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TEACHING NOTES

2015
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MEASUREMENTS
PHYSICS is the study of the physical environment.
PHYSICAL QUANTITY: Is anything that can be measured either directly or indirectly. All
measurements made in physics are related to the three chosen fundamental physical quantities

Basic/Fundamental quantities

Quantity unit symbol Other units

Mass kilogram kg g, tonnes
Length metre m cm, mm, km
time second s h, min, years, decade

Derived Quantities: these are quantities that are found by using the fundamental quantities

Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

exa E 1018 deci d 10-1
peta P 1015 centi c 10-2
tera T 1012 milli m 10-3
giga G 109 micro μ 10-6
mega M 106 nano n 10-9
kilo k 103 pico p 10-12
hecto h 102 femto f 10-15
decka da 101 atto a 10-18
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MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Length is defined as the space or distance between 2 points. Units of length are related to metre
by multiple of 10

Length can be measured using:

 Rulers
 Click wheel
 Measuring tape
 Surveyor’s sight

These instruments are used to measure very long distances, for measuring small length of
objects; we can use more accurate instruments like a VERNIER CALIPER and MICROMETRE
SCREW GAUGE

USING VERNIER CALIPERS & MICROMETERS

a. VERNIER CALIPERS

This instrument has various parts, including

 three devices for measuring:
outside jaws are used to measure outer dimensions of objects, for example, the outer
diameter of a pipe
inside jaws are used to measure inner dimensions of objects, for example, the inner
diameter of a pipe
a stem or depth gauge used to measure the depth of objects, for example, the depth
of a small container
 two measurement scales
a fixed scale
a moving (Vernier) scale
Examine the various scales on the Vernier caliper. The fixed scale is as the name implies - it
does not move and looks like a ruler. The moving scale is called the Vernier scale.

Vernier calipers have one or two systems of measurement: metric, imperial, or both. The fixed
1
scale on Vernier calipers calibrated in metric units is divided into millimetres, that is, cm.
10
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1 1 1
The moving Vernier scale represents   cm . Therefore, measurements taken with
10 10 100
Vernier calipers are precise to the nearest hundredth of a centimetre.

EXAMPLE 1
Read the following measurement made in metric units with Vernier Calipers.

First line on the

moving scale reads .
Best aligns on
the fixed scale of 2.0 moving scale at 0.05

First read the fixed scale, using the first line on the moving scale as a pointer. This line points
to a place beyond 2.0 cm. Now find the line on the moving scale that most closely aligns with
line on the fixed scale. The moving scale has 10 divisions, and each division represents 0.01
cm. The line that best matches is the fifth line on the moving scale; that is 0.05 cm.
Therefore the reading of the caliper is: 2.0 + 0.05 = 2.05 cm
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b. MICROMETER SCREWGAUGE

Note the following parts of the instrument:

 measuring device :jaws (anvil and spindle) are used to measure small lengths
 two measurement scales a scale on the barrel (fixed scale)
a scale on the thimble (moving scale)
 one system of measurement units (metric or imperial)

On a metric micrometer, the scales are as follows:

 barrel: The fixed scale on the barrel is divided into 25 main divisions. Each main division
represents 1 mm. Each main division is divided in half, yielding 50 subdivisions in all.
Each of these subdivisions represents 0.05 cm or 0.50 mm.
 thimble: The moving scale on the thimble is divided into 50 divisions. One complete
rotation of the thimble represents 50 x 0.01 = 0.50 mm. Therefore, each division on the
thimble
1
represents - cm or 0.01 mm.
1000

EXAMPLE 1
Read the following micrometer measurement.

1. The measure of the last marking showing on the upper scale (indicated by arrow A) is 11
mm. Check the lower scale. The last marking showing on the lower scale (indicated by arrow
B) is to the left of arrow A. In this case, the number from the barrel is read as 11 mm.
2. The thimble reading yields 0.28 mm.
3. The sum and resulting measurement is: 11 mm + 0.28 mm = 11.28 mm.
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EXERCISE
VERNIER CALIPERS
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MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

a. Parallax Error
For accurate measurement, the eye must always be placed vertically above the mark being
read. This is to avoid parallax errors which will give rise to inaccurate measurement.

correct position
Parallax errors affect the accuracy of the measurement. If you
consistently used the incorrect angle to view the markings,
your measurements will be displaced from the true values by
the same amount. This is called systematic error.
However, if you used different angles to view the markings,
your measurements will be displaced from the true values by
different amounts. This is called random error.

b. Zero Error
Zero Errors of Vernier Caliper
When the jaws are closed, the vernier zero mark coincides with the zero mark on its fixed
main scale. Before taking any reading it is good practice to close the jaws or faces of the
instrument to make sure that the reading is zero. If it is not, then note the reading. This reading
is called “zero error”. The zero error is of two types (i) positive zero error and (ii) negative zero
error.
Positive Zero Error: If the zero on the vernier scale is to the right of the main scale, then the
error is said to be positive zero error and so the zero correction should be subtracted from the
reading which is measured.
Negative Zero Error: If the zero on the vernier scale is to the left of the main scale, then the
error is said to be negative zero error and so the zero correction should be added from the
reading which is measured.

Zero Error for micrometer screw gauge

Positive Zero Error: If the zero marking on the thimble is below the datum line, the micrometer
has a positive zero error. Whatever reading we take on this micrometer we would have to
subtract the zero correction from the readings.
Negative Zero Error: If the zero marking on the thimble is above the datum line, the micrometer
has a negative zero error. Whatever readings we take on this micrometer we would have to add
the zero correction from the readings.
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TIME MEASUREMENT
It is the ordering or duration of events. The unit of time is second (s) which is defined as:
 The particular frequency of electromagnetic spectrum given out by the common type of
caesium atom

The common devices to measure the time or duration of an event are clock and stopwatch. In
stopwatch, each second is calibrated into one hundred part of a second called centisecond.

EXERCISE
1. Record the time shown by the stop clocks below

a.

b.

c.

d.
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SIMPLE OSCILLATING PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consists of inextensible string with a mass bob tied to it

DEFINITION OF TERMS.
a. AMPLITUDE (θ): is the angle between the rest position of the pendulum and one extreme.
This is the maximum displacement of a pendulum from its rest position

b. OSCILLATION: is a complete swing from one extreme to another and then back. That is
from point P through R and then back to Q

c. PERIOD (T): is the time taken to make a complete swing or oscillation

𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒕
𝑻=
𝑵

d. FREQUENCY(f): is the number of oscillations made per second

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝑵 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝟏
𝑭=
𝑻

e. Tension(T): Force on the string

To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make a spin, time ~20 circles and then divide
by the same number as the number of circles.
The precession of time duration of an event can be improved by measuring the time for number
of events and dividing time by total number of events. For example to measure the time period
of a pendulum the time for ten swings should be recorded and dividing the total time by ten to
get the time for one.
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EXPERIMENT: MEASURING THE PERIOD OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM

PROCEDURE:

1) Adjust the pendulum so that its length l is 100.0 cm

2) i. Displace the pendulum bob through a small angle (θ) and then release it so that it swings
ii. Measure and record the time t20 for 20 oscillation
3) i. calculate the time T for one complete oscillation
ii. Calculate T2
4) Repeat 2) and 3) for different lengths l of 90.0 cm, 80.0 cm, 70.0 cm, 60.0 cm, 50.0 cm,
40.0 cm and 30.0 cm
RESULTS
String t20/s T/s T2/s2
length/cm
30.0

40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0

ANALYSIS
 Plot a graph of T2(s2) against length(cm)
 Draw a line of best fit
 Calculate the gradient, G of the line of best fit
 Use g = 40/G to find the acceleration of free fall
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERIOD OF THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

a. Length of pendulum (l): the longer the length of string, the longer the period of the
pendulum and vice versa
b. Gravitational field strength (g): the weaker the gravitational field strength, the shorter
the period of the pendulum
c. Angle of displacement (amplitude): the greater the angle of displacement, the longer
the period. It affects the period to a smaller extent
Note: Mass do not affect the period of the simple pendulum

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASUREMENT OF TIME

HUMAN REACTION TIME ERROR; this is an error whereby you start the stopwatch early or
later when taking measurement. Some time is lost between the exact start and stop of the watch.
To reduce this kind of error, we take many readings and do the average or take reading for more
than one oscillation so as to increase the accuracy of the period
ZERO ERROR: whereby the stopwatch do not start from zero or has not been reset.
ACCURACY: Is the smallest possible reading that can be measured by an instrument.

Instrument accuracy
Rule 1 mm or 0.1 cm
Micrometre screw gauge 0.01 mm
Vernier caliper 0.1 mm, 0.01cm
Stop watch 0.01 s or 1 ms

EXERCISE
1. The time taken for 10 oscillations is 20 s. what is the period of the pendulum
2. What is the accuracy of the metre rule?
3. What is the accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge?
4. Figure below shows a simple Pendulum.

Fig. 1.1

(i) Define the term Period and oscillation

(ii) The pendulum takes 8.0s to make 20 oscillations. Determine the period of the pendulum.
(ii) calculate the frequency of the pendulum
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MOTION
It is the state of an object at any given time. At any given time, an object/body may be:
 at rest(stationery)
 accelerating/decelerating
 moving with constant speed

DEFINITION OF TERMS
a. distance: is the length between two points
b. displacement (s): is the distance moved in a specified direction
Both distance and displacement are measured in metres (m). Distance is a scalar and
displacement is a vector quantity.

c. average speed: is distance travelled per unit time

average speed(v) = distance
time

d. VELOCITY: The velocity of a body is its speed in a given direction. The airplane
opposite may loop at a constant speed but its velocity changes as its direction of motion
changes.
In physics speed and velocity are usually measured in: metres per second (m/s)

e. ACCELERATION

a = (v – u)
t
where: a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
v = final velocity in m/s
u = initial velocity in m/s
t = time taken in seconds (s)
s= displacement

NOTE: Units of acceleration: m/s2

Deceleration is the negative of acceleration.

1. Speed and velocity: Often, but not always, speed can be used in the equation.
2. Change in velocity : = final velocity – initial velocity = v - u
3. Deceleration: This is where the speed is decreasing with time.

Circular motion at a constant speed: Acceleration is occurring because the direction of motion
is continually changing and hence so is velocity.
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DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS
a. UNIFORM DISTANCE TIME GRAPH

The slope or gradient of a

distance-time graph is
equal to the speed,
𝒔 = (∆𝒚/∆𝒙)

b. NON UNIFORM DISTANCE TIME GRAPH

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VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS
a. Uniform motion

The slope of a velocity-time

graph represents
acceleration, a = (∆y/∆x)

b. NON UNIFORM SPEED TIME GRAPHS

The slope of a velocity-time

graph represents
acceleration, a = (∆y/∆x)
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THE AREA UNDER A VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH

The area the velocity time graph, gives the distance covered or moved by an object

Examples
1. Calculate the distance travelled after 5 seconds from using the graph opposite.

distance = area under the graph

= area of triangle
= ½ x base x height
= ½ x 4s x 12m/s

= 24m

2. Sketch the velocity time graph of a car accelerating from rest to 15m/s in 3 seconds and then
remaining at a constant speed for one more second.

3. Calculate the acceleration and distance travelled using the graph shown below.

Acceleration equals the slope of the graph

= ∆y/ ∆x

= (16 - 4) m/s / (10s)

= 12 / 10

Acceleration = 1.2 m/s2

Distance travelled: This equals the area below the graph

= area of rectangle + area of triangle
= (20m/s x 5s) + (½ x 5s x (40 –20) m/s)
= 1000m + 50m
Distance travelled = 150m
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4. A car is travelling at a constant speed of 25 m/s for 10s. It then slows down until it comes
to rest in 5s. Sketch a speed time graph for this motion and calculate the distance travelled
over 15 seconds and the deceleration during the final five seconds.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION
There are four equations of motion:
1. v = u + at

2. s = (u +v) t
2

3. v2 = u2 + 2as

4. s = u t + 1 a t 2
2
synonym: suvat
where: a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
v = final velocity in m/s
u = initial velocity in m/s
t = time taken in seconds in s
s = distance/displacement in m
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QUESTIONS
2. A cheetah starts from rest, and accelerates at 2 m/s2 for 10 s. calculate,
a. The final velocity
b. The distance travelled [4]
3. The graph below shows the motion of a part of a car journey.

E
Velocity (m/s)

10

B
5

A
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time (s)

(a) between which two points is the car accelerating at the greatest rate?
(b) between which two points is the car travelling at a steady speed?
(c) What is the acceleration of the car between C and D?
(d) Between which two points is the acceleration getting bigger and bigger?
(e) Explain how you can tell this from the graph
(f) Draw on the graph a line that shows the car decelerating steadily to a stop from point D in
10 s. Mark the point where the car has stopped as point F.

(g) What is the acceleration of the car between D and F?

(h) is the car moving backwards between D and F? Explain your answer
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4. The following diagram shows the distance time graph for a dog walking along a pavement.

Distance (m)

B
20

10

A F G

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Time (s)

(i) Describe the motion of the dog between:

(a) A and B
(b) B and C
(c) C and D
(d) D and E
(e) E and F
(f) F and G
(ii)
(a) what is the velocity of the dog between D and E?
(b) what is the velocity of the dog between E and F?

5. Calculate the average speed of a car that covers 500m in 20s.

6. Sound waves travel at about 340m/s through air. How far will a sound wave travel in one
minute?
7. Calculate the acceleration of a car that changes in velocity from 5m/s to 25m/s in 4 seconds.
8. Calculate the final velocity of a train that accelerates at 0.3m/s2 for 60 seconds from an initial
velocity
9. Sketch on the same set of axes distance-time graphs for:
(a) a car moving at a steady speed,
(b) a bus moving at a steady speed greater than the car,
(c) a lorry increasing in speed from rest.
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MOTION OF FALLING OBJECTS

All objects near the earth’s surface are being acted upon by a force of gravity due to the earth.
The force of gravity accelerates objects towards the earth at the same rate i.e. they have
constant acceleration. This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity or acceleration
of free fall, denoted by the letter g
Near the earth’s surface, g= 10 m/s2, at the moon is around 1.67 m/s2 and in space is 0 m/s2.

FALLING BODIES IN THE ABSENCE OF AIR RESISTANCE:

All bodies falling freely experience two forces being gravitational force and air resistance. If
the air resistance is negligible, the acceleration of the object will be 10 m/s2.

 The velocity of the object moving up will decrease by 10

m/s every second (g = -10 m/s2)
 The velocity of the object moving down will decrease by
10 m/s every second (g = + 10 m/s2)

So the equations of motion will transform to:

1. v = u + gt

2. s = (u +v) t
2

3. v2 = u2 + 2gs

4. s = u t + 1 g t 2
2
where: g = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
v = final velocity in m/s
u = initial velocity in m/s
t = time taken in seconds in s
s = distance/displacement in m
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Typical graph of object thrown vertical upwards

g = -10m/s2

g = + 10m/s2

FALLING BODIES IN THE PRESENCE OF AIR RESISTANCE

When an object falls through air or some other fluid initially the only significant force acting
on it is the downward pull of gravity (weight). As it falls, its velocity/speed increases and this
causes air resistance (for objects falling in air) or force of viscosity (for objects falling in
liquids). This two forces acts upward and opposes the downward movement of the object.

Motion in air motion in liquid

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On Earth, it will initially accelerate downwards at 10 m/s2. As the object speeds up frictional
forces such as air resistance become greater. Eventually the weight of the object balances the
frictional forces (air resistance and force of viscosity). Resultant force on the object will be zero
and the acceleration will also be zero. The object then moves at a constant speed called
TERMINAL VELOCITY.

