Mechanics

It is defined as that branch of science, which describes and predicts the conditions of rest
or motion of bodies under the action of forces. Engineering mechanics applies the
principle of mechanics to design, taking into account the effects of forces.

Statics

Statics deal with the condition of equilibrium of bodies acted upon by forces.

Rigid body

A rigid body is defined as a definite quantity of matter, the parts of which are fixed in
position relative to each other. Physical bodies are never absolutely but deform slightly
under the action of loads. If the deformation is negligible as compared to its size, the body
is termed as rigid.

Force

Force may be defined as any action that tends to change the state of rest or motion of a
body to which it is applied.

The three quantities required to completely define force are called its specification or
characteristics. So the characteristics of a force are:
1. Magnitude
2. Point of application
3. Direction of application

1
 Concentrated force/point load

Distributed force

Line of action of force

The direction of a force is the direction, along a straight line through its point of
application in which the force tends to move a body when it is applied. This line is called
line of action of force.

Representation of force

Graphically a force may be represented by the segment of a straight line.

Composition of two forces

The reduction of a given system of forces to the simplest system that will be its equivalent is
called the problem of composition of forces.

Parallelogram law

If two forces represented by vectors AB and AC acting under an angle α are applied to a
body at point A. Their action is equivalent to the action of one force, represented by vector
AD, obtained as the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed on the vectors AB and AC
directed as shown in the figure.

2
 Force AD is called the resultant of AB and AC and the forces are called its components.

R=

(P 2
+ Q2 + 2PQ × Cosα )

Now applying triangle law

P R
Q Sinβ =
=
Sinγ
Sin(π − α )

Special cases

Case-I: If α = 0˚ = =P+Q

(P 2
+ Q2 + 2PQ × Cos0∘ ) (P + Q)2

R=

3
 P Q R

R = P+Q

Case- II: If α = 180˚

R= = = =P−Q

(P2 + Q2 − 2PQ)
(P 2
+ Q2 + 2PQ × Cos180∘ )
(P − Q)2

Q P R

4
 Case-III: If α = 90˚

R= = Q

(P 2
+ Q2 + 2PQ × Cos90∘ )

P2 + Q2

α = tan-1 (Q/P)
R
α

P
Resolution of a force

The replacement of a single force by a several components which will be equivalent in action
to the given force is called resolution of a force.

Action and reaction

Often bodies in equilibrium are constrained to investigate the conditions.

5
 Free body diagram

Free body diagram is necessary to investigate the condition of equilibrium of a body or

system. While drawing the free body diagram all the supports of the body are removed and
replaced with the reaction forces acting on it.

1. Draw the free body diagrams of the following figures.

2. Draw the free body diagram of the body, the string CD and the ring.

6
 3. Draw the free body diagram of the following figures.

Equilibrium of colinear forces:

Equllibrium law: Two forces can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction and collinear in action.

(tension)

(compression)
Problem 1:

7
 Superposition and transmissibility

Problem 1: A man of weight W = 712 N holds one end of a rope that passes over a pulley
vertically above his head and to the other end of which is attached a weight Q = 534 N.
Find the force with which the man’s feet press against the floor.

Problem 2: A boat is moved uniformly along a canal by two horses pulling with forces P
= 890 N and Q = 1068 N acting under an angle α = 60˚. Determine the magnitude of the
resultant pull on the boat and the angles β and ν.

P = 890 N, α = 60˚ Q
= 1068 N
β
α
ν

8
 R = (P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cosα )

(8902 +10682 + 2 × 890 ×1068× 0.5)

= 1698.01N

9
 Q
P R
= =
sin β
sinν sin(π − α )

sin β = Q sin α
R

=
1068×sin 60∘
1698.01
= 33∘

sinν = P sin α
R

=
890 ×sin 60∘
1698.01
= 27∘

Resolution of a force

Replacement of a single force by several components which will be equivalent in action to the
given force is called the problem of resolution of a force.

By using parallelogram law, a single force R can be resolved into two components P and Q
intersecting at a point on its line of action.

Equilibrium of collinear forces:

Equilibrium law: Two forces can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction and collinear in action.

10
 Problem 3:The tower is held in place by three cables. If the force of each cable acting
on the tower is shown, determine the magnitude and coordinate direction
angles �,�,�α,β,γ of the resultant force. Take x = 15 m, y = 20 m.

We will first determine where the locations of point A, B, C, and D is and write it in
Cartesian vector form.

