Lecture Twelve

This lecture is a continuation of Lecture Eleven on material testing

“Failure
• The design of a component or structure often calls upon the engineer to minimize the
possibility of Failure
• Therefore, it is important to understand the Mechanics of the various Failure Modes,
i.e.
1. Fracture
2. Fatigue
3. Creep
• In addition, it is important to be familiar with appropriate design principles that may
be employed to prevent in-service failures
• The failure of engineering materials leads to:
1. Putting human lives in jeopardy
2. Causing economic losses
3. Interfering with the availability of products and services
• The usual causes of failure are:
1. Improper materials selection and processing
2. Inadequate design of the component or its misuse
• Damage can also occur to structural parts during service
• Therefore, regular inspection and repair or replacement are critical to safe design
• It is the responsibility of the engineer to anticipate and plan for possible failure and, in
the event that failure does occur, to assess its cause and then take appropriate
preventive measures against future incidents

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• Simple Fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an
imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature of the material
• Fracture can also occur from Fatigue (when cyclic stresses are imposed) and Creep
(time-dependent deformation, normally at elevated temperatures)
• Applied stresses may be tensile, compressive, shear, or torsional (or combinations of
these)
• For metals, two fracture modes are possible: Ductile and Brittle
• This classification is based on the ability of a material to experience plastic
deformation
• Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high energy
absorption before fracture
• However, there is normally little or no plastic deformation with low energy absorption
accompanying a brittle fracture
• Ductility may be quantified in terms of percent elongation and percent reduction in
area. In addition, ductility is a function of temperature of the material, the strain rate,
and the stress state
• Any fracture process involves; crack formation, crack propagation and eventual
failure. This is in response to an imposed stress
• The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack propagation
• Ductile Fracture is characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of
an advancing crack. The process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is
extended. Such a crack is often said to be stable; i.e., it resists any further extension
unless there is an increase in the applied stress
• For Brittle Fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little
accompanying plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack

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 propagation, once started, continues spontaneously without an increase in magnitude
of the applied stress
• Ductile fracture is almost always preferred to brittle fracture for two reasons:
1. Brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is
a consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation. By contrast, in
ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that failure is
imminent, allowing preventive measures to be taken
2. More strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture inasmuch as these
materials are generally tougher
• Under the action of an applied tensile stress, many metal alloys are ductile, whereas
ceramics are typically brittle, and polymers may exhibit a range of behaviors

4. Fatigue Testing
Introduction
• When a material is subjected to Repeat Cycles of Stress or Strain, it causes its
structure to breakdown ultimately leading to Fracture
• Fatigue is a form of Failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating loads
• It generally occurs after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling
• The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three specifics steps.
a) Crack initiation
b) Crack propagation
c) Final failure

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Fatigue Testing
Theory
▪ A material, component or structure is deemed to have failed when its ability to fully
satisfy the original design function ceases
▪ This may be due to a variety of causes including fracture (either partial or complete)
plastic buckling, dimensional change with time, loss of material by corrosion, erosion
or abrasive wear or an alteration of properties and characteristics with time due to
environmental or other effects
▪ The various modes of failure may be dependent on stress, time, temperature,
environment or a combination of any of these
▪ Failure by fatigue is stress and time dependent and the effect of a cyclical stress system
is to cause nucleation and propagation of cracks within the material
▪ Final failure is by fast fracture when one or more cracks have grown to critical size
▪ Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components)
▪ Under these circumstances, it is possible for failure to occur at a stress level
considerably lower than the Tensile or Yield Strength for a static load
▪ The term “fatigue” is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy
period of repeated stress or strain cycling
▪ Fatigue is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to comprise
approximately 90% of all metallic failures
▪ Polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to fatigue failure
▪ Fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning
▪ Fatigue failure is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile metals
▪ The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks and ordinarily the
fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an applied tensile stress
▪ The applied stress may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending), or torsional
(twisting) in nature
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▪ If a material is subjected to repeated, or cyclic, stressing, it may eventually fail even
though the maximum stress in anyone stress cycle is considerably less than the fracture
stress of the material, as determined by a short-term static test
▪ Very many components are subjected to alternating or fluctuating loading cycles
during service, and failure by fatigue is a fairly common occurrence
▪ Laboratory Tests to determine fatigue strength are usually based either on an
alternating stress cycle, with a mean stress of zero, or on a fluctuating stress with some
positive value of mean stress
▪ Fatigue test involve axially loading the test-piece alternately in the tensile and
compressive modes or fatigue tests involving rotary bending tests
▪ Examples of the rotary bending tests are the Wohler system, in which the test-piece is
loaded as a cantilever (Figure 1 (a) and the four-point loading system (Figure 1 (b)
▪ In the two loading systems, the test-piece is rotated so that, during one complete
revolution, any element of the test-piece surface goes through a complete stress cycle
of tension and compression