TERMINAL VELOCITY is a constant/uniform speed at which two opposing forces in a falling

object balances or are equal.
Typical graph

Uses of terminal velocity in parachuting: A parachutist will have two different terminal
velocities. Before opening the parachute it is about 60 m/s. Afterwards, due the much greater
drag force, the terminal velocity is about 5 m/s

EXERCISE
1. Galileo drops a stone from the leaning tower of Pisa, which is 45 m high, at what speed
does the stone reach or hit the ground. [3]
2. A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 10 m/s. when the brakes are applied, it comes to
rest in 8 m. what is the average force exerted by the brakes. [3]
3. A skydiver is falling from an aeroplane.
a. Name two forces acting on the diver [2]
b. State how each force changes as the sky diver speeds up. [2]
c. Why does the sky diver reach a steady speed (terminal velocity)? [2]
d. Describe and explain what happens when the sky diver opens the parachute [3]
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MASS AND WEIGHT

MASS: Is the amount of matter in an object. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). The mass of
an object is the same on the Moon as on the Earth.

1 kilogram is the mass of a piece of platinum-iridium alloy at the office of weights and
measurements in Paris.
1kg =1000g

MASS AND INERTIA

Newton 1st Law of Motion
All bodies resist a change in motion. A body will be in its state until an external force acts on it.
This property of matter to resist change of its state of rest or change of its motion is called
INERTIA. That is the reluctance or laziness of a body which is moving to stop moving or if
moving to stop moving.
The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. The larger the mass, the larger the inertia is.
The smaller the mass the smaller the inertia
We can consider to cars;
 A large truck: when it is moving, it is difficult to stop and if it is at rest, it becomes difficult
(lazy)to move,
 A van; has a small mass as compared to the truck, hence easy to stop and start moving
Crumple zones, air bags and a collapsible steering wheel are designed to prevent passengers
from being thrown out of the car or increase the time taken for a driver or passenger to change
momentum to zero during a crash or collision or heavy braking.
MASS AND WEIGHT
Weight is the force of gravity on an object. It is measured in newtons (N). The weight of an object
on the Moon is about one sixth (1/6) that on the Earth.
The acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field strength (g): The acceleration due to
gravity (g) varies with planet, moon and star and depends on the height of an object.
This is an alternative way of measuring the strength of gravity. The gravitational field strength
is equal to the gravitational force exerted per kilogram

Near the Earth’s surface, g = 10 N/kg

In most cases gravitational field strength in N/kg is numerically equal to the acceleration due to
gravity in m/s2, hence they both use the same symbol ‘g’.
Weight will differ from one location to another depending on the gravitational field strength of
that place. In space, we there is no gravitational field strength, the weight or gravitational force
on the object will be Zero (0 N)
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒘 = 𝒎𝒙𝒈
where: w = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

NB: 1 N = 1kgm/s2

CENTRE OF GRAVITY (c.g)/CENTRE OF MASS (cm)

The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the weight of the body acts. The centre of
mass is a point in a body where the entire mass seems to be concentrated. The centre of mass
and centre of gravity coincides. Centre of gravity is also sometimes called centre of mass.

THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF A SYMMETRICAL BODY is along the axis of symmetry.

NB:If suspended, a body will come to rest with its centre of gravity directly below the point of
suspension.
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FINDING THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF LAMINA or IRREGULAR OBJECT

 Pierce the card in at least two places.

 Suspend the card from one of these holes.
 Hang a plumbline from the point of suspension.
 Using the plumbline as a reference draw a vertical
line on the card.
 Repeat for the other hole(s).
 The centre of gravity is where the lines cross on
the card.

NOTE: A plumbline is an inextensible string with a small mass attached at one end

STABILITY AND TOPPLING

A body is stable as long as its centre of gravity remains vertically above its base. If this is not
the case, the body will topple.
CONDITION FOR TOPPLING: The vertical line through the centre of mass must lie outside the
base of the object.

Very stable Stable Unstable/topples

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FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITY

A body will become most stable if it has
a. A wide base
b. Lowered center of mass
Racing cars are designed with the above features to make them very stable. The double deck
bus is also designed with a lowered center of mass, or else it will topple at some inclined roads

TYPES OF STABILITY/EQUILIBRIUM
a) Stable equilibrium: if a body is slightly displaced from its original position and released,
it returns to its original position

b) Unstable equilibrium: if a body is slightly released from its rest or original position and
released, it moves further away from its original positional

c) Neutral equilibrium: if the body is slightly released from its original position, it maintains
the new position when displaced
 27

DENSITY
Density:
It is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. The unit of density is kg/m3 or g/cm 3.
It is denoted by Greek symbol ρ (rhoo) and is calculated from the formula:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒎
𝛒=
𝑽
Density of regularly shaped solid: The mass can be determined by top-pan balance and the
volume by multiplying length, width and height.

Density of irregularly shaped solid

Mass of the solid is determined by top-pan balance.

The volume of solid is obtained by subtracting

the value before and after immersing the rock
in a measuring cylinder containing water. This
method is called displacement method.

Density of liquid

The mass of an empty beaker is found on

a balance. A known volume of the liquid is
transferred from burette or measuring
cylinder into the beaker. The mass of
beaker plus liquid is found and the mass
of liquid is obtained by subtraction.
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Density of air: The mass of a 500 cm3 round-bottomed flask full of air is found and then after
removing the air with a vacuum pump; the difference gives the mass of air in the flask. The
volume of air is found by filling the flask with water and pouring it into a measuring cylinder.

RELATIVE DENSITIES OF LIQUIDS

HYDROMETER
A hydrometer consists of a sealed hollow glass
tube with a wider bottom portion for buoyancy,
a ballast such as lead or mercury for stability
and a narrow stem with graduations for
measuring.
The stem is calibrated to give a numerical
reading such as specific gravity. The liquid to
test is poured into a container, often a
graduated cylinder and the hydrometer is
gently lowered into the liquid until it floats
freely. The point at which the surface of the
liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer
correlates relative density.
The hydrometer makes use of Archimedes’
Principle: A solid suspended in a fluid is
buoyed by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the submerged part of the
suspended liquid.

The lower the density of the liquid, the deeper a hydrometer of a given weight sinks and
vice versa.
Hydrometers are calibrated differently for different uses
 29

EXERCISE
NB: 1 mL = 1 cm3
1. A gold-colored ring has a mass of 18.9 grams and a volume of 1.12 cm3. Is the ring pure
gold? (The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3.)
2. What volume would a 0.871-gram sample of air occupy if the density of air is 1.29 g/L?
3. Pumice is volcanic rock that contains many trapped air bubbles. A 225-gram sample
occupied 236.6 cm3.
What is the density of pumice?
Will pumice float on water? The density of water is 1.0 g/cm3.
4. A cup of sugar has a volume of 237 cm3. What is the mass of the cup of sugar if the density
is 1.59 g/cm3?
5. Which has the greater mass, 1-liter of water or l litre of gasoline? The density of water is
1.00 g/ cm3 and that of gasoline is approximately 0.68 g/cm3.
6. A crumpet recipe calls for 175 grams of flour. According to Julia Child's data, the density of
flour is 0.620 g/cm3. How many cm3 of flour are needed for this recipe?
7. From their density values, decide whether each of the following substances will sink or float
when placed in sea water, which has a density of 1.025 g/cm3.
Gasoline 0.66 g/cm3__________ Asphalt l.2 g/cm3_________
Mercury 13.6 g/cm3__________ Cork 0.26 g/cm3__________
8. A sample of lead is found to have a mass of 32.6 g. A graduated cylinder contains 2.8 cm3
of water. After the lead sample is added to the cylinder the water level reads 5.7 cm3.
Calculate the density of the lead sample.
9. A piece of magnesium is in the shape of a cylinder with a height of 5.62 cm and a diameter
of 1.34 cm. If the magnesium sample has a mass of 14.1 g, what is the density of the
sample?
10. 28.5 g of iron shot is added to a graduated cylinder containing 45.50 mL of water. The
water level rises to the 49.10 mL mark, from this information, calculate the density of iron.
 30

FORCES
A force is a push or a pull. A force can cause an object to:
 speed up(accelerate)
 slow down(decelerate)
 change direction
 change shape
Force is measured in: newtons (N). It is measured with an instrument called newtonmeter.
Some types of force
1. Gravitational: This is the attractive force exerted between bodies because of their masses.
Bathroom scales measure weight. Weight is the gravitational force of the Earth on an object
(w =mg).A mass of 1kg weighs about 10N on earth
This force increases if either or both of the masses are increased and decrease if they are
moved further apart.
2. Normal reaction or contact:

This is the repulsive force that stops two touching bodies moving into each other. The word
’normal’ means that this force acts at 90° to the surfaces of the bodies. It is caused by repulsive
molecular forces.

3. Air resistance or drag: This is the force that opposes the movement of objects through air.
Drag is a more general term used for the opposition force in any gas or liquid. Objects are often
streamlined to reduce this force.

5. Upthrust(buoyancy): This is the force experienced by objects when they are placed into a
fluid (liquid or gas). An object will float on a liquid if the upthrust force equals its weight.
6. Magnetic force: Between magnets but also the force that allows electric motors to work.
7. Electrostatic: Attractive and repulsive forces due to bodies being charged.
 31

Friction: This is the force that opposes motion. The kinetic energy of the moving object is
converted to heat energy by the force of friction.

Friction is needed for racing cars to grip the road,

holding objects and for walking!
Friction can cause:
• Wearing off of surface in contact
• Overheating of object in contact
• Slowing down of objects

Friction can be minimised by

• Oiling or lubricating moving parts
• Streamlining
• Using rollers/wheels

EFFECTS OF FORCE ON AN OBJECT

A. FORCE AND CHANGING SHAPE
Force can change the shape of an object. A stretching force puts
an object such as a wire or spring under tension.
A squashing force puts an object under compression. Brittle
materials such as glass do not change shape easily and break
before noticeably stretching. Resilient materials do not break
easily.
Elastic materials return to their original shape when the forces
on them are removed. Plastic materials retain their new shape.
 32

DETERMINATION OF HOOKE’S LAW

Apparatus: spring masses ruler

Retort stand mass hanger pin

Experimental procedure:
Arrange the apparatus as shown in diagram below

1. Place the weight holder only on the spring and note the position
of the pin against the metre rule.

2. Add 1N (100g) to the holder and note the new position of the
pin.

3. Calculate the extension of the spring using the equation:

(e = l - lo)

4. Repeat stages 1 to 3 for 2N, 3N, 4N, 5N and 6N. DO NOT

EXCEED 6N.

5. Plot a graph of Load/N against extension/mm

6. Calculate the gradient of the line to get force/spring constant (k)

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Force/N New length(cm) Extension(cm)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
 33

Typical Graph: Force against extension graph

Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that:
The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force used to stretch the spring
PROVIDED the elastic limit or limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
f α e
f=ke
where: force(f) is in newtons (N)
e = extension
k = spring constant

‘Proportional’ means that if the force is doubled then the extension also doubles. The line on
a graph of force against extension will be a straight and go through the origin.

ELASTIC LIMIT
The right hand spring has been stretched beyond its elastic limit.
Up to a certain extension if the force is removed the spring will
return to its original length. The spring is behaving elastically. If
this critical extension is exceeded, known as the elastic limit, the
spring will be permanently stretched.

Hooke’s law is no longer obeyed by the spring if its elastic limit is

exceeded.
 34

Force against extension graph if the elastic limit is exceeded for a stretching elastic
band or spring

Elastic rubber band elastic spring

EXAMPLE
A spring of original length 150mm is extended by 30mm by a force of 4N. Calculate the length
of the spring if a force of 12N is applied.
12N is three times 4N
Therefore the new extension should be 3 x 30mm = 90mm

New spring length = 150mm + 90mm

= 240mm

EXERCSE
1. The original length of a spring is 5cm and the spring constant is 2.5N/cm. find the
extension produced by a force of 50N by the same spring
2. A spring has a new length of 10 cm when a 4N force is hung on it. When the force is
increased to 6N the new becomes 14 cm.

a. Calculate the spring constant of the spring

b. What extension is produced by a force of 6N?
c. What is the original- spring length?
 35

Another identical spring is placed alongside (parallel) with the above spring and a force of
10N hung on them.
d. What will be the extension on each spring?
e. What will be the total extension produced on each spring?
f. If the same spring were placed in series and the same force of 10N hung, what will
be the extension on each spring, total extension by all springs and the new length of
the springs?

3. Two identical springs of length 8 cm are placed alongside each other with a mass of
400g

If one spring produces an extension of 2 cm for a mass of 200g, what will be the new
length of each spring when a mass of 400g is hung on the spring connected in parallel?

4. A spring extends by 10 cm when a mass of 100 g is attached to it. What is the spring
constant?
5. What will be the extension of this spring if the load is 75 g?
6. If an identical spring were connected in parallel (do a sketch),
a) what mass would need to be attached to produce an extension of 15 cm?
b) What mass would be needed if two of these springs were placed in series (do a
sketch) and an extension of 30 cm was required?
 36

B. EFFECTS OF FORCE ON MOTION

A force can cause:
• An object to move when push force is greater than the friction force.
• The plane will accelerate provided that the engine force is greater than the drag force.
• The brakes exert a resultant force in the opposite direction to the car’s motion causing
the car to decelerate.

Resultant force
A number of forces acting on a body may be replaced by a single force which has the same
effect on the body as the original forces all acting together.
This overall force is called resultant force. It causes objects to speed up (accelerate) or
down(decelerate).

NEWTON’S 2ND LAW OF MOTION: states that acceleration of an object is directly proportional
to resultant force for a fixed mass.
The resultant force, mass and acceleration of an object are related by the equation:
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Where: f = force (N)
m =mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)

EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the force required to cause a car of mass 1200 kg to accelerate by 5 m/s2.
F=ma
= 1200 kg x 5 m/s2
= 6000 N

2. Calculate the acceleration produced by a force of 200N on a mass of 4kg.

F=ma
a=F÷m
= 200N ÷ 4kg
acceleration = 50 m/s2
 37

Car forces
When a vehicle travels at a steady speed the frictional forces balance the driving force. To slow
the car the engine force is reduced by releasing the throttle and the frictional force is increased
by applying the brakes.
Stopping a car
The total distance required to stop a car, the stopping distance, is equal to the thinking distance
plus the braking distance.
Factors affecting stopping distance
1. The reaction time of the driver: This will increase if the driver is tired, distracted or has
consumed alcohol or drugs. Increasing reaction time increases the thinking distance.
2. The speed of the car: The greater the speed the greater will be both the thinking and braking
distances. Doubling the speed increases the overall stopping distance by about four times.
3. The mass of the car and its contents: The greater the mass the greater will be the braking
distance.
4. The condition of the road: Wet and icy roads will cause the braking distance to increase.
5. The condition of the vehicle: Worn brakes or worn tyres will both increase the braking
distance.
 38

MOMENT OF A FORCE
Moment of a force: Also known as the turning effect of a force. It is a product of the applied
force and perpendicular distance of applied force from the pivot/fulcrum.
Examples of application of moments
 Levers (force multipliers)
 Opening a door/window
 Tightening a nut

The moment of a force about any point is defined as:

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒙 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒗𝒐
𝒎 = 𝒇𝒙𝒅

Unit: newton-metre (Nm)

Moments can be either CLOCKWISE or ANTICLOCKWISE

Example
Calculate the moment exerted with the claw hammer if the person exerts a force of 80N and
distance d equals 25cm.

moment = F x d
= 80N x 25cm
= 80N x 0.25m
= 20 Nm CLOCKWISE
 39

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

When an object is not turning (e.g. balanced): The total clockwise moment equals the
total anticlockwise moment

If the ruler above is balanced:

𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑾𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝟐 = 𝑾𝟏 𝒙 𝒅𝟏

EXAMPLES
1. On a see-saw Mary, weight 600N balances John, weight 200N when she sits 1.5m away
from the pivot. How far from the pivot is John?

Applying the principle of moments:

Mary’s weight x distance = John’s weight x distance

600N x 1.5m = 200N x distance
900 = 200 x distance
900 ÷ 200 = d
John is 4.5m from the pivot
 40

2. Calculate the weight of the beam, W0 if it is balanced

W 1 = 6N; d1 = 12 cm; d0 = 36 cm.