(note we set x = 15 m, and y = 20 m as stated by the question)

The points are at the following coordinates:

We will now write the position vectors for cables DA, DB, and DC.

11
 Next, we will calculate the magnitude of each position vector.

Using the magnitude, we can find the unit vector.

We can now write each force in Cartesian vector form.

12
 The resultant force is equal to:

We can now find the magnitude of the resultant force like so:

Finally, we can calculate the coordinate direction angles.

13
 Law of superposition

The action of a given system of forces on a rigid body will no way be changed if we add
to or subtract from them another system of forces in equllibrium.

Problem 3: Two spheres of weight P and Q rest inside a hollow cylinder which is resting
on a horizontal force. Draw the free body diagram of both the spheres, together and
separately.

Problem 4: Draw the free body diagram of the figure shown below.

14
 Problem 5: Determine the angles α and β shown in the figure.

−
α = tan 1 ⎛ 762 ⎞

⎜ ⎟
915

⎝ ⎠

= 39∘47'
−
β = tan 1 ⎛ 762 ⎞

⎜ ⎟
610

⎝ ⎠

= 51∘19'

15
 Problem 6: Find the reactions R1 and R2.

Problem 7: Two rollers of weight P and Q are supported by an inclined plane and vertical
walls as shown in the figure. Draw the free body diagram of both the rollers separately.

16
 Problem 8: Find θn and θt in the following figure.

Problem 9: For the particular position shown in the figure, the connecting rod BA of an
engine exert a force of P = 2225 N on the crank pin at A. Resolve this force into two
rectangular components Ph and Pv horizontally and vertically respectively at A.

Ph = 2081.4 N Pv
= 786.5 N

Equilibrium of concurrent forces in a plane

● If a body known to be in equilibrium is acted upon by several concurrent, coplanar

forces, then these forces or rather their free vectors, when geometrically added
must form a closed polygon.

● This system represents the condition of equilibrium for any system of concurrent
forces in a plane.

17
 Ra = w tan α

S = wsecα

Lami’s theorem

If three concurrent forces are acting on a body kept in an equllibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of angle between the other two forces and the constant of
proportionality is same.

P Q R
= =
sin α
sin β sinυ

18
 W

S Ra W
= =
sin 90 sin (180 − α ) sin (90 + α )

19
 Problem: A ball of weight Q = 53.4N rest in a right angled trough as shown in figure.
Determine the forces exerted on the sides of the trough at D and E if all the surfaces are
perfectly smooth.

Problem: An electric light fixture of weight Q = 178 N is supported as shown in figure.

Determine the tensile forces S1 and S2 in the wires BA and BC, if their angles of
inclination are given.

S1 S2 178
= =
sin135 sin150 sin 75

S1 cosα = P

S = Psecα

20
 Rb = W + S sin α
P
×sin α
=W+
cosα

= W + P tan α

Problem: A right circular roller of weight W rests on a smooth horizontal plane and is
held in position by an inclined bar AC. Find the tensions in the bar AC and vertical
reaction Rb if there is also a horizontal force P is active.

Theory of transmissiibility of a force:

The point of application of a force may be transmitted along its line of action without changing
the effect of force on any rigid body to which it may be applied.

Problem:

21
 X=0
∑

S1 cos 30 + 20 sin 60 = S2 sin 30

3 3 S2
S + 20 =

2 1 2 2
3
S2 S + 10
=
3
1
2 2
3
(1)
S2 = 3S1 + 20

Y=0
∑
S1 sin 30 + S2 cos 30 = Sd cos 60 + 20
3 20
S1 = + 20
+S

2 2 2 2

22
 S1 3
+ S = 30
2
2 2
(2)
S1 + 3S2 = 60

Substituting the value of S2 in Eq.2, we get

S1 + 3 ( 3S + 20 3 ) = 60
1

S1 + 3S1 + 60 = 60

4S1 = 0

S1 = 0KN
3
S2 = 20 = 34.64KN

23
 Problem: A ball of weight W is suspended from a string of length l and is pulled by a
horizontal force Q. The weight is displaced by a distance d from the vertical position as
shown in Figure. Determine the angle α, forces Q and tension in the string S in the
displaced position.

d
cosα =

l
−
α = cos 1 ⎛ d ⎞

⎜l⎟

⎝ ⎠

sin2 α + cos2 α = 1

⇒ sin α = =
1
1−
l2
d2
l2−d2

24
 (1− cos2 α )