Figure 1: Fatigue tests: (a) The Wohler cantilever system; (b) Four-point loading
(Source: Vernon, 2003)
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Figure 2: For rotating – bending fatigue tests, schematic diagrams of (a): a testing
apparatue, and (b): a test specimen (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

5. Impact Testing

• An impact test signifies the toughness of a material i.e the ability of material to absorb
energy during plastic deformation
• Impact Strength: The resistance of a material to fracture under sudden load
application

Notch Impact Testing

• In this type of test, a bar specimen with a milled notch is struck by a fast-moving
hammer, and the energy that is absorbed in fracturing the test-piece is measured
• The energy value indicates the toughness of the material under test
• The types of notched bar impact test that are most widely used are the Charpy test
and the Izod test
• In both types of test, a heavy pendulum is released and is allowed to strike a test-piece
at the bottom of its swing
• A proportion of the energy of the pendulum is absorbed in fracturing the test-piece
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• The height of the follow-through swing of the pendulum is measured, and the energy
absorbed in fracture determined
• In the Charpy test the test-piece is tested as a simply supported beam and the sharp
edge of the penqulum strikes at mid-span directly behind the milled notch
• An Izod test specimen is tested in a cantilever mode
• The test-piece is firmly clamped in a vice with the prepared notch level with the edge
of the vice
• The impact blow is delivered on the same side as the notch (Figure 3 & Figure 4)
• Impact strengths are generally quoted in J/mm2 and based on the cross-sectional area
of the test-piece below the notch

Figure 3: (a) Charpy test specimen and position of impact; (b) Izod test specimen and
position of impact (Source: Vernon, 2003)

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Figure 4: (a) Specimen used for Charpy and Izod impact tests. (b) A schematic drawing
of an impact testing apparatus. The hammer is released from a fixed height h and strikes
the specimen; the energy expended in fracture is reflected in the difference between h and
swing height h’. Specimen placements for both the Charpy and Izod tests are also shown
(Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

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Description of the Equipment and Impact Test Mechanism
• The load is applied as an impact blow from a weighted pendulum hammer released
from a cocked position at a fixed height, h
• The specimen is positioned at the base as shown in Figure 4
• Upon release, a knife edge mounted on the pendulum strikes and fractures the
specimen at the notch, which acts as a point of stress concentration for this high-
velocity impact blow
• The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height h′, which is lower than
h
• The energy absorption, computed from the difference between h and h′, is a measure
of the impact energy
• The primary difference between the Charpy and the Izod techniques lies in the manner
of specimen support, as illustrated in Figure 4
• Several variables, including specimen size and shape as well as notch configuration
and depth, influence the test results

6. Creep Testing
▪ Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static
mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that
experience centrifugal stresses and high-pressure steam)
▪ Deformation under such circumstances is termed Creep
▪ Creep is the time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected
to a constant load or stress
▪ Creep is the continued straining of a material under constant stress conditions and is
Stress, Time and Temperature Dependent
▪ The creep process will lead to eventual fracture

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▪ Creep is normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting factor in the
lifetime of a part/component
▪ It is observed in all materials types
▪ For metals, it becomes important only for temperatures greater than about
0.4TM (where TM is the absolute melting temperature)
▪ Amorphous polymers (which include plastics and rubbers) are quite sensitive to creep
deformation