Applying the principle of moments:
W1 x d1 = W0 x d0
6N x 12 cm = W0 x 36 cm
W0 = 72 / 36

W0 the weight of the beam = 2N

FORCES ON A BEAM
Newton’s 3rd law of motion states that: forces always occur in pairs. Each force has the
same size but acts in opposite directions.

Example 2: Tyre-road friction

A car is able to move forwards due to friction
acting between its tyres and the road.
The force of friction of the road on the tyre
acts in the forward direction and is equal but
in the opposite direction to the force of
friction of the tyre on the road.

The law is often expressed as: “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”
 41

For parallel forces, if the beam balances (in equilibrium), 2 conditions must be satisfied:
1. The sum of the forces in one direction must be equals the forces in opposite direction,
that is the resultant force must be Zero
2. The law of moments must apply, meaning that the resultant moment must be Zero

Example
1. A mass of 60 kg is placed on a 6m long plank whose weight can be neglected. The plank
is supported at two points A and B as shown below, what is the resultant force at each
support or pivot

R + S = 600N and taking moments about pivot A,

600N x 1m = S x (1m +3m)

600Nm = 4Sm
S = 600Nm/4m
S =150N

Therefore: R + S = 600N
R + 150N = 600N
R = 600N – 150N
R = 450N
 42

EXERCISE
1. A spanner was used to undo a nut. A force of 20 N was applied at a distance of 20 cm from
the nut. Calculate the moment of the force being used
2. A uniform metre rule of mass 100 g balances at the 40 cm mark when a mass X is placed at
the 10 cm mark. What is the value of X?
3. Calculate the reaction Q and P in the diagrams below

4. A body of mass 50 kg is resting on a 10m long beam. The beam is in equilibrium when
supported by two pivots as shown below find the reaction of each pivot.

COUPLES

If parallel forces act on the same body, they form a couple which
will cause a rotation e.g. a steering wheel. Equal and opposite
parallel forces form what we call a torque.
 43

VECTORS AND SCALARS

All physical quantities (e.g. speed and force) are described by a magnitude and a unit.
VECTORS – also need to have their direction specified. Examples: displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force.
SCALARS – do not have a direction. Examples: distance, speed, mass, work, energy.

REPRESENTING VECTORS
An arrowed straight line is used. The arrow indicates the direction and the length of the line is
proportional to the magnitude.( )

ADDING VECTORS
 44

PARALLELOGRAM RULE
EXAMPLE 1
Two donkeys are pulling a cart along a straight line. One donkey applies a force of 100N and
the other applies a force of 120N at an angle of 30 0 to each other. By means of a scale diagram,
determine the resultant force on the cart

Scale: 1 cm : 20N

NB: The diagram above is not to

scale
The resultant length is 10.6 cm
therefore the resultant force is
10.6 x 20 = 212 N

300

EXERCISE
1. Jerry, Tom and Kabala are pulling a metal ring. Tom pulls with a force of 100N and Jerry
with a force of 140N at an angle of 700 to tom. If the ring does not move, what force is
Kabala exerting?

2. Using a scale of 1cm: 10N, find the size and direction of the resultant force of 30N and
40N acting at

I. 600 to each other

II. 750 to each other
 45

ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

Energy is required to do work. Energy is measured in joules (J).To lift for.
Example, an apple upwards by one metre requires about one joule of energy.
Fuels are burnt to release energy.The Sun is the ultimate source of most of our energy on Earth.

FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in many forms.
form definition
thermal this is the energy of an object due to its
temperature
heat energy
light this is energy in the form of visible
electromagnetic radiation
electrical this is the energy transferred by an electric
current
This is the energy possessed by a moving object. Kinetic energy
kinetic increases as the object’s speed is increased. also often called
‘movement energy
nuclear This is energy that is released when nuclear
reactions take place. This is the source of the
sun’s energy.
chemical This is energy that is released when chemical
reactions take place. Sources of chemical
energy includes: fuel, food and batteries.
sound this is energy in the form of a sound wave
potential This is the energy possessed by an object due to
its position.
gravitational potential The gravitational potential energy of an object increases if it is raised
energy upwards.
This is the energy stored in a stretched or squashed object .it is also
elastic potential energy known as strain energy
 46

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transformed from
one form to another form.
Conservation of energy also means that the total energy in the universe stays constant.

Pendulum oscillation, he total energy, gravitational potential plus kinetic,

remains the same if there are no significant resistive forces

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USEFUL AND WASTED ENERGY

Useful energy is energy transferred to where it is required in the form that it is wanted. Other
forms of energy are referred to as ‘wasted’. Wasted energy spreads out into the surroundings.
This is usually in the form of heat energy causing the energy changing device and its
surroundings to become warmer. It is very difficult to ‘concentrate’ this energy again to
make use of it.

That is why devices or machines are not 100 % efficient.

 47

EXAMPLES OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

a. A car engine
Chemical energy kinetic energy
b. an electric light bulb
Electrical energy light energy
c. Microphone
Sound energy electrical energy

Device Input energy Main output energy

kinetic
Electric motor Electrical
kinetic
Car brakes heat
Falling object
gravitational potential kinetic
chemical
Candle light
kinetic
Generator electrical

EXERCISE
1. (a) What is energy? (b) State the unit of energy.
2. Give examples of the following energy changes: (a) electrical to light; (b) kinetic to
sound; (c) nuclear to light; (d) chemical to gravitational potential; (e) elastic potential to
thermal.
3. State the law of conservation of energy and give an example
4. Define (a) efficiency; (b) percentage efficiency. Calculate both of these for an electric
motor that uses 120J of electrical energy to output 90J of kinetic energy.

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

A renewable energy resource is one that will not run out.

Renewable energy sources do not produce radioactive waste, greenhouse gases or acid rain.
Examples include wind, hydroelectric, wave, tidal, solar and geothermal. Fossil fuels such as
coal, gas and oil as well as uranium are non-renewable energy sources.

Wind Power: Wind is used to rotate a turbine (the blades) which turns an electrical generator.
Energy changes: kinetic to electrical
 48

Hydroelectric Power: Falling water is used to drive a turbine which rotates an electrical
generator.
Energy changes: gravitational potential to kinetic to electrical

Wave power: Waves can be used to drive an electrical generator.

Energy changes: kinetic to electrical

TIDAL POWER: Tidal power Moving water caused by the tides is used to drive a turbine directly
which rotates an electrical generator.

Energy changes: gravitational potential to kinetic to electrical

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

In some volcanic areas hot water and steam rise to the surface. The steam can be tapped and
used to drive turbines. This is known as geothermal energy.

Energy changes: thermal (heat) to kinetic to electrical

Solar power
Solar heating Heat energy from the Sun is focussed onto pipes containing water. The water boils
producing steam. The steam is then used to drive turbines which turn electrical generators.

Energy changes: thermal to kinetic to electrical

Solar cells

Electricity produced directly from the Sun’s radiation.

Energy changes: light to electrical

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas.

They have been formed in the ground from dead vegetation and tiny creatures by a process
that has taken millions of years. When burnt the heat energy produced is used to produce
steam. The steam is then used to drive turbines which turn electrical generators.

Coal-fired power station

Energy changes: Thermal to kinetic to Electrical

 49

NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear power stations use a certain type of uranium to produce heat energy. This heat energy
is used to produce steam. The steam is then used to drive turbines which turn electrical
generators.

Energy changes: nuclear to thermal to kinetic to electrical

A nuclear reactor

Problems with nuclear power stations

Nuclear fuel (uranium) does not produce greenhouse gases and it generates 10000 times more
energy per kilogram than fossil fuels. However: Nuclear waste is radioactive and may have to be
stored safely for thousands of years. Although safe in normal operation, accidents can release
radioactive material over a large area. The area around Chernobyl in Ukraine has been closed
off since 1986
PROBLEMS WITH FOSSIL FUELS
Burning coal, gas and oil produces carbon dioxide. This is a greenhouse gas which causes
global warming. Fossil fuel burning can also produce sulfur dioxide gas. This can dissolve in
water and produce acid rain which causes damage to forests and buildings. Modern power
stations remove most sulfur dioxide producing compounds before burning.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

•Concentrated energy source •Non-renewable

•Reliable energy source •Produces acid rain
•Can be built anywhere
•No radioactive waste
 50

SOURCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

•Renewable energy source •Unreliable – needs wind!
•No greenhouse gases •Best used in places where they will often be
Wind •No acid rain regarded as unsightly
Power •No radioactive waste •Many turbines are needed to produce the
•Inexpensive to build same energy of a small thermal power station
•Short start up time •Noise
•Danger to wildlife
•Renewable •Very limited locations
Hydroele •No greenhouse gases •Wildlife affected
ctric •No acid rain •Expensive to build
Power •No radioactive waste
•Short start up time
•Renewable •Unreliable
•No greenhouse gases •Can only be used in areas with suitable
Wave •No acid rain waves
Power •No radioactive waste •Prone to storm damage
•No land needed •Many needed to produce the same energy of
•Short start up time a small thermal power station
•Danger to shipping
•Renewable •Very limited locations
•No greenhouse gases •Wildlife affected
Tidal •No acid rain •Expensive to build
Power •No radioactive waste
•Short start up time
•Renewable •Very limited locations
Geo- •No greenhouse gases •Expensive to build
thermal •No acid rain
Power •No radioactive waste
•Short start up time
•Renewable •Sunshine needed and so best in desert
•No greenhouse gases regions
Solar •No acid rain •Can only be used during the day
Power •No radioactive waste •A large amount of land is needed to produce
•No radioactive waste a significant amount of energy
•Instant start up time •Unreliable in the UK! – sunshine is needed for
solar cells
•Can only be used during the day
•Only 10% of solar energy is converted into
electricity by solar cells
•Many cells needed to produce a significant
amount of energy

Nuclear •Concentrated energy source •Non-renewable

Power •Reliable energy source •Radioactive waste
•Can be built anywhere •Expensive to build
•No greenhouse gases •Technology is related to that needed to make
•No acid rain atomic bombs
 51

EXERCISE

1.(a) Explain the difference between a renewable and a non-renewable energy source. (b) Give
three examples of each.
2.Briefly describe how the following energy sources can be used to produce electricity: (a) wind;
(b) water; (c) geothermal; (d) solar; (e) fossil fuels and (f) nuclear.
3.For each source listed in question 2 give two advantages and two disadvantages of their use in
generating electricity.

4.(a) Explain the difference between a renewable and a non-renewable energy source. (b) Give
three examples of each.
5. Briefly describe how the following energy sources can be used to produce electricity: (a) wind;
(b) water; (c) geothermal; (d) solar; (e) fossil fuels and (f) nuclear.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is the energy stored in an object when work is done in
moving the object upwards.
𝑮𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
= 𝒎𝒈𝒉

GPE is measured in joules (J)

Where: mass, m i in kilograms (kg)
Gravitational field strength, g in (N/kg)
Height, in metres (m)

EXAMPLE
1. Calculate GPE gained when a weightlifter lifts a mass of 120kg up by 2.5m. (g = 10N/kg)

GPE = m x g x h
= 120kg x 10N/kg x 2.5m
= 3000 J

2. Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by a student of mass 70kg

climbing a flight of stairs of height 4m.

GPE = m x g x h
= 70 kg x 10N/kg x 4m
= 2 800 J
 52

KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its speed and mass.

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝟐
Kinetic energy =
𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝟐
KE =
𝟐

Where: kinetic energy, KE in joules (J)

mass, m in (kg)
speed, v in (m/s)

EXAMPLES
1.Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1000kg moving at 5 m/s.
𝒎𝒗𝟐
KE = 𝟐
2
= ½ x 1000kg x (5m/s)
= ½ x 1000 x 25
= 500 x 25
= 12 500 J

EXERCISE
2.Calculate the kinetic energy of a child of mass 60kg moving at 3 m/s.
3.Calculate the kinetic energy of a apple of mass 200g moving at 12m/s.
4.Calculate the mass of a train if its kinetic energy is 2MJ when it is travelling at 4m/s.
5.Calculate the speed of a car of mass 1200kg if its kinetic energy is 15 000J.
6.Calculate the speed of a ball of mass 400g if its kinetic energy is 20J.
 53

FALLING OBJECTS

If there is no significant air resistance then

conservation of energy results in gravitational
potential energy being converted into kinetic
energy as an object falls.

gain in KE = loss of GPE

Question
1. A child of mass 40kg climbs a wall of height 3m and then steps off. Calculate the speed at
which the child reaches the bottom of the wall.
Child’s initial gravitational potential energy:

GPE = m x g x h
= 40kg x 10N/kg x 3m
GPE = 1 200 J
If air resistance is insignificant then all of this GPE is converted into kinetic energy
𝒎𝒗𝟐
KE =
𝟐
𝟒𝟎 𝒙 𝒗𝟐
1200 =
𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝟐
1 200 =
𝟐
2
60 = (v)
speed = 7.75 m/s
 54

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy efficiency is a measure of how usefully energy is converted by a device.

𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency =
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

As the useful energy output can never be greater than the energy input
the efficiency can never be greater than 1.0

Energy efficient light bulbs

• These produce more useful light energy for the same amount of input
electrical energy.
• They waste less energy to heat.

Question 1
Calculate the efficiency of an electric motor if it produces 48J of useful kinetic energy when
supplied with 80J of electrical energy.
Question 2
Calculate the useful light output of a light bulb of efficiency 0.20 when it is of an electric motor if it
supplied with 400J of electrical energy.

PERCENTAGE EFFICIENCY
Percentage efficiency = efficiency x 100
The greater the percentage of the energy that is usefully transformed in a device, the more
efficient the device is. The maximum percentage efficiency is 100%

Question 3
Calculate the percentage efficiency of a light bulb if it produces 30J of light when supplied with
240J of electrical energy.

IMPROVING EFFICIENCY
Decrease loss to heat by:
 Reducing friction by using a lubricant (eg oil).
 Reducing electrical resistance in electrical circuits.
 Reducing air resistance by using streamlined shapes.
Reduce loss to sound by tightening the loose parts of machinery
 55

WORK
When a force causes a body to move through a distance, energy is transferred and work is done.
Work done = Energy transferred.

Both work and energy are measured in joules (J).

Work and friction

Work done against frictional forces is mainly transformed into heat. Rubbing hands together
causes them to become warm. Brakes pads become hot if they are applied for too long. In this
case some of the car’s energy may also be transferred to sound in the form of a ‘squeal’

The work equation

W=Fxs

work, W is measured in joules (J)

force, F is measured in newtons (N)
displacement, s is measured in metres (m)

Question
1.Calculate the work done when a force of 5N moves through a distance of 3m.
W=Fxd
= 5N x 3m
= 15 J
2.Calculate the work done when a force of 6N moves through a distance of 40cm.
3. Calculate the value of the force required to do 600J of work over a distance of 50m.
4.Calculate the distance moved by a force of 8N when it does 72J of work.
5.Calculate the work done by a child of weight 300N who climbs up a set of stairs consisting of
12 steps each of height 20cm.
6. Calculate the work done by a person of mass 80kg who climbs up a set of stairs consisting of
25 steps each of height 10cm.
 56

Power (P)

Power is a measurement of how quickly work is done.

power = work done

time taken
𝐰
p =
𝒕
where: P = power in watts (W)
W = work done in joules (J)
t = time in seconds (s)
One watt is the same as one joule per second.

Power is also equal to how quickly energy is transformed from one form to another.

𝐞
power = 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐝/𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 =
𝒕

Question 1
Calculate the power of a motor that exerts a force of 40N over a distance of 2m for 10seconds.
W=Fs P=W/t
= 40 N x 2 m = 80J / 10 s
= 80 J power = 8.0 W

EXERCISE

1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards, how high does it go?

