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G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Funding Information
The part of this book is supported by the Department of Biotechnology
funding information (BT/PR38273/AAQ/3/980/2020).
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on the Github repository:
https://github.com/Apress/Internet-of-Things-Using-Single-Board-
Computers. For more detailed information, please visit
http://www.apress.com/source-code.
Acknowledgments
My heartfelt thanks to Apress, especially Jessica Vakili and Susan
McDermott, for helping me throughout this project.
I sincerely thank the Department of BioTechnology (DBT-India) for
their funding (BT/PR38273/AAQ/3/980/2020) on the smart
aquaculture project.
I would also like to extend thanks to my JRFs: Ms. Meenakshi KV, Mr.
M. Akash, Ms. A. V. Anandhalekshmi, and Ms. V. Sowmiya.
I give special thanks to my son Mr. Ananthajith K, my wife, Dr.
Mahima V, my parents, Mr. G. S. Ramasubramanian and Mrs. Lalitha, and
Mrs. Chandra, Mr. Venkatraman, Mrs. V. Chitra, and Mr. V. Bharath for
their timely support.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors
Sensors
Energy-based
Signal Output
Mode of Operation
Electronic Sensors
Connectivity
Bluetooth
Zigbee
Wi-Fi
LoRa
Wired Communication
Machine Intelligence
Active Management
Sensor Fusion
Smart Devices
Human-Computer Interaction
Context Awareness
Actuators
IoT and Smart City Applications
Automobile Sensors
Smart Home Sensors
Smart Transportation Sensors
Summary
References
Chapter 2:IoT Sensors and Their Interfacing Protocols
Vision and Imaging Sensors
Light Rings
Shop Floor and Production Line Inspections
Line Scan Cameras
3D Depth Cameras
Event/Production Line Triggering
Sensors That Measure Temperature
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Temperature Thermistor Sensors
Semiconductor Temperature Sensors
Thermometers
Radiation Sensors
Proximity Sensors
Inductive Field Sensors
Magnetic Field Sensors
Types of Photoelectric Sensors
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
Pressure Sensors
Position Sensors
Photoelectric Sensors
Particle Sensors
Types of Particle Sensors
Metal Detectors
Level Sensors
Leak Detectors
Humidity Sensors
Gas and Chemical Sensors
Gas Detectors
Carbon Monoxide (MQ7) Detectors
Force Sensors
Force Sensor Types
Flow Sensors
Mass Flow Sensors
Velocity Flow Sensors
Flaw Sensors
Flame Detectors
Voltmeter and Ammeter Sensors
Contact Sensors
Non-Contact Sensors
Sensor Communication Protocols
Summary
References
Chapter 3:Programming SBCs
Arduino Programming
Raspberry Pi
Introduction to Raspberry Pi GPIO Access
Interfacing DHT
Interfacing Pi cam to Raspberry Pi zero w
Pi Camera Specifications
Pi Camera Access
Interfacing PIR Sensor
Python
File Concepts
Spreadsheet Concepts
Communication Concepts
Wired and Wireless Programming Concepts
Wired Programming Concepts
Node-RED
Node-RED Features
Node-RED Architecture
Node-RED Applications
MQTT Protocols
Google Sheets Programming (gspread)
Firebase Programming
Matplotlib
Getting Started
Bar Graphs
Scatter Plot
Spectrum Representation
Coherence of Two Signals
Cross-Correlation Graph
AutocorreleationGraph
Changing Figure Size in Different Units
Scale
Pie Charts
Style Sheets
FiveThirtyEight Style Sheet
Solarized Light Style Sheet
3D Graphs
Plotting 2D Data on a 3D Plot
Creating 2D Bar Graphs in Different Planes
Creating a 3D Histogram of 2D Data
3D Surfaces
Animation
Live Line Graph
Oscilloscope Live
References
Chapter 4:Wireless Connectivity in IoT
Introduction
Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs)
RFID Protocol
XBEE Radios with Arduino
Bluetooth with Arduino
Arduino with a GSM Modem
Arduino with Firebase Cloud Connectivity
References
Chapter 5:The Internet of Things Through the Raspberry Pi
Introduction
Cluster Computing with Raspberry Pi Zero W
Message Passing Interface (MPI)
Networking with RPis for Simple MPI Scripts
Simple MPI Programming
Types of Communication in Cluster Computing
Persistent Communication
Broadcasting
Scattering
Gathering
A Simple Web Service–Based Home Automation Using a Flask
Server
References
Chapter 6:Home Electrification and Node-RED
References
Chapter 7:Supply Chain Management:Industry 4.0 and MQTT
Applications
Introduction
Working Principle
Publisher Source Code
