmore).
CHAPTER 10: TESTING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE STEEL BARS
Tensile Strength - ability of a material to withstand a pulling force. It is customarily measured in
units of force per cross-sectional area.
ASTM A370 Standard Test for Tensile Strength of Steel Bar - the primary use of these test
methods is to determine the specified mechanical properties of steel, stainless steel, and related
alloy products for the evaluation of conformance of such products to a material specification
under the jurisdiction of ASTM committee AO1 and its subcommittees as designated by a
purchaser in a purchase order or contact. The tensile strength of a structural steel bar is 400
MPa and 841 MPa for carbon steel.
Five Stages of Tensile Strength
1. Proportional Limit - point on the curve up to which the value of stress and strain remains
proportional. The stress up to this point can also be known as proportional limit stress.
2. Elastic Limit - limiting value of stress up to which the material is perfectly elastic. Material will
return to its original position. If it is unloaded before the crossing of point elasticity. This is so,
because material is perfectly elastic up to point of elasticity.
3. Yield Strength - the stress of a material can withstand without permanent deformation. It is
the stress value that the steel can take while still showing elastic behavior. Any stress applied to
steel above this value will take it into the plastic zone.
4. Ultimate Tensile Strength - the maximum strength of material being withstand while
stretched or pulled before failing or breaking. Materials that break very sharply are said to
undergo a brittle failure.
5. Breaking Strength (Fracture Strength) - the maximum amount of tensile stress that the
material can withstand before failure, such as fractures, breaking or permanent deformation.
Tools and Equipments for Testing the Tensile Strength of Steel:
1. Universal Testing Machine - used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of a
material. It is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression
tests on materials, components and structures.
2. Extensometer - an instrument that measures the elongation of a material under stress. The
elongation of a material is a physical deformation of the sample and is a type of strain associated
with tensile measurements. It has two classes:
a. Contact Extensometer - test the deformation by directly placing a physical object onto
the sample such as knife-edge. Include clip-on extensometers, these trypes of
extensometers are capable of detecting small displacements.
b. Non-contact - use cameras and light to determine the deformational parameters
without physically touching the sample, includes laser and video extensometers.
3. Shimming Materials - a shim is a thin and often tapered or wedge piece of material, used to
fill gaps/spaces between objects. Shims are typically used in order to support, adjust for better
fit or provide a level surface. Metal used include aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, steel and
nickel.
4. Steel Bars - used as tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures
to strengthen and aid the concrete under tension.
Procedures in Testing the Tensile Strength of Steel:
Identify the reinforcing bars to be tested and cut them to a length of approximately 30 inches.
Prepare extensometer for testing then place the set pin in it and add the gauge length extender
to the extensometer.
Install knife edges appropriate for the specimen being tested.
Choose a method to attach the extensometer to the specimen being tested.
a. Rubber bands (preffered method)
b. Quick attachment spring
c. Coil springs
Make the electrical connection between the extensometer and the MTS test controller.
Initiallize the computer and data acquisition system.
Load the test protocol.
Create a folder for test data.
Save the test data.
Install the test specimen in the test machine.
Install the extensometer on the specimen.
Begin loading the specimen.
Export test data.
Remove failed specimen from the grips.
Return the test machine to the original displacement position.
Save the test.
If no more test to be performed then shut down the test machine.
CHAPTER 11: FIELD TESTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Construction materials and testing is the testing of materials used to build new projects, add to
existing projects, or amend existing construction projects. The services involved in a comprehensive
CMT process greatly depends on the project, the land and the scope of services. Various agencies
offer certification for specific CMT knowledge, such as DOT, ACI, the EPA and more.
Testing services can generally be divided into two areas: Field Testing and Laboratory Testing.
1. Field Testing
Field testing is a CMT services that take place at the site. Roadways, airports, utility projects,
building developments: all typically involved CMT process carried out by certified professionals.
Construction materials testing can involve:
Soils
Concrete/Asphalt
Steel
Masonry
Timber
Field testing look for compaction, moisture, air content, and more. Most of which is evaluated
through visual inspection or non destructive techniques, steel structures, retaining walls, and soil
foundations are prime examples of construction that are evaluated during field testing.
In instances where field testing is inconclusive or exploratory in nature, samples of various
materials may be sent off for further lab testing.
2. Laboratory Testing
When field testing indicates further study is needed, lab testing is then recommended as the
next phase of a comprehensive CMT regimen.
Laboratory testing is usually performed on an as-needed basis common lab-tested construction
materials include:
Soil - modified/standard proctor, bearing ratios, classification tests, swell testing,
compressive strength testing, pH testing, chloride/sulfide testing, hydraulic
conductivity, consolidation, permeability testing, shear testing, and more.
Asphalt - mix evaluation, stability, flow, bulk specific gravity, gradation, density and
more.
Masonry/Concrete - flexural strength testing, compression strength testing, unit
weight, tensile testing, absorption, mix design, structural masonry testing and more.
CMT is important because it is critical for the viability and safety of a construction project. CMT
can reveal any number of issues related to construction quality. It can highlight future risks help
classify a building site and assist with engineering decisions. Without CMT, engineers and builders
may not know if the quality of construction meets the requirements.
CMT is also a regulatory requirement for most large-scale projects. Specifications and regulatory
overseers vary from state to state, but a few of the most-cited oversight organizations include ASTM,
FAA, USACE and AASHTO. To stay compliant, project managers must work with qualified, licensed
CMT professionals before starting work.