2. A mass of 4 kg is accelerated by a force of 20 N.
i. What is the acceleration if there is no friction?
ii. If a frictional force of 8N is acting, what is the acceleration? [4]
3. A sports car accelerates from rest at 4 m/s2 for 10 s. Calculate the final velocity. [2]
4. Taking g =10 m/s2 =10N/kg where necessary, A car travels 100 m in 5 s
a. What is average speed
b. A car accelerates from 5m/s to 25m/s in 10 s, what is its acceleration. [4]

5. A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 20 m/s. ignoring air resistance and taking g = 10 N/kg or
10 m/s2, calculate
a. How high it goes
b. The time taken to reach its highest point
c. Time taken to return to its starting point. [6]

6. When a force of 6 N is applied to a block of mass 2 kg, it moves along a table at constant
velocity.
a. What is the frictional force
 57

b. When the force is increased to 10 N, what is

i. The resultant force
ii. The acceleration
iii. The velocity, if it accelerate from rest for 10 s. [5]

7. A cheetah starts from rest, and accelerates at 2 m/s2 for 10 s. calculate,

a. The final velocity
b. The distance travelled [4]
8. An elephant of mass 2000 kg travelling at 5m/s has how much kinetic energy. [2]

9. Gallileo drops a stone from the leaning tower of Pisa, which is 45 m high, at what speed does
the stone reach or hit the ground. [3]

A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 10 m/s. when the brakes are applied, it comes to rest in 8 m.
what is the average force exerted by the brakes. [3]
10. A crane lifts a load weighing 3000 N through a height of 5 m in 10 s, what is the power output
of the crane?[2]
11. A kettle is rated at 2 Kw. How many joules of energy are transferred in 10 s.[2]

12. A 100 W electric lamp uses 100 J of electrical energy each second, it produces only 2W of
light. What is its efficiency? What happens to the other 98 W.[2]
13. A skydiver is falling from an aeroplane.
a. Name two forces acting on the diver [2]
b. State how each force changes as the sky diver speeds up. [2]
c. Why does the sky diver reach a steady speed (terminal velocity). [2]
d. Describe and explain what happens when the sky diver opens the parachute[3]

14. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but energy can be wasted. Discuss this
statement.[4]
15. A car is travelling at a steady speed of 15 m/s.
a. Calculate the distance moved in 10 s
b. The total resisting force(friction and air resistance) is 800 N. Calculate the work done by
the car in 10 s in overcoming this resisting force [4]
c. Calculate the power developed. [3]

16. A man is delivering a cupboard to a house.

(a) The man rolls the cupboard at a steady speed from the lorry to the house. The friction force in
the wheels is 40 N. State the force with which the man has to push. [1]

(b) The cupboard weighs 720 N. State the smallest force needed to lift the cupboard. [1]

(c) The step is 0.20m high. Calculate the work required to lift the cupboard onto the step.

(d) The man has to ask his assistant to help him lift the cupboard onto the step. Together, they
lift it onto the step in 1.2 s. The men work equally hard. Calculate the power developed by each
man.[4]
 58

17. Fig. 4.1 shows a rock that is falling from the top of a cliff into the river below.

Fig. 4.1

(a) The mass of the rock is 75 kg. The acceleration of free fall is 10 m/s2. Calculate the weight of
the rock.[1]

(b) The rock falls from rest through a distance of 15 m before it hits the water.
Calculate its kinetic energy just before hitting the water. Show your working.3]
(c) The rock hits the water. Suggest what happens to the kinetic energy of the rock during the
impact.

18. A large spring is repeatedly stretched by an athlete to increase the strength of his arms.
Fig. 5.1 is a table showing the force required to stretch the spring.

Fig. 5.1

(a) (i) State Hooke’s law.[1]

(ii) Use the results in Fig. 51 to show that the spring obeys Hooke’s law . [1]

(b) Another athlete using a different spring exerts an average force of 400N to enable her to
extend the spring by 0.210 m.
(i) Calculate the work done by this athlete in extending the spring once.
(ii) She is able to extend the spring by this amount and to release it 24 times in 60 s.
Calculate the power used by this athlete while doing this exercise [4]
 59

PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the normal force applied by an object on a unit area on its surrounding in
contact with it. It means that the lower the contact area, the more the pressure is.

𝑁𝑂𝑅𝑀𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴
𝑭
Pressure (P) = 𝑨

The SI unit of pressure is newton per meter square (N/m2) or more commonly used pascal (Pa).

EXAMPLE

In the above figure all four glass tanks have same amount of water and therefore have same
weight but each one has different area of contact with surface.
 Tank A has contact area 6 m2,
 tank B has 8m2,
 tank C has 12m2 and
 Tank D has 24m2 contact area.

It means the tank A applies the highest pressure on the surface since it has the smallest contact
area.
CONCLUSION: INCREASE IN SURFACE AREA REDUCES PRESSURE
 60

PRESSURE DUE TO LIQUID

A liquid held in a container exerts pressure on the inner walls of the container as well as on any
object that is inside the liquid. Following are the properties applied to any object in a liquid.

1. Pressure of liquid on an object acts equally in all direction,

When the syringe is compressed, water will

have the same range from all the outlets.

2. Pressure of liquid increase with the increase of depth,

When the stoppers are removed at the same time, it

A is observed that water from the bottom hole (outlet)
has the longest range. This is so because the height
(depth) of water increases downward and this
B increases pressure as well.
V Pressure at C is greater than pressure at B and A.
C

3. Pressure depends upon the density of the liquid

The liquid exert a force on the surface below due its weight which depends on its density (ρ).

4. Pressure does not depend upon the shape of the container.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

When a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of the fluid must be in static equilibrium—
at rest with respect to the observer. Furthermore, all points at the same depth must be at the
same pressure. If this were not the case, fluid would flow from the higher pressure region to the
lower pressure region.
Liquid flows from one tube to the other when there is pressure difference until pressure is the
same in all the tubes.
 61

Liquid poured in a set Pascal vases is the

demonstration that pressure depends on depth
and density only and not on the shape of the
vessel. When a set of tubes of different shapes are
connected to a common source of water

The pressure due to liquid of density ρ and height h can be expressed by:
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑷) =
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝒎𝒈
= 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝝆𝒗𝒈
=
𝑨
= 𝝆𝑨𝒉𝒈
𝑨
𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑹𝑬 = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒈) 𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒉)
P = 𝝆gh

Atmospheric pressure
Air pressure is the pressure exerted on all objects by the weight of the air above. Air pressure is
dependent on altitude, because the higher the altitude, the less air is above, and as a result, the
air pressure will be lower. We can measure air pressure by using a device called a barometer.
One atmosphere of pressure is defined to be the pressure equivalent of a column of mercury
that is exactly 0.76 m in height at 0°C with g =10 m/s2.

At this temperature, mercury has a density of 13.595 x 103 kg/m3; therefore,

 62

P0 = ρgh = (13.595 x103 kg/m3) (10 m/s2) (0.760 0 m)

= 1.013 x 105 Pa
= 1 atm
1 atm. = 76 cm Hg =760 mm Hg = 101.325kPa = 101325 Pa
MERCURY BAROMETER

It is a device used to measure the atmospheric pressure. It

consists of a glass column of about 78 cm in height, closed at
one end and open at the other. The open end is placed upside
down inside a mercury-filled container. The height of the
mercury in the column rises and adjusts until the weight of the
mercury inside the column balances the atmospheric force due
to air exerted on the mercury in the container. The height of
the mercury column balances exactly at 76 cm which is
equivalent to the atmospheric pressure outside the column.

U TUBE MANOMETER
Manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two regions. It consists of a
tube of plastic or glass, bent into the U-shape and filled with a liquid that is often oil

One end of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid is open to the atmosphere, and the other end is
connected to a system of unknown pressure P.

If there is a pressure difference between the ends of the manometer, the liquid moves until the
pressure difference is balanced by the difference in heights of the ends of the liquid.
The greater the pressure, the greater the difference in heights
 63

The pressure at point B equals P0+ ρgh, where ρ is the density of the fluid. The pressure at B,
however, equals the pressure at A, which is also the unknown pressure P. We conclude that:

𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉.

The pressure P is called the absolute pressure, and 𝑷 + 𝑷𝟎 is called the gauge pressure.
Oil is often used rather than water because water evaporates and also oil is less dense which
makes the manometer more sensitive.
THE PRINCIPLE OF HYDRAULICS (PASCAL’ S PRINCIPLE)
It states that: the pressure applied at any point in a fluid in a closed system, is transmitted
equally to every other point in a fluid
Hydraulics machines work because:
 Liquids are almost incompressible
 Pressure in a liquid act equally in all direction
 Pressure changes are transmitted instantaneously through a liquid

Hydraulics makes use of Pascal’s principle.

In equilibrium (balanced state) the pressure at piston A1 MUST be equal to the pressure at piston
A2
A downward force is applied to a small piston of area A1.
 The pressure is transmitted through a fluid to a larger piston of area A2.
 As the pistons move and the fluids in the left and right cylinders change their relative
heights, there are slight differences in the pressures at the input and output pistons.
 Pressure will be transmitted equally 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐.
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
 From the definition of pressure, it then follows that = .
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐

𝑨𝟐
 Therefore, the magnitude of the force is larger than the magnitude of by the factor 𝑨𝟏
.
 64

That’s why a large load, such as a car, can be moved on the large piston by a much smaller force
on the smaller piston. Hydraulic brakes, car lifts, hydraulic jacks, forklifts, and other machines
make use of this principle.

EXAMPLE
Problem In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small piston of
circular cross section having a radius of r 1 =5.00 cm. This pressure is transmitted by an
incompressible liquid to a second piston of radius r 2 =15.0 cm.

(a) What force must the compressed air exert on the small piston in order to lift a car weighing?
13 300 N? Neglect the weights of the pistons.

(b) What air pressure will produce a force of that magnitude?

(c) Show that the work done by the input and output pistons is the same.

EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE

1. CAN CRASHING

All the air is driven out by filling the can with steam. While the steam
pressure is inside it balances the atmospheric pressure (air
pressure) outside. When the steam condenses, the inside pressure
falls. The much pressure outside crushes the can.

2. SUCKING UP A STRAW

It is done by reducing pressure inside the mouth so that air

pressure on the surface of the drink pushes it up the straw.
 65

3. FILLING A SYRINGE
The piston/plunger in the syringe is raised. This reduces
the pressure below the piston. The atmospheric pressure
then pushes liquid up into space inside

4. PRESSURE SUCKER/RUBBER STICKER

When the sucker is moistened and pressed on a
smooth surface, the air inside is pushed out.
Atmospheric pressure then holds it firmly against
the surface. Suckers are used for attaching car licenses
to windscreens and lift metal sheets in industries

WEATHER FORECAST

Pressure is an important measurement in weather predictions. In general a steady rise in pressure

is a sign of good weather and a rapid fall is a sign of bad weather

Pressure in weather maps is given in millibars (mb). Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is:

1000 mb = 1 bar = 100 000 Pa = 760 mmHg

ISOBARS

An isobar is a line drawn across a map that joins or links places of equal pressure. The isobars
are often at intervals of 4mb. These patterns are used to guide prediction of weather trends and
give present situation.
 66

Closely spaced isobars indicate a big

pressure difference over a short
distance and suggest strong winds are
likely and weather is highly unstable
Widely spaced isobars show gradually
steady pressure change and suggest
light winds and stable.

CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES

In an anticyclone (HIGH), air

is sinking to the ground. When
air descends, it warms, which
causes the relative humidity to
lower. As a result,
anticyclones produce clear
beautiful skies with almost no
clouds and rain.

Generally boring weather -

clear, calm
 Linger for a while, but
can be nice
 Trap air near surface
(sinking motion)
 Blob-like air masses
 Air mass stays long
can take on characteristics of
land
A cyclone (LOW) is simply an
area of low pressure around
which the winds flow counter
clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere.
 Cyclones form and grow near the front.
 67

 Cyclones (lows) are cloudy, wet, stormy

 A cyclone produces cloudy and rainy weather because air is moving in and rising. Rising
air produces clouds from adiabatic cooling and air reaching the dew point.
Examples
1. After an exciting but exhausting lecture, a physics professor stretches out for a nap on a
bed of nails, as in Figure 9.10, suffering no injury and only moderate discomfort. How is
this possible?
Explanation If you try to support your entire weight on a single nail, the pressure on your body is
your weight divided by the very small area of the end of the nail. The resulting pressure is large
enough to penetrate the skin. If you distribute your weight over several hundred nails, however,
as demonstrated by the professor, the pressure is considerably reduced because the area that
supports your weight is the total area of all nails in contact with your body. (Why is lying on a bed
of nails more comfortable than sitting on the same bed? Extend the logic to show that it would be
more uncomfortable yet to stand on a bed of nails without shoes.)

2. Calculate the pressure on the top lid of a chest buried under 4.00 meters of mud with density
1.75 x 103 kg/m3 at the bottom of a 10.0-m-deep lake.
Answer 2.68 x 105 Pa
 68

Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

States of matter
Substances can exist as solids, liquids or gases.
1. Solids
In a solid the particles (molecules) vibrate about fixed positions within a close packed regular
structure.. The particles cannot move in between each other which results in a solid having a
definite shape and fixed volume.
2. Liquids
When a solid is heated it may melt to form a liquid. In a liquid the particles (molecules) move in-
between each other and are approximately the same distance apart as in a solid. A liquid does
not have a definite shape but it does have a fixed volume.
3. Gases
When a gas is heated it may evaporate or boil to form a gas. In a gas the particles (molecules)
move in-between each other and are much further apart than they are in a liquid. A gas takes up
the shape and volume of its container.

The kinetic theory of gases model makes the following assumptions:

1. The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between them
is large compared with their dimensions. The fact that the number of molecules is large allows
us to analyse their behaviour statistically. The large separation between molecules means that
the molecules occupy a negligible volume in the container. This assumption is consistent with the
ideal gas model, in which we imagine the molecules to be point like.

2. The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole they move randomly.
By “randomly” we mean that any molecule can move in any direction with equal probability, with
a wide distribution of speeds.

3. The molecules interact only through short-range forces during elastic collisions.
This assumption is consistent with the ideal gas model, in which the molecules exert no long-
range forces on each other.

4. The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls.

5. All molecules in the gas are identical.

Although we often picture an ideal gas as consisting of single atoms, molecular gases exhibit
ideal behaviour at low pressures. On average, effects associated with molecular structure have
no effect on the motions considered, so we can apply the results of the following development to
molecular gases as well as to monatomic gases.

Absolute zero:As temperature decreases the average speed at which molecules move
decreases. Eventually at a temperature called absolute zero all molecules will cease moving.
Absolute zero = - 273°C (more exactly = - 273.15°C)
 69

It is not possible to achieve this temperature.

The current (2012) record lowest temperature is: – 273.149 999 999 900 °C
The kelvin temperature scale
This kelvin scale starts from absolute zero:
0 kelvin (0 K) = - 273 °C
A change of one kelvin is the same as a change of one °C
Therefore: 0 °C (melting ice) = + 273 K and 100 °C (boiling water) = + 373 K
kelvin temperature = °C temperature + 273

Note: It is incorrect to write or say “degrees kelvin

GAS PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

As temperature increases:
• molecules move quickly
• therefore exerting a greater force
• and so producing a greater pressure

Molecular kinetic energy

As temperature increases, the average speed and kinetic energy of the molecules increases.
With an ideal gas:
The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the kelvin temperature.

Question 1
The temperature of a gas is increased from -123°C to 377 °C. What change occurs to the average
kinetic energy of the gas molecules?
SOLUTION
initial gas temperature
= -123°C = 150 K
final gas temperature
= 327°C = 600 K
The kelvin temperature increases by 4 times, therefore average kinetic energy increases
by 4 times
 70

Molecular movement in gases

A gas consists of molecules moving about in random motion. Due to collisions, the speed and
direction of each molecule is continually changing in an unpredictable.

Brownian motion
In 1827, Robert Brown observed through a microscope the motion of pollen grains suspended in
water. The grains were seen to jerk about randomly. A similar observation can be seen with
smoke particles suspended in air.
•If you look at smoke through a microscope, you will see the particles move in a zigzag motion.
This is known as Brownian motion. The smoke particles have very little mass but are larger
enough to be seen. They collide with the air particles randomly and move in different directions,
to give a random motion.

