CHPC 282 Heat and Mass Transfer

Biotechnology, IV Semester
(Lecture notes)

This presentation is prepared from the below text books and online sources.
Along with the this notes please follow the below material and video links for
reference
• Heat Transfer: Principles and Applications by Binay K Dutta .
• Heat and Mass transfer by Yunus A. Cengel.
• Mass Transfer Principles and Operations by Sinha A.P and Parameswar De.
• Mass-transfer operations by Robert Ewald Treybal .
• NPTEL - Chemical Engineering-Mass Transfer Operation 1 .
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103/103/103103145.

The Material is being used for academic purposes only and is intended only
for students registered in NIT Jalandhar and is not intended for wider circulation
 Heat Transfer
Practical example of process involves heating and cooling applications
Manufacturing nitric acid by catalytic air-oxidation of Ammonia
 Heat Transfer
Importance of Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is the physical phenomenon for which energy is
transferred between any two particles of matter that are at
different temperatures. There are three modes of heat
transfer -conduction, convection and radiation.
• Heat transfer phenomena can be quantified and analysed in
terms of suitable rate equations. These equations express the
amount of thermal energy transferred per unit time.
• Heat transfer cannot be measured directly. However, its
occurrence can be quantified through a measurable scalar
quantity, that is the temperature, T.
 Heat Transfer
Temperature: Temperature is an intensive property that
indicates the thermal state of a system or a body. Temperature is
a measure of internal energy possessed by a system and gives
the direction in which energy in the form of heat will flow.
Heat: Heat is a form of energy which is transient in nature and it
flows from one point to another point. When two bodies of
different temperatures come in contact with each other, the two
temperatures approach each other and after some time become
equal.
This equalization of temperature of the bodies is on account of
flow of energy in the form of heat from one body to another.
Therefore, heat may be defined as flow of energy from one body
to another body by virtue of temperature difference between
them.
 Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to each other. The laws of
thermodynamics form the basis of science of heat transfer. However, there
are few fundamental differences between thermodynamics and heat transfer
which are given below.
 Heat Transfer
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER:
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process
from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the process will
take. A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred to realize a
specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle.

In practice, we are concerned with the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per unit time) than we
are with the amount of heat transfer. For example, we can determine the amount of heat
transferred from a thermos flask as the hot milk inside cools from 95oC to 85oC by a
thermodynamic analysis alone. But, a designer of the thermos flask is primarily interested in how
long it will be before the hot milk inside cools to 85oC, and a thermodynamic analysis cannot
answer this question. Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the
time of cooling or heating, as well as the variation of temperature, is the subject of heat transfer.

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to
another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and
thus it is a non-equilibrium phenomenon. Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based
on the principles of thermodynamics alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the
framework for the science of heat transfer. The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer
into a system be equal to the rate of increase of the energy of that system. The second law
requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. It is analogous to
the electric current flowing in the direction of decreasing voltage or the fluid flowing in the
direction of decreasing pressure.
 Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is the study of transmission of thermal energy from a high
temperature region / body to a low temperature region / body on account of
temperature difference. The rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the heat exchanging regions / bodies. Once
the process of heat energy is complete, it is stored in one or more forms of
energy such as potential, kinetic and internal energy. It is pertinent to
mention that energy in transition as heat can never be measured; however, it
is determined in terms of observed changes in other forms of energy. Transfer
of heat between two regions / bodies maintained at different temperatures
can occur in three different modes namely:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• In the conduction and convection modes, heat flows from high temperature to
low temperature region / body whereas in radiation mode, transfer of heat
takes place from both the bodies towards each other. However, net transfer of
heat is always from high temperature body to low temperature body.
Mechanism of heat transfer in each mode is different and controlled by
different laws.
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
Conduction
• Conduction is a process of heat transfer from a high temperature region to
a low temperature region with in a body or between different bodies
which are in direct physical contact. In heat conduction, energy is
transferred due to exchange of molecular kinetic energy.
• According to kinetic theory, temperature of body is proportional to the
mean kinetic energy of its constituent molecules. As the temperature in
one region of a body increases, kinetic energy of molecules in that region
also increases as compared to that of the molecules of adjacent low
temperature region.
• Heat transfer by conduction in solids, liquids and gases is determined by
the thermal conductivity and temperature difference. The basic law of
heat transfer by conduction was proposed by the French Scientist J. B. J.
Fourier in 1822 and one dimensional Conduction rate equation described
by the Fourier Law.
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
Fourier Law
• Conduction of heat means transport of heat energy in a medium from a
region at a higher temperature to a region at a lower temperature without
any macroscopic motion in the medium.
• Heat conduction is also called diffusion of heat.
• The fourier law states that if two plane parallel surfaces each having an
area A are separated by a distance l and are maintained at tempeartures
T1 and T2 respectively (T1>T2), the rate of heat conduction Q at steady
state through the wall is given by