Creep Test
Theory
▪ Even at constant stress, materials continue to deform for an indefinite period of time
▪ This time -dependent deformation is called Creep
▪ At temperatures less than 40% of the absolute melting point, the extent of creep is
negligible, but at temperatures higher than this it becomes increasingly important
▪ This makes Creep Test a sort of high temperature test
▪ Most creep testing is carried out under constant-load conditions and utilizes dead
weights acting through a simple lever system
▪ During creep testing, extensometer readings are noted at regular time intervals until
the required amount of data has been obtained or until the test piece fractures,
depending on whether the object of the test is to determine the creep rate of to
determine the total creep strain
▪ One of the difficulties in creep testing is that a single test may take a very long time to
complete (10,000 hours) and there are serious difficulties in attempting to extrapolate
from the results of comparatively short-term tests to assess the probable behaviour of
a material over a 10-to-20-year period of service
▪ Creep is sensitive to both applied load and the testing temperature
▪ Modern creep-testing laboratories may contain several hundred creep-testing
machines in continuous use
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▪ A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while
maintaining the temperature constant
▪ Deformation or strain is measured and plotted as a function of elapsed time
▪ Most tests are the constant load type
▪ Constant stress tests are employed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms
of creep
▪ Creep testing is mostly conducted in the tensile mode
▪ Test-pieces for tensile creep testing may be of either circular or rectangular cross-
section (The test specimens are similar to those used in tensile testing)
▪ The actual dimensions of the test-pieces used will depend upon the type of creep
testing machine used
▪ The basic requirements for a creep testing machine are:
a. It must possess means for applying and maintaining a constant tensile load
b. There must be a furnace capable of keeping the temperature of the test-piece at the
desired value to within very close limits
c. There should be means for the accurate measurement of test-piece extension
▪ Tensile creep test machines are designed so that the test-piece is mounted vertically
and the axial load is applied to the specimen holder by dead weights and a lever system
▪ The temperature of the test-piece should be closely controlled for the duration of a test
and the temperature should be uniform along the length of the specimen
▪ The usual arrangement is to have an electric resistance tubular furnace mounted on the
frame of the testing machine and moveable in the vertical plane
▪ The test temperatures vary between 600 – 1000oC
▪ Accurate measurement of strain is necessary during the course of a creep test, except
in the case of creep stress-to-rupture tests
▪ Extensometers used are of the mirror type capable of measuring extensions of the order
10-3 or 10-4 mm

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▪ Extension rods made from a heat resistant alloy connect the gripping points at the test-
piece to the extensometer outside the furnace
▪ Thermo-couples are attached to the test specimen and the temperature of test must be
controlled within the selected range
▪ When the test-piece breaks, the load will be released
▪ Usually, the equipment is arranged so that load release accompanying a fracture will
open a micro switch and switch off both the furnace and the clock which records the
test duration
▪ The broken test-piece can then be removed and the test continued
▪ Upon application of the load there is an instantaneous deformation, as indicated in
Figure 5, which is mostly elastic

Figure 5: Typical creep curve of strain vs time at constant stress and constant elevated
temperature (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

▪ The resulting creep curve consists of three regions

▪ Each region has its own distinctive strain–time feature

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 1. Primary or transient creep occurs first, typified by a continuously decreasing
creep rate i.e., the slope of the curve diminishes with time. This suggests that the
material is experiencing an increase in creep resistance or Strain Hardening.
Deformation becomes more difficult as the material is strained
2. For secondary creep (sometimes termed steady-state creep) the rate is constant
i.e., the plot becomes linear. This is often the stage of creep that is of the longest
duration. The constancy of creep rate is explained on the basis of a balance
between the competing processes of strain hardening and recovery. Recovery is
the process whereby a material becomes softer and retains its ability to experience
deformation
3. For tertiary creep, there is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate failure. This
failure is referred to as Rupture and results from microstructural and/or
metallurgical changes such as grain boundary separation and the formation of
internal cracks, cavities and voids
▪ For tensile loads, a neck may form at some point within the deformation region
▪ This leads to a decrease in the effective cross-sectional area and an increase in strain
rate
▪ For metallic materials, most creep tests are conducted in uniaxial tension using a
specimen having the same geometry as for tensile tests
▪ In addition, uniaxial compression tests are more appropriate for brittle materials

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7. Flexural Test
▪ The stress–strain behavior of brittle materials such as ceramics is not usually
ascertained by a tensile test
▪ This is because it is difficult to prepare and test specimens having the required
geometry
▪ In addition, it is difficult to grip brittle materials without fracturing them
▪ Also, ceramics fail after only about 0.1% strain, which necessitates that tensile
specimens be perfectly aligned to avoid the presence of bending stresses
▪ Due to the above reasons, a more suitable Transverse Bending Test is most
frequently employed
▪ In this test, a rod specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross section is bent
until fracture using a three- or four-point loading technique
▪ The three-point loading scheme is illustrated in Figure 6
▪ At the point of loading, the top surface of the specimen is placed in a state of
compression, while the bottom surface is in tension
▪ Stress is computed from the specimen thickness, the bending moment and the moment
of inertia of the cross section
▪ The maximum tensile stress exists at the bottom specimen surface directly below the
point of load application
▪ Since the tensile strengths of ceramics are about one-tenth of their compressive
strengths, and since fracture occurs on the tensile specimen face, the flexure test
is a reasonable substitute for the tensile test
▪ The stress at fracture during flexure test is known as the Flexural Strength, Modulus
of Rupture, Fracture Strength or The Bend Strength
▪ This is an important mechanical parameter for ceramics
▪ For a rectangular cross section, the flexural strength is equal to:
3𝐹𝑓 𝐿
𝜎𝑓𝑠 =
2𝑏𝑑2