GAS PRESSURE
The particle theory of a gas explains gas pressure in the following way:
1. Gas molecules in constant random motion.
2. When a molecule collides with a surface it exerts a force on the surface as it changes its
direction.
3. The pressure exerted by the gas is equal to the total force in exerted by the molecules over
an area of the surface divided by the area.
The pressure of a gas can be increased in three ways,
a) Reducing the volume of the container: the same number of molecules, make more
collisions with the walls because they travel a smaller distance
b) Increasing temperature; this increases the kinetic energy of molecules hence molecules
hit the walls of the container with more effort
c) Increasing the number of molecules, this increases the chance of many molecules
hitting the container walls

The behaviour of gases is investigated using three quantities which are:

 Pressure, Volume and Temperature. When we investigate behaviour of gases, two
quantities are kept constant while one
 71

THE GAS LAWS

1. BOYLE’S LAW
Effect of volume on pressure (temperature constant)

The initial volume and pressure of

the gas in the tube are recorded.
The pump is used to decrease the
volume of the gas in the tube. The
new volume and pressure are then
recorded. Use the pump to obtain
further sets of volume and pressure
measurements

• Plot a graph of pressure, p (y-axis) against one divided by volume, 1 / V (x-axis).

• If this graph is a straight line through the origin then Boyle’s law is confirmed.
• If a pressure is plotted against volume graph is plotted then a curved line is produced.
• This line does not intercept either of the axes
• Boyle’s law is also confirmed if each set of volume and pressure measurements give the same
answer when they are multiplied together.

Boyle’s law states that:

The pressure of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its volume.
This means that if the volume of a gas is doubled its pressure will halve. Boyle’s law only applies
for a gas if its mass and temperature is kept constant while the volume is being changed.
 72

OR
For given mass of gas at a constant temperature, the product of the pressure multiplied
by the volume is a constant.
𝟏
Pα 𝒗 That is: p x V = a constant

Mathematically Boyle’s law can be stated:

p xV =p xV
1 1 2 2

Where :p = initial gas pressure p = final gas pressure

1 2
V = initial gas volume V = final gas volume
1 2

The equation represent two sets of pressure and volume reading for the same fixed mass of gas.

EXAMPLE
3
1. A gas has an initial volume of 30 m at atmospheric pressure (100 kPa). Calculate the final
3
pressure of this gas if its volume is decreased to 10 m .
Boyle’s law: p x V = p x V
1 1 2 2
3 3
100 kPa x 30 m = p x 10 m
2
3 000k = 10 p
2
p = 3 000k / 10
2
Final pressure = 300 kPa

2. PRESSURE LAW (Volume Constant)

• Record the initial pressure of the air in the round

bottomed flask and the temperature of the water
bath which is equal to the temperature of the air.
• Use the heater to increase the temperature.
• Record the new temperature and pressure.
• Obtain further sets of temperature and pressure
measurements.
• Convert all temperature measurements to kelvin.

• Plot a graph of pressure, p (y-axis) against temperature in kelvin, T (x-axis).

• If this graph is a straight line through the origin then the pressure law is confirmed.
 73

The pressure law states that:

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume is proportional to its kelvin
temperature.
This means that if the kelvin temperature of a gas is doubled its pressure will also double.
𝑷
That is: 𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝑷𝟏 𝑻𝟏
= ………….for conditions changing from 1 (initial) to 2 (final)
𝑷𝟐 𝑻𝟐

Where: p = the initial pressure p = the final pressure

1 2

T = the initial T = the final (kelvin temperature)

1 2

The straight line crosses the temperature axis at absolute zero (-273°C).
 74

EXAMPLES
o
1. A gas has an initial pressure of 40kPa at a temperature of - 73 C. Calculate the final pressure
o
of this gas if its temperature is increased to 327 C at a constant volume.

𝑷𝟏 𝑻𝟏
𝑷𝟐
= 𝑻𝟐

Temperatures must be in kelvin!

Final pressure = 120 kPa

3. CHARLES'S LAW (pressure constant)

A fixed mass of air at atmospheric pressure is trapped inside a capillary tube by a small drop of
sulphuric acid. The tube is heated using a water bath, temperature and volume are noted at
different intervals. If a graph of volume against temperature is plotted the following is obtained:

Charles's/Gay-Lussac's Law states that for a fixed mass of gas

The volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (K)
at constant pressure
VαT
𝑽
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, or
𝑻
𝑽𝟏 𝑻𝟏
= ………………for conditions changing from 1 (initial) to 2 (final)
𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟐
 75

COMBINED GAS LAW

All the three gas laws maybe combined to give one equation
𝑉
NB: 𝑇
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡…………………………………….…....Charles Law
𝑃
𝑇
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ………………………………………Pressure Law

PV = a constant ………………………………..…...Boyle’s Law

𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Where: p = the initial pressure p = the final pressure
1 2
T = the initial T = the final (kelvin temperature)
1 2
V1 =initial volume V2 = final volume

EXERCISE
1. If a certain quantity of gas has a volume of 30 cm3 at a pressure of 1x105 Pa, what is its volume
when the pressure is doubled (2x105 Pa)?
2. A deep sea diver is working at a depth where pressure is 3 atm. He is breathing out bubbles
whose volume is 2 cm3. At the surface of the water pressure is 1 atm. What is the volume of
each bubble when they reach the surface assuming that the water temperature remains
constant?

3. 240 cm3 of air at a pressure of 100 kPa in a bicycle pump is compressed to a volume of 150
cm3. What is the pressure of the compressed air in the pump?

4. 10 m3 of butane gas at 1.2 atm was required to be stored at 6 atm pressure. To what volume
must the gas be compressed to give the required storage pressure?
 76

EXERCISES
1. A U-shaped tube, of constant cross-sectional area, contains some water of density
1000 kg / m3. Oil that does not mix with water is then poured into the right-hand side of
the tube. Fig. 1.1 shows the levels of the water and the oil when equilibrium is reached.

Fig. 1.1
Points X and Y are at the same horizontal level. X is 0.066 m below the top surface of the
water. Y is 0.075 m below the top surface of the oil.
(a) State two quantities that influence the pressure beneath the surface of a liquid. [2]

(b) The cross-sectional area of the tube is 5.0 × 10–4 m2.

(i) Calculate the mass of water above the level of X. [2]

(ii) The pressure caused by 0.066 m of water at X is equal to that caused by 0.075 m of the oil at
Y. Determine the density of the oil. [2]

2. A submarine is at rest deep beneath the surface of the sea. The gravitational field strength is
10 N/kg, the atmospheric pressure is 1.0 × 105 Pa and the density of sea water is 1.0 x 103 kg/m3

(a) Calculate
(i) the pressure due to the sea water at a depth of 120 m, [2]
(ii) the total pressure at a depth of 120 m. [1]

3. Fig. 3.1 shows gas trapped in a cylinder by a piston.

Fig. 3.1

The piston has a cross-sectional area of 0.0050 m2. It moves upwards through a distance of 0.074
m, compressing the gas. During this compression, the average pressure of the gas is
4.6 × 105 Pa.
 77

(a) Calculate
(i) the average force exerted on the piston by the gas during compression, [2]
(ii) the work done on the gas during compression. [2]

4. Fig. 4.1 shows a diver working below the surface of a lake. The density of the water in the lake
is 1000 kg / m3, the atmospheric pressure at the surface is 1.0 × 105 Pa and the gravitational field
strength is 10 N / kg.

Fig. 4.1
The diver inflates a balloon with air at a depth of 15 m and attaches the balloon to a tray of objects.
(a) Calculate
(i) the pressure due to 15 m of water, [2]
(ii) the total pressure at 15 m below the surface of the lake. [1]

(b) The air in the balloon occupies a volume of 0.048 m3 at the pressure calculated in (a)(ii).
The diver releases the tray and the balloon, and they begin to rise. The temperature of the air in
the balloon does not change.

(i) Calculate the volume occupied by the air in the balloon at atmospheric pressure. [2]

(ii) The pressure of the air inside the balloon is less at the surface than at a depth of 15 m. Explain,
in terms of the air molecules inside the balloon, why the pressure is less.

(c) State one difference between the arrangement of the molecules of water in the lake and the
molecules of air in the balloon.
 78

THERMAL PHYSICS
THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER
Molecular Explanation of Thermal Expansion
When the rod (say an iron rod) is heated, the vibration of the molecules increases and their
displacement, or amplitude, also increases. As the amplitude of vibration increases, the average
distance between molecules of the rod becomes larger and this accounts for its expansion in
length.

Expansion is due to an increase in the average distance

between atoms (or molecules) in the substance. The atoms
themselves do not expand - they just move further away from
their neighbours.
The expansion is possible because of increased kinetic energy
of the particles involved - this makes them vibrate more and be
further apart.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
a. Ball and Ring
A solid expands when heated, contracts when its temperature decreases.

Expansion of various Solids: Different materials expand by different amount when heated
through the same increase in temperature.

Expansion of Liquids

The expansion of liquids can be shown by filling a flask with a coloured liquid. Plunge the flask
into a bowl of hot water and watch the level in the tube rise. Liquid usually expand more than
solids. The flask containing the liquid also expands in this experiment. If you observe carefully
you will see the liquid level drop slightly before rising. This is caused by the flask heating up before
the liquid, thus expand first.
 79

EXPT 1

Observations: coloured water moves slowly up the tube

Explanation: heat increases the kinetic energy of liquid

particles. The particles move faster (greater vibrational,
rotational, and translational energy). This greater
movement increases the distance between molecules.
Thus, the volume expands.

Like solids, liquids expand by different rates

EXPT 2

Figure above shows a glass flask filled with colored water. The water level is seen to fall for first
few seconds when heated. (Why?), later, water level rises quickly. (Why?)

EXPANSION OF GASES
The expansion of gases can be shown using the apparatus below. Air is trapped in a flask by a
liquid piston. The flask is heated up by putting it in hot water. The liquid piston will move up the
tube as the trapped air expands. It will be observed that the expansion is much larger than the
expansion of liquid
Order of Expansion
Solid Liquids Gases
Least expansive Most Expansive
 80

Compensations for Thermal Expansion

a. Railways tracks are laid in sections with gaps between them. (Why?)

The railways sections are held

together by fish-plate and fastened by
bolts and nuts through oval

Concrete blocks for pavements and road surfaces are laid with gaps or joints between them.
This allow it expands or contracts during hot or cold weather

b. Rollers and gap given at one end of the bridge is used to overcome the problem posed by
contraction in cold weather and expansion in hot weather

c. Pipelines carry very hot gases (such as steam), therefore need expansion joint (in ring form)
to avoid damages given by expansion.

d. In summer and winter, the overhead power lines and telephone wires will expands and
contracts due to the changing weather. How do you overcome this problem?
 81

BIMETALLIC STRIP
The strip is made up of two strips of different metals which expand to a different degree when the
temperature changes

(At room temperature)

The bimetallic strip is usually made of steel and copper, Brass and iron are common metals been
used. or in some cases brass instead of copper. The strips are joined together throughout their
length by riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansion of each metal (when heated to
increase (or cooled to decrease)) in temperature forces the flat compound strip to bend one way
if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature.

The metal which expand faster is on the outer side of the

curve when the strip is heated because it increases in
size more than the other one - it expands more.

The metal which contracts faster is on the inner

side when cooled because it decreases in size
more than the other one - it contacts more.

NB: Brass expands more than iron when hot, and contracts more too
Bimetallic strip & its application
A. IN FIRE ALARMS

If the fire breaks out, the heat from the

fire will cause the bimetallic strips to
bend upwards and complete the circuit.
The alarm bell then ring
 82

B. THERMOSTAT
As temperature inreases due to fire, the
bimetallic strip bends upwards.
Contacts C is broken when the spring S is
blocked by by the tip of the control knob.
Bimetallic strip cools and as it straightens,
contact C is made again.
For higher temperatures, turn the control
knob further upwards.

Application of Thermal Expansion

1. Hot riveting is a common method to fasten two metal plates firmly. How?

The unusual behaviour of Water

Most liquids expand when heated and
contract when cooled. Water,
however is an exception. Between 0
0
C to 4 0C, water contracts when
temperature increases while water
expands when temperature
decreases.
Water has highest density and
smallest volume at 40C
 83

ASSIGNMENT: Due to the unusual behaviour of water, at 4°C, during winter time, at, water at the
surface of a pond will sinks (Why?). Later, even the surface freezes, the fish inside the pond still
alive. (Why?)
1. Explain the following:
a) A metal bar expands when heated.
b) Overhead cables are hung with plenty of slack in them.
c) It would not be a good idea to reinforce concrete with aluminium rods.
d) A bimetal strip bends when heated.
e) Water expands when it freezes.
 84

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

A physical property that varies with temperature may be used for measurement of temperature
for example:
LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER: the property is thermal expansion. As temperature rises or
falls, the liquid (mercury or alcohol) expands or contracts. The amount of expansion can be
matched to a temperature on the scale.

CALIBRATING A THERMOMETER

Fixed points are definite temperatures at which something happens (when pure water freezes/ice
melts: the lower fixed point or ice point and when pure water boils: the upper fixed point or
steam point) which are used to calibrate a thermometer.

 To find the lower fixed

point, place
thermometer in melting
ice. Where the thread
is now is 0 °C.

 To find the upper

fixed point, place
thermometer in boiling
water. Where the
thread is now is 100 °C.

Lower fixed point Upper fixed point

 85

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

•Sensitivity: is the ability of a thermometer to show small changes in temperature
To increase the sensitivity of thermometers you have to put the liquid in a narrower tube. This
makes more distance for same amount of expansion of liquid. Mercury expands less than alcohol.
Sensitivity can be increased by using a material that expands more during a temperature change.
•Range: The maximum and minimum temperature of thermometers
Mercury = -39 °C to 500 °C
Alcohol = -115 °C to 68 °C

•Responsiveness: How long it takes for the thermometer to react to a change in temperature
(increased by making the glass bulb thinner or making the bulb smaller)
•Linearity: If the sizes of the individual degrees are closer to each other then it is more linear.
Change made to a Change in range Change in Change in
thermometer sensitivity responsiveness
Increase size of bulb Short range (reach a More sensitive Less responsive
lower maximum (longer response time)
temperature)
Increase diameter of Long range Less sensitive No change
capillary bore
Increase length of longer No change No change
stem
Use thicker glass for No change No change Less responsiveness
bulb

CLINICAL AND LABORATORY THERMOMETERS

 86

CLINICAL THERMOMETER LABORATORY THERMOMETER

Generally scaled from 35oc to 42oc Generally scaled from -10oc to 110oc
Mercury level does not fall on its own Mercury level falls on its own
Temperature read while outside the body Temperature read while it is inside the body
Takes body temperature Takes temperature in the laboratory

THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER: the probe contains 2 different metals joined metals to form
2 junctions.

The temperature difference

causes a tiny voltage which
makes a current flow. A
greater temperature
difference gives a greater
current. Thermocouple
thermometers are used for
high temperatures which
change rapidly. They have a
large range (-200C° to
1100°C) and can be
connected to electrical circuits
or a computer.

Advantages and disadvantages of thermocouple

Thermistor thermometer: the probe contains a thermistor is a material that becomes a better
electrical conductor when the temperature rises, so a higher current flows from a battery, causing
a higher reading on the meter.
 87

HEAT ENERGY AND CHANGE OF STATES

2.2 MELTING AND BOILING
•When melting or boiling a substance, energy is put in, but there is no change in temperature.
The energy absorbed is called the latent heat of fusion/vaporization. A change of state happens
when the particles have enough energy to overcome the forces between them. In melting, the
solid vibrates so much that the particles can break away from their positions.
 The latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy needed to melt 1Kg of a substance.
 The latent heat of vaporisation is the amount of energy needed to boil 1Kg of a substance
 When a substance freezes it is losing the same amount of energy as the latent heat of
fusion

•Melting point is the temperature at which a substance (in solid state) melts (it is equal to the
freezing point)
•Boiling point is the temperature at which a substance (in liquid state) boils
•Condensation and solidification: is when a gas turns back into a liquid. When a gas is cooled,
the particles lose energy. They move more and more slowly. When they bump into each other,
they do not have enough energy to bounce away again. They stay close together, and a liquid
forms. When a liquid cools, the particles slow down even more. Eventually they stop moving
except for vibrations and solid forms.