Where k is called the thermal conductivity of the solid and is assumed to be

constant throughout the wall
 Heat Transfer-Conduction

Steady state conduction of heat in a plane wall (a) the wall and (b) the temperature profile
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
• In the differential form the Fourier law is expressed as
𝑑𝑇
qx = -k
𝑑𝑥
• Where qx is the heat flux (i.e the rate of heat conduction in
the x-direction per unit area normal to the x-direction), and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient in the x-direction.
• Heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature is a
positive quantity, therefore dT/dx is negative.
• The units of the various quantities in above equation are Q,
W(Watt) or kcal/s; k (W/moC) ; qx, (W/m2)
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
Thermal Conductivity
• Thermal conductivity is a fundamental property of a material that
gives a measure of the effectivity of the material in transmitting
heat through it.
• Besides its chemical constitution, characteristics of a material (soild,
liquid or gas), nature of the solid state (crystalline or amorphous),
and physical conditions (temperature, pressure) have significant
effects on thermal conductivity.
• A material in the crystalline state has a higher thermal conductivity
than that of the same material in the amorphous state.
• For metals, thermal conductivity generally decreases with an
increase in temperature (aluminum is an exception). Thermal
conductivity of liquids generally decreases with an increase in
temperature (exception: glycerine, water etc. over certain ranges of
temperature). Thermal conductivity of gases increase with an
increase in temperature.
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
• At the ambient temperature air has a thermal conductivity of
0.0262 W/mK, water has 0.63 W/mK, where as pure silver has a
conductivity of 410 W/mK.
• In heat transfer calculations, it is often satisfactory and sufficient to
take the thermal conductivity value of a substance at the average
temperature of the material or medium. However, a linear or a
quadratic equation as given below can be used to describe thermal
conductivity as a function of temperature
k= k0 (1+ aT + bT2)
• Where a and b are constant coefficients and k0 is the thermal
conductivity at T= 0K.
• If the thermal conductivity of a solid is the same in all directions,
the material is called isotropic. But there are some materials in
which the conductivity depends upon the direction are called as
anisotropic.
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
Steady state conduction of heat through a composite solid

Heat conduction in a composite wall and its electrical analogue

 Heat Transfer-Conduction
Steady state conduction of heat through a composite solid
• For a single layered plane wall, the rate of heat conduction Q can be
calculated directly from above equation, we can extend the same
equation in case of a composite or multi-layered wall.
• Let us consider a composite wall consisting of three layers (as
shown in above figure)of materials 1,2 and 3, having thickness l1, l2
and l3 and thermal conductivities k1, k2 and k3, respectively. The
body temperatures of the different layers are shown in above
figure.
• The area of heat conduction A is constant. Therefore, the rates of
heat flow at steady state through the individual layers are equal
(Q1= Q2= Q3= Q). If the thermal conductivities of the layers are
independent of temperature, the temperature distribution in each
layer must be linear (but of different slopes)
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
The rates of heat flow through the walls as given by Fourier’s law
are as follows
𝑘1 𝐴(𝑇1 −𝑇 ′ ) 𝑙1
Layer 1: Q = 𝑇1 -T’ = Q
𝑙1 𝑘1 𝐴
𝑘2 𝐴(𝑇′−𝑇 ′′ ) 𝑙2
Layer 2: Q = T’-T’’ = Q
𝑙2 𝑘2 𝐴
𝑘3 𝐴(𝑇′′−𝑇2 ) 𝑙
Layer 3: Q = T’’-𝑇2 = Q 3
𝑙3 𝑘3 𝐴
Adding all these equations, we have
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
𝑇1 - 𝑇2 = Q ( + + )
𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴
(𝑇1 - 𝑇2 ) is the overall temperature driving force that causes a
rate of heat transfer Q. The equation, in general , means
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Rate of heat transfer =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 Heat Transfer
The analogy of the above relation with the flow of current
through an electrical conductor is apparent.
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Current =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
From the above equations , we may write
𝑙1
Thermal resistance of the layer 1: 𝑅1 =
𝑘1 𝐴
𝑙
Thermal resistance of the layer 2: 𝑅2 = 2
𝑘2 𝐴
𝑙3
Thermal resistance of the layer 3: 𝑅3 =
𝑘3 𝐴
The thermal resistance 𝑅𝑇 of the composite wall is given by
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑇−𝑇
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 1 2
𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴 𝑄
It means that thermal resistances in series are additive as in the
case of electrical resistances in series.
 Heat Transfer
Problems:
 Heat Transfer
Steady State heat conduction through a variable area
In case of a plane wall the area for heat flow is constant.
However, there are solids of other geometries in which the area
for heat flow is variable. Two common geometries of practical
importance are cylindrical and spherical,in both of which the
area depends upon the radius or the radial position. Here , we
develop equations for heat flow in cylinder and spherical bodies.
The cylinder
Let us consider a hollow cylinder of inside radius ri, outside
radius ro and the length L as shown in the figure. The inner and
outer curved surfaces are maintained at temperatures Ti and T0
respectively. Heat flow occurs in the radial direction. The area of
heat flow varies from 2πriL (inside) to 2πroL (outside)
 Heat Transfer