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Figure 6: A three-point loading scheme for measuring stress – strain behaviour and
flexural strength of brittle ceramics (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

𝑀𝐶
𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐼

Where:
M = maximum bending moment
C = Distance from center of specimen to outer fibers
I = Moment of inertia of cross − section
F = Applied force
For rectangular specimen:
𝑀 𝐶 𝐼 𝜎
𝐹𝐿 𝑑 𝑏𝑑3 3𝐹𝐿
4 2 12 2𝑏𝑑2

For circular specimen:

𝑀 𝐶 𝐼 𝜎
𝐹𝐿 𝑅 𝜋𝑅4 𝐹𝐿
4 4 𝜋𝑅3

Where 𝐹𝑓 is the load at fracture, L is the distance between the support points
▪ When the cross-section of the specimen is circular, then:
𝐹𝑓 𝐿
𝜎𝑓𝑠 =
𝜋𝑅 3
Where R is the radius of the specimen

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 𝜎𝑓𝑠 will depend on the size of the specimen (volume of specimen exposed to tensile
stress)

Figure 7: Flexural testing; set up, test specimen before and after the test

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Toughness

• Toughness (also referred to as fracture toughness) is a property that is indicative of a

material’s resistance to fracture when a crack (or other stress-concentrating defect) are
present
• Because it is nearly impossible (as well as costly) to manufacture materials with zero
defects (or to prevent damage during service), fracture toughness is a major
consideration for all structural materials
• Toughness is as the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before
fracturing

Fracture mechanics

• Fracture mechanics is the study of the relationships between:

1. Crack Geometry
2. Material Strength
3. Toughness
4. Stress Systems
• The above factors affect the fracture characteristics of a material
• The aim of fracture mechanics is to determine the critical size of a crack or other defect
necessary for the occurrence of fast fracture, that is, catastrophic crack propagation
and failure, under service loading conditions
• Failure of a material by fast or brittle fracture can have disastrous consequences
• Fracture mechanics is useful for assessing the risk potential of cracks in structures and
for determining a 'safe maximum' or permissible crack size in a component
• This is invaluable when designing structures to be “Fracture Safe”

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8. Fracture Toughness Testing
Theory
• Not all materials fail in the same manner and the terms tough, ductile and brittle are
frequently used to describe the fracture behaviour of a material
• In a tough, or ductile fracture, failure is preceded by a considerable amount of plastic
deformation and considerable energy is required to bring about fracture
• On the other hand, in a brittle, or non-ductile fracture there is little or no plastic
deformation prior to failure and the energy input necessary to bring about fracture is
relatively low
• The type of fracture which occurs is largely dependent on the nature and condition of
the material but it is also affected by other factors, including:
1. The type of stress applied
2. The rate of application of stress
3. Temperature and environmental conditions
• Other factors that have an effect on the failure behaviour of a material are the
component geometry and surface condition
• Stress concentration effects will occur at a change in section, a surface imperfection
or internal flaw
• In some circumstances, components made from materials which would be expected to
yield and plastically deform if overstressed may suddenly fracture in a brittle manner,
the fracture growing from some existing crack or flaw at sonic speed, even though the
average level of stress within the material is well below the design stress
• The resistance of a material to fast crack propagation is termed Fracture
Toughness

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Determination of Fracture Toughness

• For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions and when a notch (or point of stress
concentration) is present, notch toughness is assessed by using an Impact Test
• For the static (low strain rate) situation, a measure of toughness in metals (derived
from plastic deformation) may be ascertained from the results of a tensile stress–strain
test
• It is the Area under the Stress-Strain Curve up to the point of fracture
• The units are energy per unit volume of material
• For a metal to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility. Ductile metals are
normally tougher than brittle ones
• A measure of toughness is the energy absorbed during the fracture of a material, as
measured by the area under the entire Stress–Strain Curve
• A number of different standardized tests have been devised to measure the fracture
toughness values for structural materials
• In the United States, these standard test methods are developed by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• Procedures and specimen configurations for most tests are Relatively Complicated
• In brief, for each test type, the specimen (of specified geometry and size) contains a
preexisting defect, usually a sharp crack that has been introduced
• The test apparatus loads the specimen at a specified rate, and also measures load and
crack displacement values
• Data are subjected to analyses to ensure that they meet established criteria before the
fracture toughness values are deemed acceptable
• Most tests are for metals, but some have also been developed for ceramics, polymers
and composites
• Standard tests for fracture toughness are designed to determine reproducible values for
Fracture Toughness (K1C)
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• Two types of standard test-piece may be used
• These are the single edge notched bend test-piece (SEN) and the compact tensile test-
piece (CTS)
• Both types of test-pieces are prepared with a notch conforming to standard dimensions
and with a crack emanating from the base of the notch
• The crack is generally developed from the notch by a fatigue process to a pre-
determined size
• During a fracture toughness test, the values of applied force required to cause given
amounts of crack extension are measured
• In the current discussion on material testing, we shall not look deeply at this test.