EVAPORATION
Even on a cool day, rain puddles can vanish and wet clothes dry out. The water becomes an
invisible gas (called water vapour) which moves away in the air.
When a liquid below its boiling point changes into a gas, this is called evaporation. It happens
because some particles in the liquid move faster than others. The faster ones near the surface
have enough energy to escape and form a gas.

When a liquid evaporates,

faster particles escape from its
surface to form a gas.
However, unless the gas is
removed, some of the particles
will return to the liquid
 88

INCREASING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION

a. Increase the temperature: Wet clothes dry faster on a warm day because more of the
particles have enough energy to escape.

b. Increase the surface area: Water in a puddle dries out more quickly than water in a cup
because more of its molecules are close to the surface.

c. Reduce the humidity: If air is very humid, this means that it already has a high water
vapour content. In humid air, wet washing dries slowly because molecules in the vapour
return to the liquid almost as fast as those in the liquid escape. In less humid air, wet
washing dries more quickly.

d. Blow air across the surface: Wet clothes dry faster on a windy day because the moving
air carries escaping water molecules away before many of them can return to the liquid.

BOILING
Boiling is a very rapid form of evaporation. When water boils, vapour bubbles form deep in the
liquid. They expand, rise, burst, and release large amounts of vapour.
Even Cold water has tiny vapour bubbles in it, but these are squashed by the pressure of the
atmosphere. At 100°C, the vapour pressure in the bubbles is strong enough to overcome
atmospheric pressure, so the bubbles start to expand and boiling occurs.
USES OFTHE COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION
Evaporation has a cooling effect. For example, if you wet your hands, the water on them starts to
evaporate. As it evaporates, it takes thermal energy away from your skin. So your hands feel cold.
As faster particles escape from the liquid, slower ones are left behind, so the temperature of the
liquid is less than before.
A. SWEATING also uses the cooling effect of evaporation. You start to sweat if your body
temperature rises more than about 0.5 °C above normal. The sweat, which is mainly water,
comes out of tiny pores in your skin. As it evaporates, it takes thermal energy from your
body and cools you down.On a humid day, sweat cannot evaporate so easily, so it is more
difficult to stay cool and comfortable.
 89

B. REFRIGERATORS use the cooling effect of evaporation.

 In the pipes in the freezer compartment, a liquid called a refrigerant (FREONS)

evaporates and takes thermal energy from the food and air.
 The vapour is drawn away by the pump, which compresses it and turns it into a liquid.
This releases thermal energy, so the liquid heats up.
 The hot liquid is cooled as it passes through the pipes at the back, and the thermal
energy is carried away by the air.
The thermal energy is transferred from the things/foodstuff inside the fridge to the air outside.
CONDENSATION
When a gas changes into a liquid, this is called condensation.
Example: cold air can hold less water vapour than warm air, so if humid air is suddenly cooled,
some of the water vapour may condense. It may become billions of tiny water droplets in the air
— we see these as clouds, mist, or fog. Or it may become condensation on windows or other
surfaces. If condensation freezes, the result is frost.

Condensation can be seen on windows and outside of cups when filled with hot water
EXERCISE
1. Give two changes that would make the puddle dry out even more rapidly.
2. If you are wearing wet clothes, and the water evaporates, it cools you down. How does
the kinetic theory explain the cooling effect?
3. Give two practical uses of the cooling effect of evaporation.
4. Explain why, on a humid day
a) You may feel hot and uncomfortable
b) You do not feel so uncomfortable if there is a breeze blowing.
5. What is the difference between evaporation and boiling?
6. Why does condensation form on cold windows?
7.
 90

HEATING AND COOLING CURVES

a. Cooling curve

b. Heating curve
 91

HEAT CAPACITY
If a material absorbs thermal energy, then unless it is melting or boiling, its temperature rises.
Some materials have a greater capacity for absorbing thermal energy.
Heat Capacity is the amount of heat energy absorbed or released by an object when its
temperature changes by 1K (-273 Degrees Celsius). The heat capacity of materials depends on:
 Mass of material
 The type of material the object is made of
Heat capacity, C = heat absorbed/released Q = Q
Temperature change ∆T

Therefore Q = C∆T

Units of heat capacity: J/0C

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
An experiment can be carried out to find the specific heat capacity of a substance. You should
know the power of the electric heater, the amount of time it is left on, the mass of the material
being tested and the temperature change. For a liquid, it can be simply poured in, but for a solid
like Aluminium, holes have to be drilled in for the heater and thermometer.

Power of heater × time left on = energy supplied by heater

Energy supplied by heater / (mass × temperature change) = specific heat capacity
The experiment makes no allowance for any thermal energy lost from the beaker, so the value of
c is approximate.
Specific Heat capacity is defined as heat energy absorbed/released when 1kg of a material
changes its temperature by 1K or 1 oC. Thus energy can be given by:
Energy transfer ,Q= mass ,(m) X Specific Heat Capacity(c) X Temperature Change(∆T)
Q = mc∆T
The relationship between heat capacity C and Specific Heat Capacity is: C = mc
 92

SU SPECIFIC HEAT SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC HEAT

BSTANCE CAPACITY (J/KG ºC) CAPACITY (J/KG ºC)
Aluminum 9.0 x 102 Alcohol (ethyl) 2.3 x 102
Brass 3.8 x 102 Alcohol (methyl) 2.5 x 102
Glass (pyrex) 7.8 x 102 Nitrogen (liquid) 1.1 x 102
Gold 1.3 x 102 Water (liquid) 4.2 x 103
Iron 4.5 x 102 Water (ice) 2.1 x 103
Lead 1.3 x 102 Water (steam) 2.0 x 103
Sand 8.0 x 102 air 1.0 x 103

For water specific heat capacity 4.2 x 103 J/kg ºC, this means that for each 1 oC rise in
temperature,4200 J of energy must be supplied to the water in the kettle. A greater mass will have
a higher heat capacity.

EXAMPLES
1. When 3.0 kg of water is cooled from 80.00C to 10.0 0C, how much heat energy is lost?
2. How much heat is needed to raise a 0.30 kg piece of aluminium from 30.0C to 150oC?
3. Calculate the temperature change when:
a) 10.0 kg of water loses 232 kJ of heat
b) 1.96 kJ of heat are added to 500. g of copper
4. 2.52 x 104 J of heat are added to 2.0 kg of mercury to reach a final temperature of 130 oC.
What was the initial temperature of the mercury?

LATENT HEAT
If you heat a piece of ice at, say, -10oC, its temperature rises until it reaches 0oC and then remains
constant until all the ice has melted. The temperature then starts to rise again.
The energy supplied during the period when the temperature was constant is called latent heat.
Latent heat is the 'hidden heat' used to change the state of a substance without a change in
temperature. Latent heat means ‘hidden’ or concealed energy, in the sense that it does not show
up on a thermometer.
Usually, when a substance is heated, its temperature rises. However, when matter changes
phase from solid to liquid, or liquid to gas, there is no actual temperature rise. The energy is used
to overcome the forces of attraction, which hold the water molecules together in the solid state
(ice) so that they become relatively free to move.
Specific latent heat (s.l.h.) is the quantity of energy required to change the state of 1 kg of a
substance without any change in temperature.
Energy added or removed = mass × s.l.h.
Q = ml
The unit of s.l.h. is the joule per kilogram, J /kg
 93

The Specific latent Heat of fusion of ice is the amount of heat required to change 1 kg of ice to
water without a change in temperature.The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 0.336 MJ/ kg,
For any given mass, m:
Q = mLf

The Specific latent Heat of vaporisation of water is the amount of heat required to change 1 kg
of water to steam without a change in temperature. The specific latent heat of vaporisation of
water is 2.26 MJ/ kg, then
Q = mLv

A simple calculation shows that it requires about five times more energy for 1 kg of water at 100°C
to boil dry than to raise the temperature of that water from 0°C to 100°C.
Why is such a large quantity of heat energy required to change the state of a substance?
In the case of changing from a solid to a liquid, energy is needed to:
1. Increase the distances between atoms or molecules, pulling them apart;
2. Reduce the number of bonds between neighbouring atoms or molecules so that they move
farther apart and become a liquid.

When liquid changes state to become a vapour, energy is required to separate atoms and
molecules. Vaporisation requires more energy than fusion. Much less energy is necessary to
separate the molecules present in ice to form water than is required to liberate the molecules
present in water as steam is formed.
These figures also apply in the reverse of the sequence. For example, when 1 kg of water at 0 °C
freezes to become ice at 0 °C, it yields 0.336 MJ of energy.
Similarly, with regard to condensation, we can say that when 1 kg of steam at 100 °C turns into
water at 100 °C, 2.26 MJ of energy is released.
When solving problems involving specific latent heat, you only need to know three
equations!

1. Heat = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change

Q = mc∆T

2. Heat gained = Heat lost (a variation is: Heat supplied = Heat gained):
3. Energy added or removed = mass x s.l.h.
Q = ml
 94

EXERCISE
Question 1
Given that the specific heat capacity of water is 11 times that of copper, calculate the mass of
copper at a temperature of 100 °C required to raise the temperature of 200 g of water from 20.0
°C to 24.0 °C, assuming no energy is lost to the surroundings. (ANS. 0.116 kg)

Question 2
Three litres of water at 100 °C are added to 15 litres of water at 40 °C. Calculate the temperature
of the mixture. Take the mass of 1 litre of water to be 1 kg and the specific heat capacity of water
to be 4.2 × 103 J/ kg (ANS. 50°C)
Question 3
1 kg of water at a temperature of 45 °C is mixed with 1.5 kg of alcohol at 20 °C. Find the final
temperature of the mixture.
Take the specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 J/kg K and the specific heat capacity of alcohol
to be 2400 J/ kg K. Assume no other exchange of heat occurs. (ANS= 33 °C).
Question 4
A glass containing 0.40 kg of water at 20 0c which is to be cooled to 0 0C by the addition of ice
cubes, neglecting the heat capacity of the glass,
a) Calculate the heat which must be removed from the water to bring about cooling. Specific
heat capacity of water is 4200J/kgoC. ( 33 600J)
b) Calculate the mass of ice at 00C which must be added to the water, specific latent heat of
fusion of ice is 3.4 x 105 J/kg

Question 5
When a falling hailstone is at a height of 2.00 km its mass is 2.50 g. What is its potential energy?
Assuming that all of this potential energy is converted to latent heat during the fall, calculate the
mass of the hailstone on reaching the ground. Take the specific latent heat of fusion of ice to be
3.36 × 105 J/kg and the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 m/s2

Solution
Potential energy = mgh
= 2.5 × 10–3 × 9.81 × 2 × 103
= 49.05 J

The falling hailstone loses potential energy, and this is used to partly melt the hailstone.

Energy = ml = 49.05
= m × 3.36 × 105
= 49.05
m = 1.4598 × 10–4 kg (mass of hailstone that melted)

Remaining mass that reaches the ground = 2.50 – 0.1458 g

= 2.354 g
 95

Question 6
0.30 kg of ice at 0 °C is added to 1.0 kg of water at 45 °C. What is the final temperature, assuming
no heat exchange with the surroundings? Take the specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 J
/kg K and the specific latent heat of fusion of ice to be 3.4 × 10 5 J/kg

Solution
Let T be the final temperature.

Heat lost by water = heat gained in melting the ice + heat gained in warming the ice water
1 × 4200 × (45 – T) = (0.3 × 3.4 × 105 ) + (0.3 × 4200 × T)
4200 (45 – q) = 1.02 × 105 + 1260 T
1.89 × 105 – 1.02 × 105 = (1260 + 4200) T
T= 16 oC

Question 7
A freezer containing 2 kg of ice at a temperature of -20C is defrosted within 30 minutes using hot
water at a temperature of 800C. The final temperature of the defrosted ice becomes 100C. Using
below information, calculate

a. The amount of heat energy needed to melt all the ice

b. The amount of energy needed to warm the water from 00C to 100C.
c. The mass of the water
d. The rate at which heat was supplied by the hot water

Question 8
A 460W water heater is used to boil water. Assuming no thermal energy losses, what mass of
steam will it produce in 30 minutes

Question 9
How much energy is needed to change?
a. 10 kg of ice into water at the same temperature
b. 10 kg of water into water vapour at the same temperature
 96

TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

Thermal or heat energy is the energy that flows from a hot region to a cold region by one or more
of the processes of:

I. CONDUCTION
II. CONVECTION
III. RADIATION

CONDUCTION

Thermal conduction is how thermal energy flows through a substance without the substance itself
moving
Solids and metals are the best conductors, gases are the worst. A vacuum does not allow
conduction.
A poor conductor is called an insulator.

Thermal Conduction by molecules

Molecules vibrate more when they are heated.
Intermolecular forces allow the molecules to pass their vibrations from one to another. The
stronger the forces the faster the vibrations are passed.

Conduction through metals

Metals have an additional method of conduction. They have electrons that can move from one
atom to another. These electrons can pass energy through the metal very quickly.

Most of the best conductors are metals. However, diamond, a non-metal, is an excellent
conductor because it has very strong intermolecular bonds.
Keeping warm with clothing
Air is a good insulator. Clothes keep us warm by trapping air around our bodies. The more air
layers are trapped the greater is the insulating effect of the clothing. Animals keep warm in a
similar way by using fur or feathers to trap insulating layers of air around their bodies.

Rate of thermal transfer

Heat transfer by conduction can be increased by:
1. using a better conducting substance
2. decreasing the thickness of the substance
3. increasing the area of the substance
4. increasing the temperature difference across the substance
 97

FINDING THE BEST CONDUCTOR

Conditions
• All the rods have the same
length and cross-sectional
area.
• They are all heated equally at
one end with the Bunsen
burner.

When the other end of a rod reaches a certain temperature the paraffin wax melts and the match
stick falls off. A match stick will fall off the best conductor first.
• This should be the rod made of copper.

Comparing brass & wood

• The gummed paper singes and burns first on the

wooden side of the rod.
• This is because the brass removes the heat
away from the paper more quickly than the wood.
• Brass is therefore the better conductor

CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER - A POOR CONDUCTOR

• A boiling tube of water is heated near the top of the water.

• Water boils at the top.
• The bottom of the tube remains cool enough to hold.
• This shows that water (and glass) only conduct heat relatively slowly.
 98

Air is a very poor conductor of heat and is an insulator. Materials which trap air such as wool,
feathers, fibre glass and polystyrene are good insulators, they can be used to keep heat in.

Air - a good insulator

CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward movement of
warmer, less dense regions of fluid.
Convection does not occur in solids. A vacuum does not allow convection.
Convection currents

When molecules are heated they move more quickly

and occupy more space.
Hotter fluids are therefore less dense than colder fluids.
Hotter fluids rise up to float on top of colder fluids.

Convection current is the path taken by rising hot fluids

and sinking cold fluids

Convection in water

Potassium permanganate crystals are used to dye water

purple.
When the bottom of the flask of water is heated warm
less dense water rises.
The potassium permanganate dye rises with the warmed
water.
When the water cools it becomes denser and sinks down
to the bottom of the flask.

SOME EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION

a. Electric kettles
b. Refridgerators

c. Heating a room by convection:The cool air gets heated and becomes less dense, it
therefore rises up and the cold air at the top goes down replacing it, the cold air then gets
heated and rise up again, the process repeats itself.
 99

d. Simple house water heating system

The boiler heats the water.