Subscriber Source Code
Summary
References
Chapter 8:Raspberry Pi–Based Go/No-Go Kit Design Using the RPi
Camera and Image Processing Algorithms
Introduction
References
Chapter 9:Programming Water-Quality Sensors
Introduction
References
Chapter 10:IoT-Based Shrimp Farming
References
Index
About the Author
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
completed his PhD in Information and
Communication Engineering from Anna
University, Chennai, in 2017. He is
currently an associate professor in the
CSE Department at Vel Tech Rangarajan
Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science
and Technology. He is also a visiting
professor at the University of
Johannesburg.
His main research interest includes
the Internet of Things, Industry 4.0, body
sensor network, and fault-tolerant
wireless sensor network. He has
published several reputed articles and
undertaken several consultancy
activities for leading MNC companies. He
has guest-edited several special issue volumes and books and served as
an editorial review board member for peer-reviewed journals. He is
TEC committee member in DBT, GOI, India.
He is presently working on several government-sponsored research
projects like ISRO, DBT, and DST. He is Wiley’s editor-in-chief of the
Next Generation Computer and Communication Engineering Series. He
is also the managing director for Eazythings Technology Private
Limited.
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone
has more than 22 years of experience in
security, web/mobile development,
cloud, and IT architecture. His true IT
passions are security and Android.
He has been programming and
teaching how to program with Android,
Perl, PHP, Java, VB, Python, C/C++, and
MySQL for more than 20 years.
He has a master of science degree in
computing science from the University of
Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager,
software engineer, research engineer,
chief security architect, information
security manager, PCI/SCADA auditor,
and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect for many years.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_1
Sensors
Sensors are the main data acquisition and detection system, which converts any
physical quantity (i.e., event) into a signal. In some sensors, direct conversion
takes place; in others, multiple conversions take place to attain accuracy and
quantification. Some of the sensors used in IoT and prototyping are shown in
Figure 1-2. Sensors are collectively connected with an A/D converter to convert
their signals to digital forms so that a processor understands and can program
effectively. Figure 1-2 illustrates sensor classification (mode of operation, signal
output, and energy-based).
Figure 1-2 Sensor type classification
Next, let’s further discuss sensor type classification.
Energy-based
Generator
Energy generation–based sensors provides conversion energy conversion, like
voltage and current, on any physical event. For example, a piezoelectric sensor
converts vibration energy to a proportional voltage. The seebeck metal junction
converts the change in temperature to proportional energy conversion.
Conversion
Sensors convert one mode of physical quantity to another; for example, an
anemometer converts air velocity to rotational motion, which is further
converted to electrical voltage for measurement. These sensors are operated in a
proportional zone for calibration and stable operation. Most sensors provide
linear data conversion.
Signal Output
Analog
Sensors such as anemometers provide analog conversion of data. Analog signal
from annemometer is converted to digital data with the help of an analog-to-
digital converter. The sensor’s frequency of operation should be far greater than
the frequency of the physical quantity to get clear information after digital
conversion.
Discrete
Cameras and tile-based sensors provide discrete and digital information directly
to the processor. This makes the sensor easy to integrate with any digital
processor.
Mode of Operation
Sensors are deflection- or comparison-based. Deflection happens when sensing a
physical event. This is normally an angular-based movement between two points.
Comparison-based meters normally work with standard available data. GPS
sensors provide comparison-based sensing.