We can make a heat balance over a thin cylinder shell of inside

radius r and thickness Δr as shown in the above figure
Rate of heat input to the thin shell at the radial position (r) =
(Area) (Flux)= (2πrL) qr r
Here qr denotes the radial heat flux and the notation r means
that the quantity is evaluated at the radial position r.
Similarly , Rate of heat output from the shell at the radial
position r+Δr = (2πrL) qr r+Δr
 Heat Transfer
At steady state, there cannot be any accumulation of heat in the
element, and so the rate of heat input must be equal to the rate of
heat output. Therefore,
(2πrL) qr r = (2πrL) qr r+Δr
(2πrL) qr r+Δr - (2πrL) qr r / Δr = 0
Taking the limit Δr → 0 and invoking the definition of the derivative of
a function, we may write
𝑑 𝑑
(2πrLqr )=0 or (rqr )= 0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Integrating , we get rqr = constant = C1
𝑑𝑇
The radial heat flux is expressed as qr = -k
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝐶1 1
Then r (-k )= C1 , = −
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘 𝑟
Integrating again, we have
𝐶1
T=− lnr + C2
𝑘
 Heat Transfer
Here C2 is an integration constant. The values of C1 and C2 can be
determined by using the boundary conditions, that is, the known
temperatures at the boundaries ri and ro of the solid.
T= Ti at r=ri, T=To at r =ro
Substituting in the above equation , we get
𝐶 𝐶
Ti = − 1 lnri + C2 and To = − 1 lnro+ C2
𝑘 𝑘
The above two equations can be solved for C1 and C2
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 𝑘 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 𝑙𝑛𝑟𝑖
C1 = and C2 = 𝑇𝑖 +
ln(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 ) ln(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 )
Substituting for C1 and C2 in the previous equation , we get
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ln(𝑟/𝑟𝑖 )
T = 𝑇𝑖 −
ln(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 )
The above equation give the temperature distribution in the cylinder.
The rate of heat flow can be easily obtained from previous equations
which essentially means that the product area and the radial heat flux
is a constant.
Rate of heat flow is given by
 Heat Transfer
Driving force = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ; Thermal resistance ln(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 ) /2πLk
There fore

The distance through which conduction occur is the thickness

of the wall of the cylinder,i.e (ro- ri). If we compare the above
equation and equation in case of plane wall , the rate of heat
conduction is found to be the same as that through a plane wall
of thickness (ro- ri) and the area 2π [(ro- ri)/ln (ro/ri)]L. This area is
called the log mean area of the cylinder because it is calculated
on the basis of the log mean cylinder radius rM. Therefore
rM = [(ro- ri) / ln(ro/ri)]
 Heat Transfer
Now we consider heat conduction through a composite cylinder wall
consisting of three layers denoted by 1,2 and 3 having thermal conductivities
k1, k2 and k3 and having inner radii ri, r’ and r’’, respectively. The outer radius
of the composite cylinder is ro. The tempearature at these radial positions are
Ti, T’, T’’ and To respectively. A cross-section of the assembly is shown in
figure.