Hot water rises to the top of the boiler and
up to the top of the storage tank.

e. CAR RADIATOR

Water heated by the engine rises to the

top of the engine.
This water is pumped into the top of the
radiator.
The fan cools the water in the radiator.
Cooled water falls from the radiator into
the engine.
Consequences of convection
a. Sea and land breezes

• During a hot day heated air rises up from land that is warmer than the sea.
• A sea breeze consists of cooler air that moves in from the sea to replace the heated air.
• At night the sea is often warmer than the land.
• Air now flows to the sea. This is called a land breeze.

land
cooler sea
warmer
 100

b. Convection currents in a room

c. Convection currents in a pond
Thermals
• Heated air provides lift for a hot air balloon.
• Heated land causes rising air currents called thermals.
• Thermals can be used by gliders to provide lift.
• Many birds also use thermals for lift.

THERMAL RADIATION
Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infra-red (IR) waves.
 Radiation is the only type of heat transfer that can travel through a vacuum through which
it travels at the speed of light (300 000 km/s).
 Gases tend to allow radiation through better than liquids, liquids better than solids.
 A good absorber of thermal energy is a good radiator and of thermal energy, e.g dull,
black surfaces are best radiators
 A good absorber of thermal energy is a poor emitter of thermal energy, e.g dull, black
surfaces are best absorbers
 Infra-red radiation is absorbed by all objects and surfaces. This absorption causes
temperature to rise.
Detecting thermal radiation
• We can feel thermal radiation with our skin.
• Special cameras can be used to take infra-red pictures.

Thermal radiation & temperature

°
All objects above absolute zero (-273 C) give off thermal radiation. The hotter an object the more
radiation it gives off.

Surface and emission

Dark/black surfaces emit radiation better than bright

surfaces.
Rough surfaces emit radiation better than polished
surface.
 101

Absorption & Reflection

For comparison, the surfaces must:

Be of the same material and size

Be the same distance from the source

Have the same initial temperatures

Some minutes after the heater has been switched on, the wax on
the black surface melts and the coin falls before the coin on the
shiny surface

 Dark surfaces absorb radiation best.

 Bright surfaces reflect radiation best.
 Rough surfaces absorb radiation best.
 Polished surfaces reflect radiation best.

Silvered surfaces: Silvery mirror like surfaces are poorest absorbers, they reflect almost all the
thermal radiation striking them. A metal kettle, a firefighter and a marathon runner make use of
silvered surfaces

Explain why
a) heat from the Sun can only reach us by thermal radiation,
b) in hot countries houses are often painted white,
c) car radiators are black,
d) Solar cells are black.

Reducing heat transfer using a vacuum flask

part of flask processes reduced

outer cap conduction and convection

plastic cap convection and conduction

shiny mirror radiation

surfaces
vacuum conduction and convection

sponge conduction
air conduction
plastic case conduction
 102

Questions
1. Most substances expand when they are heated
(i) State one example where such expansion is useful.
(ii) State one example where such expansion is a nuisance, and has to be allowed for.
(iii) Cooking pans often have handles made of plastic or wood. Why do these help to prevent you
burning your hand when using the pan?
(iv) On a sunny day your body gets hotter when wearing a black shirt than when wearing a white
shirt. Explain why this happens.
(v) Cooking pans often have handles made of plastic or wood. Why do these help to prevent you
burning your hand when using the pan?
(vi) On a sunny day your body gets hotter when wearing a black shirt than when wearing a white
shirt. Explain why this happens.

(2) Here is a list of solid materials. Put a tick in the box alongside those materials which are good
conductors of heat.
Aluminium copper cork gold polystyrene wood

(b) State the word we use to describe materials that are poor conductors of heat. [1]
(c) From the list of materials given in (a), state which would be suitable to use for
(i) The base of a cooking pot (ii) the covering on the handle of a kettle [2]
(ii)State why the heating element is always placed near the bottom of an electric kettle. [1]
3. The apparatus shown in is set up in a laboratory during a morning science lesson.

Later in the day, the room temperature is higher than in the morning.
(a) What change is observed in the apparatus?[1]
(b) Explain why this change happens. [1]

(4) State two changes that usually happen to the molecules of a solid when the solid is heated.
(5) Answer the following in terms of conduction, convection and radiation.

(i) Cooking pans often have handles made of plastic or wood. Why do these help to prevent you
burning your hand when using the pan?
(ii) On a sunny day your body gets hotter when wearing a black shirt than when wearing a white
shirt. Explain why this happens.[2]

(6) Figure shows a liquid-in-glass thermometer.

 103

a. (i) Name a suitable liquid to use in the thermometer. ....................................................

(ii) State the reading on the thermometer. ............................... °C
(iii) Explain why a narrow capillary tube is used.
(b) The thermometer bulb is put in melting ice.
(i) Explain why the liquid moves in the capillary tube.
(ii) Mark on the diagram the new position of the liquid. [3]

(7) (a) Use the kinetic particle theory of matter to explain why energy is needed to melt a solid,
at its melting point, to form a liquid

(b) Fig below shows a thermometer with a range of –10 °C to 50 °C.

Explain what is meant by

(i) the sensitivity of a thermometer,
(ii) the range of a thermometer.
(iii) linearity

(c) In order to mark a scale on a thermometer, the lower and the upper fixed points need to be
marked on it.
Explain how you would find
(i) the lower fixed point,[2]
(ii) the upper fixed point.[2]

Explain why
a) newspaper wrapping keeps hot things hot, e.g. fish and chips, and cold things cold, e.g.
ice cream,
b) fur coats would keep their owners warmer if they were worn inside out,
c) a string vest keeps a person warm even though it is a collection of holes bounded by
string,
d) a concrete floor feels colder than a carpeted one even though they are at the same
temperature
e) Suggest why the flask is coated with black paint.
f) Explain each of the following. The heater element in a kettle is placed at the bottom of
the kettle but all the water reaches boiling point.
 104

GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

Wave motion: A wave is a pulse or vibration, oscillation which travels through a medium
A wave is a means of transferring energy and information from one point to another without there
being any transfer of matter between the two points.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WAVES

1. Amplitude (A)
Amplitude is the maximum movement of the particles that make up a wave from their
rest position.
The amplitude is the height of a crest OR the depth of a trough

2. Wavelength (λ)
Wavelength is the distance between one wave peak and the next wave peak along the
path of a wave. Wavelength is also the distance between the bottoms of one trough to
the next. Wavelength is measured in metres

3. Frequency (f)
Frequency is the number of wave peaks that pass a point in one second. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz)
4. Wavefronts: is a line joining waves that are in phase
 105

5. Time period (T )
Time period is the time taken for a source to produce one wave. It is the time taken by
one wave to move.

𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒂 𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆

Period= 𝒏𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝟏
𝑻=
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇

THE WAVE EQUATION

The wave equation gives the relationship between wavelength, frequency and waves speed
speed = frequency x wavelength

v=fxλ

where: speed in metres per second (m/s)

wavelength in metres (m)
frequency in hertz (Hz)

EXAMPLES
5. Calculate the frequency of a wave of time period 8.0 seconds.
𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇
1
=
8.0
frequency = 0.125 hertz

6. Calculate the time period of a wave of frequency 50Hz.

7. Calculate the speed of a water wave of wavelength 3m and frequency 6Hz.
8. Calculate the frequency of a wave in water of wavelength 2.0m if its speed is 16m/s.
9. Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave in water of frequency 300Hz if its speed is
1500m/s.
10. Calculate the speed of a wave that has a wavelength of 30m and time period 0.04s.
 106

CLASSES OF WAVES
There are two classes of waves:
1. Transverse Waves: Transverse waves are waves where the direction of vibrations is at 90°
to the direction in which the wave travels.

example: water waves, electromagnetic waves and light

b. Longitudinal Waves: Longitudinal waves are waves where the vibrations of the particles are
along the direction in which the wave travels.

example: sound waves

Longitudinal wave in slink

a) REFLECTION OF WAVES. All waves can bounce back (get reflected) when they hit a
solid surface
 107

b) REFRACTION OF WAVES
Water waves travel faster on the surface of deep water than they do on shallow water. The change
in speed will cause refraction. The slower wave in shallow water has smaller wavelength.

c) DIFFRACTION OF WAVES
Diffraction occurs when a wave spreads out from a gap or bends around an obstacle. Diffraction
is more significant with low frequency, long wavelength waves.
Diffraction results in the energy of the wave spreading out. Diffraction becomes more significant
when the size of the gap or obstacle is reduced compared with the wavelength of the wave.
 108

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum of waves which includes the visible
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into seven bands which in order of decreasing
wavelength are

Common properties
All electromagnetic waves, including visible light have the following common properties:
1. They transfer energy
2. They are all transverse waves
3. They all travel at the same speed through a vacuum (300 000 000 m/s)
4. They can all be reflected, refracted and diffracted
5. They obey the wave equation (v = f x λ)

Notes:
(a) Through air, light and the other waves travel at about the above speed but through denser
substances (for example glass) the speed falls.
(b) According to Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity nothing can travel faster than the speed of
light through a vacuum.
 109

Component Method of Sources Uses Side effects

Detection
 Radio aerials  Transmitting  radio and television none
and towers or aerial communication
 radio circuit  Microwave  medicine with MRI scanners
oven  astronomy to ‘see’ the centre of
 Radar guns our galaxy
 Bluetooth and RADAR

Microwaves  Radio  Transmitting  cooking • cause internal

aerials towers/aerial  mobile phone communication heating of body
 Radio  Microwave  satellite television tissue.
circuit oven  astronomy – finding out about the • Overuse of
origin of the Universe mobile phones
can lead to brain
damage.
Infrared  special  Bulb  Infra-red waves are used: to cook  skin disorder
photographic  Sun food by remote controls  severe burns
film  Fire  in communication systems using
 blackened  Radiators optical fibres
thermometer  Warm/hot  to detect intruders in burglar
bulb objects alarms
 skin  in ‘night sights’
receptors  in astronomy to see behind gas
clouds

Visible light  Photodiode Sun  for sight  can cause

 eyes Candles  in photography blindness
Lamps  in optical fibres  damage
luminous  in photosynthesis photographic
film

Ultraviolet  Fluorescent Sun  Fluorescent lamps including  sun tan

(UV) ink or paint Mercury lamps energy efficient light bulbs  Too much to
 Mercury  Security devices UV can
vapour  Dentistry cause
 Pest control blindness
 Astronomy and skin
 Detection of forged bank notes cancer

X rays  Photographi X Ray Tube  X-ray photographs Kill living things

c film  Airport security Cause cancer
 GM Tubes  Cancer treatment
 Astronomy
Gamma Rays  GM Tube Radioactive  to kill cancer cells Cause cell
 Spark nuclei  to kill harmful bacteria in food mutation
counters  to sterilise surgical instruments Radiation burns
 Cloud Sterility
chambers Eye cataract
 110

RADIO WAVES: Radio waves have the longest wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum,
typically 100 metres.
Transmitting and receiving radio waves
Radio waves are emitted from a transmitter aerial when an alternating voltage is connected to the
aerial. The radio wave emitted has the same frequency as the alternating voltage. When these
radio waves pass across a receiver aerial, they cause a tiny alternating voltage of the same
frequency to occur in the aerial.
Radio frequency bands
The radio and microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum is sub-divided into frequency
bands. The uses of each band depend on its frequency range.
The higher the frequency: The more information that can be carried – this can result in better
quality sound and video or more channels.
The shorter range – due to greater absorption by the atmosphere. The less the signal spreads
out – less diffraction – hills and large buildings also are more likely to stop the signal. Higher
frequency waves are less able to diffract around buildings and hills

Radio waves and the ionosphere

The ionosphere is a layer of gas in the upper atmosphere that reflects radio waves of frequencies
less than about 30 MHz. Radio waves can be reflected off the bottom of the ionosphere enabling
them to travel great distances.
The ionosphere is stronger in summer than winter and so distant radio stations can be received
better in summer. Before the advent of satellites, using the ionosphere was one of the main ways
of communicating around the world.

EXERCISE
1. Give five common properties of all members of the electromagnetic spectrum
2. List the colours of the visible spectrum in order of increasing wavelength.
3. State the hazards of (a) microwaves; (b) ultra-violet; (c) X-rays and gamma rays (a) 4.
Explain the difference between analogue and digital signals. (b) What are the advantages
of using digital signals?
4. (a) What is a wave?
5. (b) Explain the difference between a transverse and longitudinal wave
6. (c)Define what is meant by (a) amplitude; (b) wavelength; (c) frequency and (d) time period.
7. (d)State the wave equation. (b) Calculate the wavelength of a radio wave of frequency
10MHz, speed 300 000km/s.
8. (e) What is wave diffraction? (b) Draw diagrams showing how diffraction is affected by the
wavelength of a wave.
 111

LIGHT
When light traveling in one medium encounters a boundary leading into a second medium, the
processes of REFLECTION and REFRACTION can occur. In reflection, part of the light
encountering the second medium bounces off that medium.

In refraction, the light passing into the second medium bends through an angle with respect to
the normal to the boundary. Mostly both processes occur at the same time, with part of the light
being reflected and part refracted.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface or boundary. The reflection of
light from such a smooth surface is called specular reflection. On the other hand, if the reflecting
surface is rough, the surface reflects the rays in a variety of directions. Reflection from any rough
surface is known as diffuse reflection

Specular reflection Diffuse reflection

 112

LAWS OF REFLECTION

Laws of reflection:
 Angle of incidence = angle of
reflection
 The incident ray, reflected ray and
normal are always on the same plane
(side of mirror)

Note: Both angles are measured with

respect to the ‘normal’. This is a
construction line that is perpendicular to
the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence.

The image formed by a plane mirror

The image produced by the plane mirror is:

 The same size as the object
 The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front
 Upright (the same way up as the object)
 Back-to-front compared with the object (lateral inversion)
 Virtual - no rays actually pass through the image and the image cannot be formed on a
screen
 113

VIRTUAL images are formed where light rays only appear to come from. A virtual image cannot
be cast onto a screen.
The image formed by a projector is known as a REAL image because light rays travel to it.

Images formed by 2 mirrors perpendicular to each other

 114

LIGHT REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of light when it moves from one medium to another. Refraction occurs
when a wave changes speed as it passes from one region to another.

This speed change usually causes the wave to change direction. Water waves slow down as they
pass over from a deeper to a shallower region. Light slows down as it passes from air into glass,
perspex or water.

AN EXPERIMENT TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) OF GLASS

The Optical pin method:

Apparatus: Optical pins Drawing board Protractor

Rule Plain paper Pencil

Procedure:
1. Place a rectangular glass slab on a
white sheet of paper fixed on a drawing
board.
2. Trace the boundary ABCD of the glass
slab.
3. Draw the normal at point of incidence
(NN1 through O)
4. Draw an incident ray IO on boundary
AB such that it makes an angle of 20o with
the normal
5. Fix two pins P1 and P2 on the incident
ray
6. Place the glass slab within its
boundary ABCD.

7. Looking from the other side of the glass slab fix two pins P3 and P4 such that your eye and
the feet of all the pins are in one straight line.
8. Join OO1.It is the refracted ray.
9. Measure are the angle of incidence, i, angle of refraction, r
10. Extend O1E backwards. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
11. Repeat steps (4) to (10) for angles of incidence of 30o, 40o, 50o, 60o,70o and 80o
 115

RESULTS

angle of angle of sin i sin r

incidence (0) refraction(0)
20
30
40
50
60
70
80

6. Plot a graph of sin I against sin r

7. Calculate the gradient or slope of the graph
8. Calculate the average value of n.

Conclusion

No deviation occurs when the angle of incidence is zero. Increasing the angle of incidence
increases the deviation.
Refraction of light at a plane surface
(a) Less to more optical dense transition (e.g. air to glass)
Light bends TOWARDS the normal.
The angle of refraction is LESS than the angle of incidence.

(b) More to less optical dense transition (e.g. water to air

 116

THE REFRACTION EQUATION

When a light ray passes from one medium to another:

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
n = …………………………………… SNELL’s LAW
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

where: i is the angle of incidence in the first medium

r is the angle of refraction in the second medium
n is a constant number called the refractive index.