Applying Lami’s theorem,

S Q W
= =
sin 90 sin(90 + α ) sin(180 − α )

25
 Q W
=
sin(90 + α ) sin(180 − α )

W cosα W⎛d⎞ ⎜l⎟

⎝ ⎠
⇒Q= =

1
l2−d2

sin α
l
Wd
⇒Q=

l2−d2

S= =
sin α
1
l2−d2
W
W
l

Wl
=

l2−d2

Problem: Two smooth circular cylinders each of weight W = 445 N and radius r = 152
mm are connected at their centres by a string AB of length l = 406 mm and rest upon a
horizontal plane, supporting above them a third cylinder of weight Q = 890 N and radius r
= 152 mm. Find the forces in the string and the pressures produced on the floor at the point
of contact.

26
 203
cosα = Rg Rf

304
⇒ α = 48.1∘

Rg Re Q
= =

sin138.1 sin138.1 83.8

⇒ Rg = Re = 597.86N

27
 Resolving horizontally

X=0
∑

S = Rf cos 48.1

= 597.86 cos 48.1

= 399.27N

Resolving vertically

Y=0
∑

Rd = W + Rf sin 48.1

= 445 + 597.86 sin 48.1

= 890N

Re = 890N

S = 399.27N

Problem: Two identical rollers each of weight Q = 445 N are supported by an inclined
plane and a vertical wall as shown in the figure. Assuming smooth surfaces, find the
reactions induced at the points of support A, B and C.

28
 Ra S 445
= =
sin120 sin150 sin 90

⇒ Ra = 385.38N

⇒ S = 222.5N

29
 Resolving vertically
Rc

Y=0
∑

Rb cos 60 = 445 + S sin 30

3 = 445 + 222.5
⇒ Rb
2 2

⇒ Rb = 642.302N

Resolving horizontally

∑ X=0

Rc = R b sin 30 + S cos 30

⇒ 642.302 sin 30 + 222.5 cos 30

⇒ Rc = 513.84N

Problem:

A weight Q is suspended from a small ring C supported by two cords AC and BC. The
cord AC is fastened at A while cord BC passes over a frictionless pulley at B and carries a
weight P. If P = Q and α = 50˚, find the value of β.

Resolving horizontally
30
 (1)
X=0
∑

S sin 50 = Q sin β

Resolving vertically

Y=0
∑

S cos 50 + Q sin β = Q

⇒ S cos 50 = Q(1− cos β )

Putting the value of S from Eq. 1, we get

31
 S cos 50 + Q sin β = Q

⇒ S cos 50 = Q(1− cos β )

cos 50 = Q(1− cos β )

sin β
⇒Q
sin 50

β
1− cos
⇒ cot 50 =

sin β

⇒ 0.839 sin β = 1− cos β

Squaring both sides,

0.703sin2 β = 1+ cos2 β − 2 cos β 0.703(1−

cos2 β ) = 1+ cos2 β − 2 cos β 0.703 −

0.703cos2 β = 1+ cos2 β − 2 cos β

⇒ 1.703cos2 β − 2 cos β + 0.297 = 0

⇒ cos2 β −1.174 cos β + 0.297 = 0

⇒ β = 63.13∘

32
 Method of moments

Moment of a force with respect to a point:

● Considering wrench subjected to two forces P and Q of equal magnitude. It is

evident that force P will be more effective compared to Q, though they are of equal
magnitude.
● The effectiveness of the force as regards it is the tendency to produce rotation of a
body about a fixed point is called the moment of the force with respect to that
point.
● Moment = Magnitude of the force × Perpendicular distance of the line of action of
force.
● Point O is called moment centre and the perpendicular distance (i.e. OD) is called
moment arm.
● Unit is N.m

Theorem of Varignon:

The moment of the resultant of two concurrent forces with respect to a centre in their plane
is equal to the alzebric sum of the moments of the components with respect to some
centre.

Problem 1:

A prismatic clear of AB of length l is hinged at A and supported at B. Neglecting friction,

determine the reaction Rb produced at B owing to the weight Q of the bar.

Taking moment about point A,

l
R × l = Q cosα.

b 2
=
Q
⇒ Rb
c
o
s
α
2
33
 Problem 2:

A bar AB of weight Q and length 2l rests on a very small friction less roller at D and
against a smooth vertical wall at A. Find the angle α that the bar must make with the
horizontal in equilibrium.