(a)Cross-section of the composite cylinder and (b) the electrical analogue of the heat transfer resistances.
 Heat Transfer
The rates of heat flow through the individual layers (which will be equal at
steady state) are given by

Adding and rearranging the above equations, we get

The above equation is similar to the equation given for composite wall. The
total thermal resistance of the composite cylinder, given by the denominator
of the above equation. The overall temperature driving force if Ti-To.
Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer
The temperature distribution in a hollow sphere or the rate of heat transfer
through it can be determined by following the same procedure as used in the
case of a cylinder. Let us consider a hollow sphere of thermal conductivity k
and inner and outer radii ri and ro respectively,with the corresponding
surface temperatures Ti and To. Considering a thin spherical shell of inner
radius r and thickness Δr, we may write
Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer
Using the boundary conditions in the above equation, the integration
constants can be found as

Therefore, by substituting the constrains the equation can be written as

The above equation gives the temperature distribution in the sphere. The
corresponding rate of heat transfer is given by

So the above equation can be rewritten as

 Heat Transfer
•If we compare the above equation with the rate of heat conduction at steady
state through the plane wall, it appears that the rate of heat conduction
through the spherical shell is the same as that through a plane wall of
thickness (ro-ri) and area 4πriro. This is the area of the surface of a sphere of
radius equal to the geometric mean radius of the given shell i.e riro .
• Similarly, if we consider a composite sphere having three layers of materials
1,2, and 3, inner radii ri,r’ and r’’, and thermal conductivities k1, k2 and k3,
respectively, and an outer radius ro, the rate of heat conduction through the
composite sphere is given by
 Heat Transfer
Insulating materials for process equipment
• In some systems the rate of heat conduction is required to be as low as
possible, whereas in some others a high rate of heat flow is desirable. For
example, all furnaces are heavily insulated in multiple layers to minimize heat
loss and to maintain a high temperature inside.
• Various process equipments, reactors, steam pipes and cryogenic systems
needs to be well-insulated against loss or gain of heat.
• Besides its most conspicuous function of reducing heat loss, thermal insulation
on a hot pipe reduces the pipe stress.
• Electrical wires are always kept insulated (Polyvinyl chloride is common
electrical insulator), and this layer of insulation also acts as a thermal insulator.
• If the steady state wire temperature is high, degradation of the insulation may
occur. Thus, conduction calculation is important in electrical insulation design.
• Conduction calculation in nuclear fuel elements is also important to determine
the size of the fuel element to be used so that the maximum temperature in it
does not exceed the allowable limit.
 Heat Transfer
• Determination of insulation thickness on steam pipes and various process
equipment is a routine part of process design calculations.
• Important insulating materials used over different temperature ranges are
listed in below table.
 Heat Transfer
Common insulting materials are divided into four groups
Granular Insulation
• Granular insulations are composed of small nodules that contain voids or hollow
spaces. These materials are sometimes considered open cell materials since gases
can be transferred between the individual spaces. Calcium silicate and molded
perlite insulations are considered granular insulation.
 Heat Transfer
Fibrous Insulation
• Fibrous insulations are composed of small diameter fibers that finely divide the
air space. The fibers may be organic or inorganic and they are normally (but not
always) held together by a binder. Typical inorganic fibers include glass, rock wool,
slag wool, and alumina silica. Fibrous insulations are further classified as either
wool or textile-based insulations. Textile-based insulations are composed of woven
and non-woven fibers and yarns. The fibers and yarns may be organic or inorganic.
These materials are sometimes supplied with coatings or as composites for specific
properties (e.g., weather and chemical resistance, reflectivity, etc.).
 Heat Transfer
Cellular Insulation
• Cellular insulations are composed of small individual cells either interconnecting
or sealed from each other to form a cellular structure. Glass, plastics, and rubber
may comprise the base material and a variety of foaming agents are used. Cellular
insulations are often further classified as either open cell (cells are
interconnecting) or closed cell (cells sealed from each other). Generally, materials
that have greater than 90% closed cell content are considered to be closed cell
materials.
 Heat Transfer
Reflective Insulation
• Reflective insulations and treatments are added to surfaces to lower the
long-wave emittance, thereby reducing the radiant heat transfer to or
from the surface. Some reflective insulation systems consist of multiple
parallel thin sheets or foil spaced to minimize convective heat transfer.
Low-emittance jackets and facings are often used in combination with
other insulation materials.