EE 222 Antenna Theory and Design

Lecture 2

Introduction to Antennas
(Radiation Mechanism)

Atif Shamim
EE 222 Introduction

§ Radiation Conditions

§ Single Wire Configurations

§ Two Wires and Free Space Waves

§ E-fields for Short Dipole

§ Linear Dipole (Current Variation)

EE 222 Radiation Conditions
Assume electric
volume charge
density is
distributed
uniformly in a
circular wire.

It can be shown
that current
density Jz
(amp/m2 over
the cross-
section of wire
is given by (1-
1a)

qv (electric volume charge density in coulumbs/m3), cross-sectional area A and

volume V, uniform velocity vz (meters/sec), current density Jz (amperes/m2 )
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 EE 222 Radiation Conditions
If the wire is ideal
conductor the
current is on the
surface, and
given by (1-1b),
qs is surface
charge density

If the wire is very

thin (zero radius),
current is given
by (1-1c), ql is
charge per unit
length

Where az is the
acceleration
(meters/sec2) 3
EE 222 Radiation Conditions

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EE 222 Radiation Conditions

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EE 222 Single Wire Configurations

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EE 222 Single Wire Configurations

When the wire is initially energized, the charges (free electrons) in the wire are set in motion
by the electrical lines of force created by the source. When charges are accelerated in the
source-end of the wire and decelerated (negative acceleration with respect to original motion)
during reflection from its end, it is suggested that radiated fields are produced at each end and
along the remaining part of the wire, 8
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EE 222 Two Wires & Free Space Waves

Applying a voltage across the two-conductor transmission line creates an electric field
between the conductors. The electric lines of force have a tendency to act on the free electrons
associated with each conductor and force them to be displaced. The movement of the charges 10
creates a current that in turn creates a magnetic field intensity.
EE 222 Two Wires & Free Space Waves

• If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we expect the electric field
between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a period equal to that of the
applied source.
• The relative magnitude of the electric field intensity is indicated by the density
(bunching) of the lines of force with the arrows showing the relative direction
(positive or negative).
• The creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields between the
conductors forms electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission
line, as shown in Figure 1.11(a).
• The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated with them
electric charges and corresponding currents. If we remove part of the antenna
structure, as shown in Figure 1.11(b), free-space waves can be formed by
“connecting” the open ends of the electric lines (shown dashed).

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EE 222 Two Wires & Free Space Waves

The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant phase point P0 moves outwardly with
the speed of light and travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1 ) in the time of one-half of a period.
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EE 222 Two Wires & Free Space Waves

Analogy with Water Waves

Let us draw a parallel between the guided and free-space waves, and water
waves created by the dropping of a pebble in a calm body of water or initiated
in some other manner. Once the disturbance in the water has been initiated,
water waves are created which begin to travel outwardly. If the disturbance has
been removed, the waves do not stop or extinguish themselves but continue
their course of travel. If the disturbance persists, new waves are continuously
created which lag in their travel behind the others. The same is true with the
electro- magnetic waves created by an electric disturbance.

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EE 222 Two Wires & Free Space Waves

If the electric disturbance is of a continuous nature, electro- magnetic waves exist

continuously and follow in their travel behind the others. This is shown in Figure
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1.13 for a biconical antenna.
EE 222 Two Wires & Free Space Waves

When the electromagnetic waves are within the transmission

line and antenna, their existence is associated with the pres-
ence of the charges inside the conductors. However, when the
waves are radiated, they form closed loops and there are no
charges to sustain their existence. This leads us to conclude that
electric charges are required to excite the fields but are not
needed to sustain them and may exist in their absence.

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EE 222 E-fields for Short Dipole

Figure 1.14(a) displays the lines of force created between the arms of a small center-fed
dipole in the first quarter of the period during which time the charge has reached its
maximum value (assuming a sinusoidal time variation) and the lines have traveled
outwardly a radial distance λ/4. For this example, let us assume that the number of lines
formed are three. 17
EE 222 E-fields for Short Dipole

During the next quarter of the period, the original three lines travel an additional λ/4 (a total
of λ/2 from the initial point) and the charge density on the conductors begins to diminish.
This can be thought of as being accomplished by introducing opposite charges which at the
end of the first half of the period have neutralized the charges on the conductors. The lines of
force created by the opposite charges are three and travel a distance λ/4 during the second
quarter of the first half 18
EE 222 E-fields for Short Dipole

Since there is no net charge on the antenna, then the lines of force must have been
forced to detach themselves from the conductors and to unite together to form closed
loops. This is shown in Figure 1.14(c). In the remaining second half of the period,
the same procedure is followed but in the opposite direction. After that, the process
is repeated and continues indefinitely and similar electric field patterns are formed.
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EE 222 Linear Dipole

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EE 222 Linear Dipole
• The movement of the charges creates a traveling wave current, of magnitude
I0/2, along each of the wires.
• When the current arrives at the end of each of the wires, it undergoes a
complete reflection (equal magnitude and 180◦ phase reversal). The reflected
traveling wave, when combined with the incident traveling wave, forms in each
wire a pure standing wave pattern of sinusoidal form as shown in Figure
1.15(a).
• The current in each wire undergoes a 180◦ phase reversal between adjoining
half-cycles. This is indicated in Figure 1.15(a) by the reversal of the arrow
direction. Radiation from each wire individually occurs because of the time-
varying nature of the current and the termination of the wire.
• For the two-wire balanced (symmetrical) transmission line, the current in a half-
cycle of one wire is of the same magnitude but 180◦ out-of-phase from that in
the corresponding half-cycle of the other wire. If in addition the spacing
between the two wires is very small (s ≪ λ), the fields radiated by the current of
each wire are essentially cancelled by those of the other. The net result is an
almost ideal (and desired) non-radiating transmission line. 22
EE 222 Linear Dipole

Because the two wires of the flared section are not necessarily close to each
other, the fields radiated by one do not necessarily cancel those of the other.
Therefore ideally there is a net radiation by the transmission- line system.

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EE 222 Linear Dipole

Ultimately the flared section of the transmission line can take the form shown in Figure
1.15(c). This is the geometry of the widely used dipole antenna. 24
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EE 222 Linear Dipole

The current pattern of a very small dipole (usually λ/50 < l ≤ λ/10) can be
approximated by a triangular distribution since sin(kl /2) kl /2 when kl /2 is very
small. 26
EE 222 Linear Dipole

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EE 222 Linear Dipole

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EE 222 Linear Dipole

Because of its cyclical spatial variations, the current standing wave pattern of a
dipole longer than λ(l > λ) undergoes 180◦ phase reversals between adjoining half-
cycles. Therefore the current in all parts of the dipole does not have the same phase.
This is demonstrated graphically in Figure 1.16(d) for λ < l < 3λ/2. In turn, the fields
radiated by some parts of the dipole will not reinforce those of the others.

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For a time-harmonic varying system of radian frequency ω = 2πf , the current

standing wave patterns of Figure 1.16 represent the maximum current excitation for
any time. The current variations, as a function of time, on a λ/2 center-fed dipole
are shown in Figure 1.17 for 0 ≤ t ≤ T /2 where T is the period. These variations
can be obtained by multiplying the current standing wave pattern of Figure 1.16(b)
by cos(ωt ).

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EE 222 Current Variation in Time

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