Resolving vertically,
Rd cosα = Q

Now taking moment about A,

Rd .a cosα − Q.l cosα = 0

Q.a − Q.l cosα = 0

⇒
cos2 α

⇒ Q.a − Q.l cos3 α = 0

⇒ cos3 α = Q.a

Q.l

−1
⇒ α = cos

3
a
l

Problem 3:
34
 If the piston of the engine has a diameter of 101.6 mm and the gas pressure in the cylinder
is 0.69 MPa. Calculate the turning moment M exerted on the crankshaft for the particular
configuration.

35
 Area of cylinder
π −
A= (0.1016)2 = 8.107 ×10 3 m2

Force exerted on connecting rod,

F = Pressure × Area
= 0.69×106 × 8.107×10-3
= 5593.83 N

−
Now α = sin 1 ⎛ 178 ⎞ = 27.93∘

⎜ ⎟
380

⎝ ⎠

S cosα = F
F
= 6331.29N
⇒S= cosα

Now moment entered on crankshaft,

S cosα × 0.178 = 995.7N = 1KN

Problem 4:

A rigid bar AB is supported in a vertical plane and carrying a load Q at its free end.
Neglecting the weight of bar, find the magnitude of tensile force S in the horizontal string
CD.

36
 Taking moment about A,

M A= 0
∑

S. cosα = Q.l sin α 2

Q.l sin α
⇒S=
l
cosα 2

⇒ S = 2Q. tan α

37
 Friction

● The force which opposes the movement or the tendency of movement is called
Frictional force or simply friction. It is due to the resistance to motion offered by
minutely projecting particles at the contact surfaces. However, there is a limit
beyond which the magnitude of this force cannot increase.
● If the applied force is more than this limit, there will be movement of one body
over the other. This limiting value of frictional force when the motion is
impending, it is known as Limiting Friction.
● When the applied force is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest
and such frictional force is called Static Friction, which will be having any value
between zero and the limiting friction.
● If the value of applied force exceeds the limiting friction, the body starts moving
over the other body and the frictional resistance experienced by the body while
moving is known as Dynamic Friction. Dynamic friction is less than limiting
friction.
● Dynamic friction is classified into following two types:
a) Sliding friction
b) Rolling friction
● Sliding friction is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over the other
body.
● Rolling friction is the friction experienced by a body when it rolls over a surface.
● It is experimentally found that the magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant
ratio to the normal reaction between two surfaces and this ratio is called
Coefficient of Friction.

P
F

F
Coefficient of friction =

N
where F is limiting friction and N is normal reaction between the contact surfaces.

Coefficient of friction is denoted by µ.

F
Thus, μ =

N
38
 Laws of friction

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which body tends
to move.
2. Till the limiting value is reached, the magnitude of friction is exactly equal to the
force which tends to move the body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces of contact and this ratio is called coefficient of friction.
4. The force of friction depends upon the roughness/smoothness of the surfaces.
5. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
6. After the body starts moving, the dynamic friction comes into play, the magnitude
of which is less than that of limiting friction and it bears a constant ratio with
normal force. This ratio is called coefficient of dynamic friction.

Angle of friction

Consider the block shown in figure resting on a horizontal surface and subjected to
horizontal pull P. Let F be the frictional force developed and N the normal reaction. Thus,
at contact surface the reactions are F and N. They can be graphically combined to get the
reaction R which acts at angle θ to normal reaction. This angle θ called the angle of
friction is given by

F
tanθ =

As P increases, F increases and hence θ also increases. θ can reach the maximum value
α when F reaches limiting value. At this stage,

F
tan α = =μ

This value of α is called Angle of Limiting Friction. Hence, the angle of limiting friction
may be defined as the angle between the resultant reaction and the normal to the plane on
which the motion of the body is impending.

Angle of repose

39
 Consider the block of weight W resting on an inclined plane which makes an angle θ with
the horizontal. When θ is small, the block will rest on the plane. If θ is gradually increased,
a stage is reached at which the block start sliding down the plane. The angle θ for which
the motion is impending, is called the angle of repose. Thus, the maximum inclination of
the plane on which a body, free from external forces, can repose is called Angle of
Repose.

Resolving vertically, N
= W. cos θ

Resolving horizontally, F
= W. sin θ

F
Thus, tan θ =

N
If ɸ is the value of θ when the motion is impending, the frictional force will be limiting friction
and hence,

F
tan φ =

N
= μ = tan α

⇒φ=α
Thus, the value of angle of repose is same as the value of limiting angle of repose.