Deflection (e.g., voltage meters and current meters)
Comparison (e.g., GPS sensors)
Electronic Sensors
Figure 1-3 illustrates sensor classification based on the field of operation, such as
mechanical, optical, electrical, acoustic, thermal, chemical, radiation, biological,
and magnetic.
Figure 1-3 Sensor classification based on measurand
Mechanical
Linear and angular position
Velocity of the subject
Acceleration
Force
Viscosity, rigidness, and roughness
Pressure and stress
Strain
Mass and density measurement
Optical
Wave velocity
Polarization and spectrum
Wave amplitude
Electrical
Conductivity
Potential difference
Charge and current density
Field
Thermal
Heat flux
Thermal conductivity
Chemical
States and identifies
Color change
Change in voltage
Radiation
Energy
Intensity
Biological
Mass
Concentration
States
Magnetic
Magnetic field
Magnetic flux
Permeability
Connectivity
Figure 1-4 illustrates the connectivity features of IoT communication.
Figure 1-4 IoT connectivity features
Bluetooth Low Energy, Zigbee, LoRa, and Wi-Fi are the most common types of
connectivity in an IoT environment. I2C, SPI, and Rx-Tx serial communication
protocols are examples of wired connectivity.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth network technology creates a personal area network (PAN) by
wirelessly connecting mobile devices over a short distance. The Bluetooth
architecture has its own independent model with a stack of protocols; it does not
follow the standard OSI or TCP/IP models.
Zigbee
The Zigbee 3.0 protocol [1] is an IEEE 802.15.4 specification that supports a 2.4
GHz frequency band. The following are some of the features of Zigbee 3.0.
Low power: Devices that comply with Zigbee 3.0 consume less power and
transmit data at a slower rate. For IoT devices, long-lasting batteries are
required. As a result, the Internet of Things (IoT) network extensively uses this
standard.
Reliable and robust: The mesh topology of the Zigbee 3.0 network eliminates
single points of failure and ensures packet delivery reliability.
Scalable: Devices can be added to a Zigbee 3.0 network anytime.
It is a secure network because it employs AES-128 encryption.
Global standard: Zigbee 3.0 devices use the 2.4 GHz frequency band, which is
widely used worldwide. As a result, it has become the industry standard
around the world.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi [2] is a technology that transfers data through radio waves that can make
small gadgets exchange data connected within a small router. Wi-Fi uses the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ (IEEE) 802.11 standards for
effective data transmission.
IEEE 802.11 devices have the primary benefit of making it easier to deploy
local area networks (LANs) at a lower cost. They can host wireless LANs in
outdoor areas and airports, where running cables to every device isn’t practical.
LoRa
LoRa [3] is a long-range wireless communication technology derived from the
CSS chirp-based spread spectrum. The chirp pulses communicate information,
similar to BATS communication.
Wired Communication
I 2C
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) [4] is a two-wired communication protocol (see
Figure 1-5). It is a bus interface, serial communication protocol built into devices.
It has recently become a popular protocol for short-distance communication.
Only two bidirectional open-drain lines—SDA (Serial Data) and SCL (Serial
Clock)—are used for data communication. Both lines are cranked up. The SDA pin
sends and receives data. SCL carries the clock signal.
I2C has two modes of operation: master and slave. Master mode is the most
advanced mode.
Slave mode obeys the command from the master and transmits or receives
data accordingly.
Each clock’s high to low pulse on the SCL line synchronizes each data bit
transferred on the SDA line. Figure 1-5 shows I2C communication protocols.
Serial Communication
Serial communication is a straightforward and dependable way to send data over
long distances. RS-232 is a widely used serial communication protocol. The data
in this standard is sent in serial format at a preset speed (called a baud
rate/number) of bits communicated between the sender and receiver. Common
baud rates are 4800, 9600, 19200, and 38400. Figure 1-7 shows the connection
diagram for the UART communication scheme.