Tutorials
Example 1
In a tensile test on a mild steel rod 18 mm in diameter using a 120 mm gauge length, the
following observations were recorded:

Parameter Parameter value

Extension under a load of 200 kN 0.42 mm
Load at yield point 411 kN
Ultimate load 400 kN
Breaking load 390 kN
Total extension in length 8.4 mm
Diameter at fracture 12.2 mm

Using data in table above, compute:

i. Young modulus
ii. Yield stress
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iii. Ultimate stress
iv. Engineering stress
v. True stress
vi. Percentage elongation
vii. Percentage reduction in area

Solution

Given:

𝐿 = 120 𝑚𝑚

dO = 18 mm

dF = 12.2 mm

∆L = 0.42mm

Let:

𝜎𝑌 = Yield stress

σU = Ultimate stress

σE = Engineering stress

σT = True stress

𝑃𝑌 = Load at yield point = 411Kn

𝑃U = Ultimate Load = 400 kN

𝑃E = Breaking Load = 390 kN

𝜋 2 𝜋
AO = Original area = (𝑑 𝑂 ) = (182 ) = 254.34 𝑚𝑚2
4 4

π π
AF = Area at fracture = (dF 2 ) = (12.22 ) = 116.84 mm2
4 4
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Substituting the above values gives:
FL 200×120
i. E= = =224.67 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐
AO ∆L 254.34×0.42
PY 411
ii. Yield stress = = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟔 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐
AO 254.34
PU 400
iii. Ultimate stress = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟑 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐
AO 254.34
PB 390
iv. Engineering stress = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐
AO 254.34
PB 390
v. True stress = = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟖 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐
AF 116.84
Change in length 8.4
vi. Percentage elongation = × 100 = × 100 = 𝟕. 𝟎 %
original length 120
AO −AF (254.34−116.84)
vii. Percentage reduction in area = × 100 = × 100 =
AO 254.34

𝟓𝟒. 𝟎𝟔 %

Example 2

A short hollow steel cylinder of wall thickness t = 1 inch (in) is to support an axial
compressive force of 130,000 pounds (lb). The ultimate stress in compression for the
material is 35,000 lb/in2. Calculate the minimum required outside diameter of the cylinder
if the factor of safety is 3.

Solution

Let:

Compressive force = 130,000 lb

t = 1 inch

σU = Ultimate stress = 35,000 lb/in2

σAW = Allowable working stress

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A = Cross − sectional area

S. F = Safety factor

Ultimate stress
Safety factor =
Allowable working stress

σU
S. F =
σAW

35000
3.0 =
σAW

From which σAW = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕𝐥𝐛/𝐢𝐧𝟐

But:
𝐹
σAW =
𝐴

130000
11666.67 =
𝐴

From which, A = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝐢𝐧𝟐

Let:

do = Outside diameter of the cylinder = do

di = Inside diameter of the cylinder = do − 2t

Actual cross-sectional area A is given by:

π π π
A = (do 2 − di 2 ) = do 2 − (do − 2t)2 = 11.14
4 4 4

From which do = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐬

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Revision Questions

1. Differentiate between ductile and brittle materials

2. Differentiate between creep and fatigue
3. Differentiate between ductility and malleability
4. A 25 mm diameter bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of 100 kN. Under the
action of this load, a 200 mm gauge length is found to extend by 0.2 mm
i. Determine the modulus of elasticity of the bar material
ii. In order to reduce the weight of the bar while keeping the external diameter
constant, the bar is drilled at the centre to produce a cylinder of uniform
thickness. What is the maximum inside diameter possible given the
allowable stress is 260 MN/m2? The load remains 100 kN.”

References

1. Callister Jr D.W. & Rethwisch D.G. (2018). Materials Science and Engineering:
An Introduction, (10th Edn. ) New York: John Wiley and Sons

2. Vernon, J. (2003). Introduction to Engineering Materials. (4th Edn.). London:

Macmillan Press Ltd.

END OF CPE 111

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