Cone of friction

● When a body is having impending motion in the direction of force P, the frictional
force will be limiting friction and the resultant reaction R will make limiting angle
α with the normal.
● If the body is having impending motion in some other direction, the resultant
reaction makes limiting frictional angle α with the normal to that direction. Thus,
40
 when the direction of force P is gradually changed through 360˚, the resultant R
generates a right circular cone with semi-central angle equal to α.

41
 Problem 1: Block A weighing 1000N rests over block B which weighs 2000N as shown
in figure. Block A is tied to wall with a horizontal string. If the coefficient of friction
between blocks A and B is 0.25 and between B and floor is 1/3, what should be the value
of P to move the block (B), if
(a) P is horizontal.
(b) P acts at 30˚ upwards to horizontal.

Solution: (a)

Considering block A,

∑V = 0
N1 = 1000N

Since F1 is limiting friction,

F1
= μ = 0.25

N1
F1 = 0.25N1 = 0.25×1000 = 250N

H=0
∑
F1 − T = 0

T = F1 = 250N

Considering equilibrium of block B,

42
 V=0
∑

N2 − 2000 − N1 = 0

N2 = 2000 + N1 = 2000 +1000 = 3000N

F2 1
=μ=

N2 3
F2 = 0.3N2 = 0.3×1000 = 1000N

43
 ∑ H=0
P = F1 + F2 = 250 +1000 = 1250N

(b) When P is inclined:

∑V = 0
N2 − 2000 − N1 + P.sin 30 = 0

⇒ N2 + 0.5P = 2000 +1000

⇒ N2 = 3000 − 0.5P

From law of friction,

1 =
F= N

2 3 2 1

3
0
0
0

0
.
5
P

=
44
1 .

0
5
0
0 P
3
−
3
0

H=0
∑
P cos 30 = F1 + F2

⎛ 0.5 ⎞
⇒ P cos 30 = 250 + 1000 − P
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

⎛ 0.5 ⎞
⇒ P cos 30 + P = 1250
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

⇒ P = 1210.43N

Problem 2: A block weighing 500N just starts moving down a rough inclined plane when
supported by a force of 200N acting parallel to the plane in upward direction. The same
block is on the verge of moving up the plane when pulled by a force of 300N acting
parallel to the plane. Find the inclination of the plane and coefficient of friction between
the inclined plane and the block.

45
 V=0
∑

N = 500.cosθ

F1 = μN = μ.500 cosθ

46
 (1)

H=0
∑
200 + F1 = 500.sinθ

⇒ 200 + μ.500 cosθ = 500.sinθ

(2)

V=0
∑
N = 500.cosθ

F2 = μN = μ.500.cosθ

∑ H=0
500 sinθ + F2 = 300

⇒ 500 sinθ + μ.500 cosθ = 300

Adding Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

500 = 1000.
sinθ sin θ =
0.5
θ = 30˚

Substituting the value of θ in Eq.

2, 500 sin 30 + μ.500 cos 30 =
300

= 0.11547
50
μ=
500 cos 30

47
 Parallel forces on a plane

Like parallel forces: Coplanar parallel forces when act in the same direction.

Unlike parallel forces: Coplanar parallel forces when act in different direction.

Resultant of like parallel forces:

P
R
Q
Let P and Q are two like parallel forces act at points A and B. R
=P+Q

A B

Resultant of unlike parallel forces: PR

=P-Q R

B
R is in the direction of the force having greater magnitude. A
Q

Couple:

Two unlike equal parallel forces form a couple.

P
l

A B

The rotational effect of a couple is measured by its moment.

Moment = P × l

Sign convention: Anticlockwise couple (Positive)

Clockwise couple (Negative)

48
 Problem 1 : A rigid bar CABD supported as shown in figure is acted upon by two equal
horizontal forces P applied at C and D. Calculate the reactions that will be induced at the
points of support. Assume l = 1.2 m, a = 0.9 m, b =0.6 m.

∑V = 0
Ra = Rb

Taking moment about A,

Ra = Rb

Rb × l + P × b = P × a

⇒ Rb =
P
(
0
.
9
−
0
.
6
)
1
.
2
⇒ Rb = 0.25P(↑)

⇒ Ra = 0.25P(↓)

Problem 2: Owing to weight W of the locomotive shown in figure, the reactions at the
two points of support A and B will each be equal to W/2. When the locomotive is pulling
the train and the drawbar pull P is just equal to the total friction at the points of contact A
and B, determine the magnitudes of the vertical reactions Ra and Rb.