Active Management
The main components and operation of a closed-loop sensor management
system are depicted in Figure 1-9. The raw sensor data is processed for
information relevant to the sensing objective when the sensor is chosen, and a
measurement is taken. This usually requires the fusion of data from several
sensing modalities (e.g., optical and acoustic) and other properties, as well as the
addition of information from earlier measurements and possibly other sources.
Auxiliary information, such as target tracks or choices about non-sensor
manager-related concerns, may be generated by the loop’s fusion and signal
processing. For sensor management reasons, they must generate a state of
information that allows quantification of the benefits of each feasible sensor
selection in the following time epoch. Currently, accessible quantification
methodologies range from statistical (e.g., mean risk or knowledge gain) to
entirely heuristic. The sensor management must then optimize which sensor to
use for the next measurement.
Sensor Fusion
Sensor fusion is a technique for reducing the amount of uncertainty in a robot’s
navigation or task performance by combining data from multiple sensors, as
shown in Figure 1-10. Sensor fusion helps the robot create a more accurate world
model, which allows it to navigate and behave better. There are three main
methods for combining sensor data.
Redundant sensors collect repeated information that is permanently fit in
sources like heaters, gates, and other locations.
Complementary sensors collect different information on events happening
inside the monitoring environment.
Coordinated sensors are logically operating sensor that collects information
about the environment.
Smart Devices
Human-Computer Interaction
Human-computer interaction (HCI) [6] is a subfield of computer science that
investigates how people (users) interact with computers, as well as the design,
evaluation, and implementation of user interfaces for computer systems that are
responsive to the user’s needs and habits. This multidisciplinary field
incorporates computer science, behavioral sciences, and design. One of the
primary goals of HCI is to make computer systems more accessible and useable. A
user interface consists of hardware and software that allows users to modify the
system while allowing the system to communicate with the user. HCI focuses on
the design, implementation, and evaluation of user interfaces. In its broadest
sense, HCI occurs when a human user and a computer system collaborate to
achieve a goal. Usability is the part of human-computer interaction concerned
with making it, among other things, successful, efficient, and enjoyable for the
user. Usability entails usability, productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, learnability,
retention, and user interest.
Context Awareness
Figure 1-11 depicts sensor data context awareness [7]. The sensor data and
context awareness provide better infrastructure and ambiance.
Actuators
The applications in a smart city [10]—such as health care, smart agriculture, and
other industrial applications—use actuators [8], such as drives, motors, and
other physical signal converters. A wireless sensor and actuator network (WSAN)
[9] comprises automated actuators. Microcomputers normally link directly to
tiny actuators; however, heavy-load actuators are coupled via driver circuits.
Linear and rotational moving actuators are the two types of actuators that move.
A huge number of our daily demands, such as fans and escalators, are met by
these actuators.
Electric, pneumatic, and hydraulic power sources are also used to classify
them. Electric actuators are the most frequent, and PWM signals are generated by
the system control actuators like servo and stepper motors. The significant
change in the pulse width, time, and change in frequency is reflected in the
actuator’s velocity, rotational direction, and amount of torque exerted. Most
actuators in the industry are actuated through PLC boards. This chapter
showcases building prototypes with small servos and steppers, which are often
accomplished using SBCs like Arduino and Raspberry Pi.
Table 1-1 describes the actuator types mentioned in this book, including
micro steppers, SG90, and infrared. To keep things simple, these actuators are
primarily programmed using Arduino and Raspberry Pi ideas.
Table 1-1 Actuator Types
3 Oled Digital 3.3V-5V 3.3v 12C pins yes IIC & SPI
display display 20mA max
Summary
This chapter overviewed sensors, actuators, and other communication protocols.
Various sensor usage with different applications was also addressed in this
chapter. Sensor classification and interfacing with boards are discussed in the
next chapter.
References
[1] S. Long and F. Miao, “Research on Zigbee wireless communication technology
and its application,” 2019 IEEE 4th Advanced Information Technology, Electronic
and Automation Control Conference (IAEAC), pp. 1830–1834. doi:
10.1109/IAEAC47372.2019.8997928.