49
 V=0
∑
Ra + Rb = W

Taking moment about B,

50
 MB = 0
∑
Ra × 2a + P × b = W × a

⇒ Ra W .a − P.b
=
2a
∴ Rb = W − Ra

⎛ W .a − P.b ⎞
⇒ Rb= W − ⎜ ⎟
2a
⎝ ⎠

⇒ Rb =
W .a + P.b
2a

Problem 3: The four wheels of a locomotive produce vertical forces on the horizontal
girder AB. Determine the reactions Ra and Rb at the supports if the loads P = 90 KN each
and Q = 72 KN (All dimensions are in m).

V=0
∑
Ra + Rb = 3P + Q

⇒ Ra + Rb = 3× 90 + 72

⇒ Ra + Rb = 342KN

M A= 0
∑
Rb × 9.6 = 90 ×1.8 + 90 × 3.6 + 90 × 5.4 + 72 × 8.4

51
 ⇒ Rb = 164.25KN

∴ Ra = 177.75KN

Problem 4: The beam AB in figure is hinged at A and supported at B by a vertical cord

which passes over a frictionless pulley at C and carries at its end a load P. Determine the
distance x from A at which a load Q must be placed on the beam if it is to remain in
equilibrium in a horizontal position. Neglect the weight of the beam.

52
 FBD

OR

M A= 0
∑
S×l=Q×x

P.l
⇒x=
Q

Problem 5: A prismatic bar AB of weight Q = 44.5 N is supported by two vertical wires at

its ends and carries at D a load P = 89 N as shown in figure. Determine the forces Sa and
Sb in the two wires.

Q = 44.5 N P
= 89 N

Resolving vertically,

V=0
∑

Sa + Sb = P + Q

⇒ Sa + Sb = 89 + 44.5

53
 ⇒ Sa + Sb = 133.5N

54
 M A= 0
∑
l l
S×l=P× +Q×

b
4 2

⇒ Sb P Q
= +
4 2
⇒ Sb 89 + 44.5
=
4 2
⇒ Sb = 44.5

∴ Sa = 133.5 − 44.5

⇒ Sa = 89N

Centre of gravity

Centre of gravity: It is that point through which the resultant of the distributed gravity
force passes regardless of the orientation of the body in space.

● As the point through which resultant of force of gravity (weight) of the body acts.

Centroid: Centrroid of an area lies on the axis of symmetry if it exits.

Centre of gravity is applied to bodies with mass and weight and centroid is applied to plane
areas.

xc = ∑ Ai xi yc =

Ai yi
∑

x A1 x1 + A2 x2
=
c

A1 + A2

55
 y A1 y1 + A2 y2
=
c

A1 + A2

=
Moment of area
x=y

c c
Total area

x x.dA
=∫
c A

y y.dA
=∫
c A

56
 Problem 1: Consider the triangle ABC of base ‘b’ and height ‘h’. Determine the distance of
centroid from the base.

Let us consider an elemental strip of width ‘b1’ and thickness ‘dy’.

ΔAEF  ΔABC

b1 h − y b
∴ =
h

⎛h−y⎞
⇒ b1 = b ⎜
h ⎟
⎝ ⎠

⎛ y⎞
⇒ b = b 1−
1 ⎜ h⎟
⎝ ⎠

Area of element EF (dA) = b1×dy

⎛ y⎞
= b 1− dy
⎜ h⎟
⎝ ⎠

y = ∫ y.dA
c A
h
⎛ y⎞

y.b 1− dy
∫ ⎜ ⎟

57
 0 ⎝ ⎠
=
h
1
b.h
2
y3 ⎤ h

⎡y
2

b −
⎢

2 3h
= ⎣ ⎦ 0

1
b.h
2

=
2 ⎡ h2 − h3 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
h 2 3

⎣ ⎦
2 h
= × 2

h 6

h
=
3

Therefore, yc is at a distance of h/3 from base.

58
 Problem 2: Consider a semi-circle of radius R. Determine its distance from diametral
axis.

Due to symmetry, centroid ‘yc’ must lie on Y-axis.

Consider an element at a distance ‘r’ from centre ‘o’ of the semicircle with radial width dr.
Area of element = (r.dθ)×dr

Moment of area about x = y.dA

∫

πR

= (r.dθ ).dr ×(r.sinθ )

∫∫

00
πR

= r 2 sinθ.dr.dθ
∫∫

00
πR

59
 =
∫∫
(r 2
.dr ).sinθ .dθ

00
π
⎡ r3 ⎤R

∫3
= .sinθ .dθ
⎢ ⎥

0 ⎣ ⎦0
π R3

= .sinθ .dθ
0 3
R3
= [− cosθ ]π
0
3

=R [1+1]
3

3
2
= R3

y = Moment of area
c
Total area

60
 23 R3
=
π R2

4R 3π
=

Therefore, the centroid of the semicircle from the diametric

4R
is at a distance of

3π

axis.

Centroids of different figures

Shape Figure x y Area

Rectangle b d bd
2 2

Triangle 0 h bh
3 2

Semicircle 0 4R
π r2
3π 2

Quarter circle 4R 4R
π r2
3π 3π 4

Problem 3: Find the centroid of the T-section as shown in figure from the bottom.

1
2

61
 Area (Ai) xi yi Ai xi Ai yi
2000 0 110 10,000 22,0000
2000 0 50 10,000 10,0000
4000 20,000 32,0000

A1 y1 + A2 y2 32, 0000 80
= = =

y=∑
Ay
i i

c
A A+A 4000
i 1 2

Due to symmetry, the centroid lies on Y-axis and it is at distance of 80 mm from the bottom.

Problem 4: Locate the centroid of the I-section.

As the figure is symmetric, centroid lies on y-axis. Therefore, x = 0

Area (Ai) xi yi Ai xi Ai yi
2000 0 140 0 280000
2000 0 80 0 160000
4500 0 15 0 67500

A1 y1 + A2 y2 + A3 y3
y=∑
Ay = = 59.71mm
i i

c
A A+A+A
i 1 2 3
Thus, the centroid is on the symmetric axis at a distance 59.71 mm from the bottom.

Problem 5: Determine the centroid of the composite figure about x-y coordinate. Take x =
40 mm.

62
 A1 = Area of rectangle = 12x.14x=168x2
A2 = Area of rectangle to be subtracted = 4x.4x = 16 x2

63
 π R2 π 4x 2
A3 = Area of semicircle
to be subtracted = = = 25.13x2

( )
2 2

A4 = Area of quatercircle π R π 4x 2
2

to be subtracted = = = 12.56x2

( )
4 4
A5 = Area of triangle = 1
× 6x × 4x = 12x2

Area (Ai) xi yi Ai xi Ai yi
A1 = 268800 7x = 280 6x =240 75264000 64512000
A2 = 25600 2x = 80 10x=400 2048000 10240000
A3 = 40208 6x =240 9649920 2730364.448
4 × 4x
=67.906

3π
A4 = 20096 ⎛ 9889040.64 8281420.926
4 × 4x ⎞ ⎛ 4 × 4x ⎞
10x + 4x − 8x + 4x −

⎜ 3π ⎟ ⎜ 3π ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 492.09 = 412.093
A5 = 19200 6x 4x 12288000 1023936
14x + = 16x = 53.33

3 3
= 640

x = A1 x1 − A2 x2 − A3 x3 − A4 x4 + A5 x5 = 326.404mm
c
A−A−A−A+A
1 2 3 4 5

y = A1 y1 − A2 y2 − A3 y3 − A4 y4 + A5 y5 = 219.124mm
c
A−A−A−A+A
1 2 3 4 5

64
 Problem 6: Determine the centroid of the following figure.

1
× 80 × 80 = 3200m2
A1 = Area of triangle =
2

A2 = Area of semicircle πd 2 π R2
= 2513.274m
− 2
=
8 2
A3 = Area of semicircle = π D2

2
=
1256.64m
2

65
 Area (Ai) xi yi Ai xi Ai yi
3200 2×(80/3)=53.33 80/3 = 26.67 170656 85344
2513.274 40 −4 × 40 100530.96 -42650.259
= −16.97

3π
1256.64 40 0 50265.6 0

A1 x1 + A2 x2 − A3 x3
x= = 49.57mm

c
A+A+A
1 2 3

A1 y1 + A2 y2 − A3 y3
y= = 9.58mm

c
A+A−A
1 2 3

Problem 7: Determine the centroid of the following figure.