[2] K. Pahlavan and P. Krishnamurthy, “Evolution and Impact of Wi-Fi
Technology and Applications: A Historical Perspective,” International Journal of
Wireless Information Networks, vol. 28, Nov. 19, 2020, pp. 3–19.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10776-020-00501-8.
[3] U. Noreen, A. Bounceur, and L. Clavier, “A study of LoRa low power and
wide area network technology,” 2017 International Conference on Advanced
Technologies for Signal and Image Processing (ATSIP), pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/ATSIP.2017.8075570.
[4] Dawoud Shenouda Dawoud and Peter Dawoud, “Design of I2C Bus and
Operation,” in Microcontroller and Smart Home Networks, River Publishers,
2020, pp. 55–112.
[5] Dawoud Shenouda Dawoud, Peter Dawoud, “Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI),” in Serial Communication Protocols and Standards RS232/485,
UART/USART, SPI, USB, INSTEON, Wi-Fi and WiMAX, River Publishers, 2020,
pp.191–244.
[6] Erin T. Solovey and Felix Putze, Improving HCI with Brain Input: Review,
Trends, and Outlook, Now Publishers, 2021.
[7] P. S. Gandodhar and S. M. Chaware, “Context Aware Computing Systems: A
survey,” 2018 2nd International Conference on I-SMAC (IoT in Social, Mobile,
Analytics and Cloud), 2018, pp. 605–608.
[8] Jeffrey Wishart, Yan Chen, Steven Como, Narayanan Kidambi, Duo Lu,
Yezhou Yang, “Sensor and Actuator Hardware,” in Fundamentals of Connected
and Automated Vehicles, SAE, 2022, pp.70–89.
[9] A. Eraliev and G. Bracco, “Design and Implementation of Zigbee Based
Low-Power Wireless Sensor and Actuator Network (WSAN) for Automation of
Urban Garden Irrigation Systems,” 2021 IEEE International IOT, Electronics and
Mechatronics Conference (IEMTRONICS), 2021, pp. 1–7. doi:
10.1109/IEMTRONICS52119.2021.9422568.
[10] N. Mishra, P. Singhal, and S. Kundu, “Application of IoT Products in Smart
Cities of India,” 2020 9th International Conference System Modeling and
Advancement in Research Trends (SMART), pp. 155–157. doi:
10.1109/SMART50582.2020.9337150.
[11] A. Eleyan and J. Fallon, “IoT-based Home Automation Using Android
Application,” 2020 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and
Communications (ISNCC), 2020, pp. 1–4. doi:
10.1109/ISNCC49221.2020.9297320.
[12] S. Wasnik and R. Venkatesh, “Understanding usage of IoT Applications
and its impact on consumer decision making in Indian Automobile industry,”
2022 International Conference on Decision Aid Sciences and Applications
(DASA), 2022, pp. 1259–1264. doi: 10.1109/DASA54658.2022.9765216.
[13] Saravjeet Singh and Jaiteg Singh, “Location Driven Edge Assisted Device
and Solutions for Intelligent Transportation,” in Fog, Edge, and Pervasive
Computing in Intelligent IoT Driven Applications, IEEE, 2021, pp.123–147. doi:
10.1002/9781119670087.ch7.
[14] Shalli Rani, R. Maheswar, G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Sachin Ahuja, and
Deepali Gupta, Machine Learning Paradigm for Internet of Things Applications,
John Wiley & Sons, 2022.
[15] S. Kulkarni, A. Darekar, and S. Shirol, “Proposed framework for V2V
communication using Li-Fi technology,” 2017 International Conference on
Circuits, Controls, and Communications (CCUBE), 2017, pp. 187–190. doi:
10.1109/CCUBE.2017.8394163.