A1 = Area of the rectangle A2

= Area of triangle
A3 = Area of circle

Area (Ai) xi yi Ai xi Ai yi
30,000 100 75 3000000 2250000
3750 100+200/3 75+150/3 625012.5 468750
= 166.67 =125
7853.98 100 75 785398 589048.5

A1 x1 − A2 x2 − A3 x3
x
=
∑ Ax
i i
= = 86.4mm

66
 c
A A−A−A
∑ i 1 2 3

y ∑Ay i i A1 y1 − A2 y2 − A3 y3
= = = 64.8mm

c
A A−A−A
∑

i
1 2 3

67
 Numerical Problems (Assignment)

1. An isosceles triangle ADE is to cut from a square ABCD of dimension ‘a’. Find
the altitude ‘y’ of the triangle so that vertex E will be centroid of remaining shaded
area.

2. Find the centroid of the following figure.

3. Locate the centroid C of the shaded area obtained by cutting a semi-circle of

diameter ‘a’ from the quadrant of a circle of radius ‘a’.

4. Locate the centroid of the composite figure.

Module –
42
II
 Truss/ Frame: A pin jointed frame is a structure made of slender (cross-sectional
dimensions quite small compared to length) members pin connected at ends and capable of
taking load at joints.

Such frames are used as roof trusses to support sloping roofs and as bridge trusses to
support deck.

Plane frame: A frame in which all members lie in a single plane is called plane frame.
They are designed to resist the forces acting in the plane of frame. Roof trusses and bridge
trusses are the example of plane frames.

Space frame: If all the members of frame do not lie in a single plane, they are called as
space frame. Tripod, transmission towers are the examples of space frames.

Perfect frame: A pin jointed frame which has got just sufficient number of members to
resist the loads without undergoing appreciable deformation in shape is called a perfect
frame. Triangular frame is the simplest perfect frame and it has 03 joints and 03 members.

It may be observed that to increase one joint in a perfect frame, two more members are
required. Hence, the following expression may be written as the relationship between
number of joint j, and the number of members m in a perfect frame.

m = 2j – 3

(a) When LHS = RHS, Perfect frame.

(b) When LHS<RHS, Deficient frame.
(c) When LHS>RHS, Redundant frame.

Assumptions

The following assumptions are made in the analysis of pin jointed trusses:

1. The ends of the members are pin jointed (hinged).

2. The loads act only at the joints.
3. Self weight of the members is negligible.

Methods of analysis

1. Method of joint
2. Method of section

43
 Problems on method of joints

Problem 1: Find the forces in all the members of the truss shown in figure.

tanθ = 1

⇒ θ = 45∘

Joint C

S1 = S2 cos 45

⇒ S1 = 40KN (Compression)

S2 sin 45 = 40

⇒ S2 = 56.56KN (Tension) Joint

S3 = 40KN (Tension)

S1 = S4 = 40KN (Compression)

44
 Joint B

Resolving vertically,

V=0
∑

S5 sin 45 = S3 + S2 sin 45

45
 ⇒ S5 = 113.137KN (Compression)

Resolving horizontally,

H=0
∑

S6 = S5 cos 45 + S2 cos 45

⇒ S6 = 113.137 cos 45 + 56.56 cos 45

⇒ S6 = 120KN (Tension)

Problem 2: Determine the forces in all the members of the truss shown in figure and
indicate the magnitude and nature of the forces on the diagram of the truss. All inclined
members are at 60˚ to horizontal and length of each member is 2m.

Taking moment at point A,

M A= 0
∑
Rd × 4 = 40 ×1+ 60 × 2 + 50 × 3

⇒ Rd = 77.5KN

Now resolving all the forces in vertical direction,

46
 V=0
∑

Ra + Rd = 40 + 60 + 50

⇒ Ra = 72.5KN

Joint A

Ra

V=0
∑
⇒ Ra = S1 sin 60

⇒ S1 = 83.72KN (Compression)

H=0
∑
⇒ S2 = S1 cos 60

47
 ⇒ S1 = 41.86KN (Tension)

Joint D

V=0
∑
S7 sin 60 = 77.5

⇒ S7 = 89.5KN (Compression)

H=0
∑
S6 = S7 cos 60

⇒ S6 = 44.75KN (Tension) Joint B

∑V = 0

S1 sin 60 = S3 cos 60 + 40

⇒ S3 = 37.532KN (Tension)

H=0
∑
S4 = S1 cos 60 + S3 cos 60

⇒ S4 = 37.532 cos 60 + 83.72 cos 60

⇒ S4 = 60.626KN (Compression) Joint C

V=0
∑
48
 S5 sin 60 + 50 = S7 sin 60

⇒ S5 = 31.76KN (Tension)

49