[16] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Role of Single Board Computers (SBCs) in
rapid IoT Prototyping, Springer, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
030-72957-8.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2022
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_2
Light Rings
Sometimes, additional lighting is used. Lights can be white, red, blue, or
green, depending on the imaging task. Under green light, facial
abnormalities can sometimes be noticed more clearly. Backlighting can
bring attention to features in a complex shape that might otherwise be
overlooked in front lighting. There is also infrared and ultraviolet
lighting. A variety of wide-angle and telephoto photos can be created by
changing lenses. In most cases, imaging sensors are fast enough to
capture photographs of products as they pass by. Other image sensing
methods are used for high-speed lines like printing, such as the ones
described next [9].
Using vision sensors to check discrete parts is not the same as using
them to check fast-moving products like printed webs or sheet steel in
a continuous process. Some of these applications use area cameras, and
the resulting images are “stitched” together in software. However, you
can also use a line scan camera [15]. Using rows of pixels, these
cameras are set up to take a single-line photo at the same speed as the
moving object. Using downstream air jets, these cameras could be used
to eliminate trash and food that isn’t good enough to eat. In general,
these cameras are not like regular vision sensors and need their own
image processing.
3D Depth Cameras
Figure 2-4 showcases a 3D stereo vision camera.
Thermocouples
Figure 2-6 shows a thermocouple used in industries for identifying the
temperature.
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en prose et des Opuscules en vers, où l'on rencontre de très-jolies
choses; mais la lecture en est difficile et désagréable, parce que
l'auteur a voulu donner le bon exemple, en employant le premier sa
nouvelle et bizarre orthographe, exemple qui resta sans imitateurs.
Aujourd'hui les livres de Pelletier ont le mérite de nous révéler bien
des secrets de la prononciation du XVI e siècle; par exemple, ils nous
donnent la certitude que oi sonnait oué.
ODE.
É
Je croyais, dit Naaman, qu'Élisée viendrait jusqu'ici, putabam
quod egrederetur ad me:—«Jo quidoué que il en eisit e jesque a mei
venist.» (Rois, p. 362.)
Tant que l'enfant de Bethabée a vécu, j'espérais, dit David, que
Dieu le guérirait; c'est pourquoi je jeûnais et pleurais:—«Tant cume li
enfes vesquid, jo esperoué que Deu le guaresist, e pur ço jeunowe e
pluroué.» (Ibid., p. 161.)
La raison alléguée par l'ancienne Académie pour repousser
l'orthographe de Voltaire, c'est que oi était aussi propre que ai pour
noter la finale de l'imparfait de l'indicatif. Ils posaient en principe
cette erreur, qu'on avait toujours prononcé cet imparfait comme on
fait aujourd'hui.
Voltaire ignorait que la prononciation eût changé
considérablement; mais, pour noter ce qu'il entendait, il prenait dans
l'orthographe contemporaine la notation à son avis correspondante
au son, et il ne se trompait pas. On a de tout temps écrit grammaire,
palais, le Maine, retrait, mais, jamais, si ce n'est en Normandie, où
ce son était figuré par ei: Engleis, Franceis, pleidier, etc.
Ainsi, d'Olivet, d'Alembert, l'Académie, M. Nodier, et tous les
adversaires de Voltaire sur cette question, commettaient une erreur
double:
1 o Ils attribuaient à la notation oi une valeur qu'elle n'a jamais
eue;
2 o Ils refusaient à la notation ai la valeur qui lui a toujours été
propre depuis que notre langue possède des diphthongues; sans
compter l'erreur d'attribuer à Voltaire ce qui ne lui appartenait pas.
Puisque, selon eux, oi équivalait si pleinement à ai, que n'écrivaient-
ils la province du Moine, un palois, la grammoire, le verbe foire, etc.?
Pourquoi deux notations diverses du même son?
L'orthographe dite de Voltaire avait été proposée, en 1675, par
un avocat du Parlement de Rouen, nommé Bérain. Après des
combats opiniâtres, elle a fini par triompher en 1835: l'Académie
française, dans sa nouvelle édition de son dictionnaire, adopte enfin
l'orthographe de Voltaire. Dieu soit loué! Il a fallu cent soixante ans
pour en arriver là! Encore ni lui, ni elle, peut-être, n'ont-ils jamais
bien su combien cette mesure était au fond raisonnable et juste.
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