The refractive index can also be given in terms of ratio of speeds of light between two medium.
That is;

𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓

Refractive index =
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎

𝑽𝒂
n =
𝑽𝒎

Question 1
Calculate the refractive index when light passes from air to glass if the angle of incidence is 30°
and the angle of refraction 19º.
n = sin i / sin r
= sin (30º) / sin (19º)
= 0.500 / 0.326
= 1.53

Question 2
Calculate the angle of refraction when light passes from air to perspex if the angle of incidence is
50° and the refractive index, n = 1.50.
 117

Question 3
Calculate the angle of incidence when light passes from air to water if the angle of refraction is
20° and the refractive index, n = 1.33.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL ANGLE

The critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium that results in an angle of
refraction of 90º

𝟏
n= 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝑪

where:
n is the refractive index of the denser medium (glass in the example opposite).
c is the critical angle.
Total internal reflection occurs when:
Light is incident on a boundary between optically more to less dense substance (for example
glass to air).The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, c for the interface.

Question 1
Calculate the critical angle of glass to air if the refractive index of glass is 1.5
n = 1 / sin c
= 1.0 / 1.5
= 0.67
critical angle for glass, c = 42°

Question 2
Calculate the critical angle of water to air if the refractive index of glass is 1.3
Question 3
Calculate the maximum refractive index of a medium if light is to escape from it into water
(refractive index = 1.3) at all angles below 30°
 118

EFFECTS OF REFRACTION

a. Why a pool appears shallow

It is well known that objects viewed under water with the naked eye appear blurred and out of
focus

Refractive index in terms of real and apparent depth is given by:

𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 (𝒅)

n = 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 (𝒒)
 119

b. Mirages

A mirage can be observed when the ground is so hot that the air directly above it is warmer than
the air at higher elevations. The desert is a region in which such circumstances prevail, but
mirages are also seen on heated roadways during the summer. The layers of air at different
heights above the Earth have different refractive indices. The observer sees the sky and a tree in
two different ways. One group of light rays reaches the observer by the straight-line, and the eye
traces these rays back to see the tree in the normal way. In addition, a second group of rays
travels along the curved. These rays are directed toward the ground and are then bent as a result
of refraction.

As a result, the observer sees an inverted image of the tree and the background of the sky as he
traces the rays back to the point at which they appear to have originated. Because an upright
image and an inverted image are seen when the image of a tree is observed in a reflecting pool
of water, the observer unconsciously calls on this past experience and concludes that the sky is
reflected by a pool of water in front of the tree

Uses of total internal reflection

1. Prismatic periscope
 120

Glass and Perspex both have critical angles of about 42º. In each prism the light strikes the glass-
air interface at an incidence angle of 45º. Total internal reflection therefore occurs and the light
ray is deviated by 90º in each prism.

2. Reflectors

The reflector is made up of many small perspex prisms arranged so that light undergoes total
internal reflection twice. The overall result is that the light is returned in the direction from which it
originally came. The reflector will be seen to be lit up from the point of view of the light source for
example the driver of a car with its headlights on.

3. Optical fibres

Optical fibre consists of two concentric layers of different types of glass, core and cladding. Light
entering the inner core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at an angle that is greater
than the critical angle.
Optical fibre communication
Optical fibres can be used to transmit information using visible light or infra-red radiation. The light
cannot escape from the fibre, it is continually reflected internally by the fibre. Compared with
microwaves and radio waves optical fibres:
 can carry far more information due to the higher frequency of light and infra-red.
 121

 are more secure because the signals stay within the fibres. The fastest broadband uses
optical fibres

The Endoscope
The medical endoscope contains two bundles of fibres. One set of fibres transmits light into a
body cavity and the other is used to return an image for observation.

DISPERSION

Dispersion occurs when a prism splits the colours of white light into the spectrum.

This occurs because the refractive index of the glass or perspex of the prism varies with the
colours of the spectrum that make up white light. Violet has the greatest refractive index and
therefore deviates the most. Red has the lowest and deviates the least.

EXERCISE
1. Draw a diagram illustrating the law of reflection.
2. With the aid of a diagram explain how a plane mirror forms an image. also list the properties
of this image.
3. (a) What is refraction? (b) Draw a labelled diagram showing how a light ray travels through a
rectangular glass block.
4. (a) State the equation relating incident and refraction angles. (b) Calculate the angle of
refraction with glass (n = 1.5) if the angle of incidence is 55°.
5. (a) Explain what is meant by total internal reflection and critical angle. (b) state the equation
for critical angle and calculate the value of this angle for a substance of refractive index 1.4.
6. With the aid of diagrams explain how total internal reflection is used in (a) prismatic periscopes
and (b) optical fibres.
 122

LENSES
a. Converging (convex lens) b. Concave (diverging lens)

•Principal focus(F): the point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge with a converging
lens.
•Focal length (f): distance from the principle focus and the optical centre.
•Principal axis: the line that goes through the optical centre, and the 2 foci.
•Optical centre(C): the centre of the lens

RAY DIAGRAMS FOR IMAGES FORMED BY A THIN CONVERGING LENS

1) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus on the other side of the lens
2) 2) A ray through the centre of the lens passes straight through the lens.
3) A ray through F’ will leave the lens parallel to the principal axis.
 123

a. Object at 2F

Image is:
o Same size as the object
o Upside down(inverted)
o Real
o Located at 2F
o Used in search lights

b. Object between F and lens

Image is:
o enlarged
o upright
o virtual
o positioned near object
o used in simple microscopes

c. Object at beyond 2F

Image is:
o diminished
o Upside
down(inverted)
o Real
o Located between F
and 2F
o Used in photography(cameras)
 124

d. Object at F

Image is:
o enlarged
o Upside down(inverted)
o Real
o Positioned at infinity
o used in magnifying glass

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Magnifying glass:
When a convex lens is used like this - an object is closer to a convex (converging) lens than the
principal focus (like the diagram above), the rays never converge. Instead, they appear to come
from a position behind the lens. The image is upright and magnified, it is a virtual image.

MAGNIFICATION: Is the ratio of image size to object size or distance of image from centre of
lens to object distance from lens. That is:

𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆/𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒉′

M= 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆/𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
= 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
= 𝒉
 125

The camera
It consists of a light-tight chamber, a converging lens that produces a real image, and a film behind
the lens to receive the image. One focuses the camera by varying the distance between lens and
film. For proper focusing—which is necessary for the formation of sharp images—the lens-to-film
distance depends on the object distance as well as on the focal length of the lens. The shutter,
positioned behind the lens, is a mechanical device that is opened for selected time intervals,
called exposure times

SLIDE PROJECTOR

Concave mirror condenser lens slide convex lens screen

 126

Convex Lenses Practice Worksheet

For each problem below, draw the ray diagram for the lens. Then use the thin lens equation
and magnification equation to determine image distance and height. Last, describe the
image formed (inverted or upright, larger or smaller, real or virtual). For question #6, you
will also practice constructing a ray diagram from scratch.

1. A 15.0 cm object is placed 60.0 cm from a convex lens, which has a focal length of 15.0 cm.

2F F F 2F

2. A 15.0 cm object is placed 30.0 cm from a convex lens, which has a focal length of 15.0 cm.

2F F F 2F

3. A 15.0 cm object is placed 16.0 cm from a convex lens, which has a focal length of 15.0 cm.

2F F F 2F

4. A 15.0 cm object is placed 15.0 cm from a convex lens, which has a focal length of 15.0 cm.

2F F F 2F

5. A 2-meters-tall person is located 5 meters from a camera lens (camera lenses are convex
lenses). The lens has a focal length of 35 millimeters.
 127

SOUND
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. A sound wave consists of mechanical vibrations in air
and other substances. Sound is a longitudinal wave in which the wave energy travels in the same
direction as the particles within the wave vibrate.
Through air a sound wave consists of a series of compressions and rarefactions.

A compression is a region of slightly higher pressure where the air molecules are closer together
than usual. A rarefaction is the opposite.
The wavelength of the sound wave is equal to the distance between the centres of two successive
compressions
SOUND WAVES IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS
Sound travels quickest through solids. : A train can often be heared approaching through the
rails before it can be heard through the air.
Sound travels well through liquids: Whales can communicate over great distances under
water.
Sound travels slowest through gases: The speed of sound increases with temperature.
 Sound does not travel through a vacuum.
 Sound does not travel in space.

Bell jar experiment

This experiment shows that sound needs a material

medium for transmission. As the air pressure inside the
bell jar is reduced the loudness of the sound heard
outside decreases. The bell can be still seen to be
working normally.
 128

REFLECTION OF SOUND
An echo is a reflected sound wave.

Question:
A misguided child shouts ‘Chelsea!’ at a nearby cliff and hears an echo 1.4 s later. How far away
is the cliff?
Take the speed of sound = 340 m/s.
The sound travels to and from the cliff, a total distance of 2D
speed = distance / time
becomes: distance = speed x time
= 340 m/s x 1.4 s
= 476 m
= 2D !
Therefore distance to the cliff = 238 m.

Sound refraction

The sound produced by person A may be heard more clearly by person B than by person C. The
cooler air over the water refracts the sound waves downwards.
 129

Sound diffraction

A typical sound wave has a wavelength of about 1m.This is similar in size to the aperture of a
doorway. Therefore sound undergoes significant diffraction at a doorway or around the corner of
a building. This is why we can hear someone in such circumstances even though we cannot see
them.
Why does light not diffract as much as sound?
The wavelength of light is about 0.000 5mm – much smaller than a door aperture.

MEASURING THE SPEED OF SOUND

Method 1: Using a visible loud event
Use a stopwatch to time the difference between seeing and hearing the event (for example an
explosion).
 Measure the distance between the event and the timing position.
Speed = distance / time.
Note: The distance should be as large as possible in order to avoid significant reaction time error
in the timing measurement.
Question 1
A group of students measured the time taken between seeing and hearing another student, 250
m away, clashing two pieces of wood together. They obtained the following timings in seconds:
0.73, 0.78, 0.69, 0.81, and 0.77. Use their measurements to obtain a speed of sound estimate.
average time = (0.73 + 0.78 + 0.69 + 0.81 + 0.77) / 5
= 3.78 / 5
= 0.756 s
speed = distance / time
= 250 m / 0.756 s
= 4 080 m
speed of sound = 331 m/s
 130

Method 2: Using echoes

Facing a flat vertical surface (wall or cliff) at least 50m away one person clashes two pieces of
wood together. This person should try to clap the pieces of wood in time with the echo they hear
coming back from the flat surface.

 Another person times 20 claps on a stop-watch. They should count: 0, 1, 2 ,3 …. 20.

 Measure the distance, D between the clapping people and flat surface.
The total distance travelled by the sound will be 20 x 2D
Speed = total distance / time for 20 claps.
Question 2
In an experiment to measure the speed of sound by the echo method when a student stands 75m
away from a wall 20 claps are heard over a time of 8.77s. Calculate the speed of sound.
total distance travelled by the sound = (20 x 2 x 75)m
= 3000m
speed = total distance / time for 20 claps
= 3000m / 8.77s
speed of sound = 342 m/s

Question 3
A thunderclap is heard 12 seconds after a lightning flash. Calculate the distance to the lightning
flash. Take the speed of sound = 340 m/s
speed = distance / time
becomes: distance = speed x time
= 340 m/s x 12 seconds
= 4 080 m

REVERBERATIONS
 131

Range of hearing (Audible Frequencies)

Humans can hear sound frequencies in the range: 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz (20 kHz). Age and damage
reduces the upper limit.
For example an old person or someone exposed to prolonged high sound volume may no longer
be able to hear above 10 000 Hz.
Some animals can hear much higher frequencies:
Bats and dolphins: up to 100 000 Hz
Dogs up to 40 000 to 60 000 Hz (depends on the breed)

ULTRASOUND AND INFRASOUND

ULTRASOUND is high frequency sound, above 20 000 Hz, too high to be heard by humans.
Ultrasound echoes can be used to measure distance (e.g. sonar) and to see inside objects
(scans).
INFRASOUND is low frequency sound, inaudible to human, although we may feel the very slow
vibrations.
Earthquake waves are a form of infrasound. Elephants and some other large animals can hear
infrasound.
USES OF ULTRASOUND
 Cleaning: this is used to clean delicate material without dismantling it
 Echo sounding: ships use echo sounders to measure the depth of water beneath or
seabed
 Metal testing: echo sounding principles are used to detect flaws in metals
 Womb scanning: echo sounding transmitters are used to send pulses from the mother
body thus picking up pulses reflected from the baby
 Determining cracks in water pipe which are located in between walls

SOUND POLLUTION
This is sound that is too much unpleasant in the surrounding. The loudness of sound is measured
in decibels dB
Sources of sound
 Train
 Traffic
 Industries
 Generators
 Bombs
Reducing noise pollution
 Lubricating moving parts
 Wear ear muffs
 Install silencers in cars and guns
 Separate residential from industrial areas
 132

Effects of noise pollution

 Stress
 Irritation
 Increase heart problems
 deafness
CHARACTERISITICS OF SOUND NOTES
1. LOUDNESS: The loudness of a sound increases with the amplitude of the sound wave

2. Pitch: The pitch of a musical note increases with frequency.

Examples:Concert pitch A = 440 Hz; Top C = 523 Hz

Doubling the frequency increases the pitch by one octave. Therefore the ‘A’ above top C will have
frequency 880 Hz.

3. QUALITY OR TIMBRE: The quality or timbre of a musical note is what makes one musical
instrument sound different from another. Despite different instruments producing a note of the
same loudness and pitch, the shape of the wave will be different.
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Question
The diagram opposite shows the appearance of a sound wave on an oscilloscope. Draw a second
diagram showing the appearance of a sound wave of lower pitch but greater loudness.
Measuring frequency using an oscilloscope
The time taken between peaks on an oscilloscope trace is equal to the time period, T of the sound
wave.
frequency = 1 / period
f=1/T

QUESTION 1
The distance between peaks on an oscilloscope trace is 4cm. If the oscilloscope time scale is set
at 1ms/cm calculate the frequency of the sound. 1ms/cm means that the trace covers 1cm in one
millisecond (0.001s)

time period, T = 4cm x 1ms/cm

= 4ms (0.004s)
f=1/T
f = 1 / 0.004=frequency = 250Hz

EXERCISE
1. With the aid of a diagram explain how a sound wave moves through air.
2. Describe an experiment to show that sound needs a substance for transmission.
3. (a) What is an echo? (b) Describe how the speed of sound through air can be found using
echoes.
4. (a) What is the normal audible range of a human? (b) What names are given to sounds
above and below this range?
5. Describe how a sound wave changes with (a) pitch; (b) loudness.
 134

MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetism was first discovered by Greeks as early as 600 BC. Certain type of iron ore called
magnetite or lodestone has property to attract small pieces of iron.
Chemically the magnetic material has formula Fe3O4. The word magnetism is derived from
Magnesia, the place where magnetic iron ore was first discovered.

Properties of Magnetic Materials:

1. The materials that can easily be attracted by magnet are called ferrous materials or
ferromagnetic such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt.

2. The materials that are not attracted by magnet are called non- ferrous materials such as
copper, brass, wood and glass.

3. Poles of a magnet are at the ends to which magnetic material are attracted. These ends are
of equal strengths. They are called north and south poles.

4. When a magnet is hanged freely, its poles are always facing towards the earth’s north and
south poles.

5. Law of magnetic poles: Like poles of magnets repel and unlike poles attract each other.

6. Magnetic field: The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force on
magnetic materials is called magnetic field. It has direction which is at any point should be the
direction of the force from North Pole to south that is the arrows are always coming out from North
pole to south pole.

7. The magnetic lines of force are the lines of magnetic field which are always pointing from
North Pole to South Pole of a magnet.

9. Neutral point: When two magnet of same magnetic strength are place next to each other
facing the like poles, they create a point where one magnetic field cancels the other. This point
is called neutral point of null point.

MAGNETIC MATERIALS: Magnetic materials are those materials that can be attracted by
magnets; these materials are called FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS. These include the
 135

elements iron, nickel, cobalt, alloys containing some of these such as steel and some of their
compounds.

NON FERROMAGNETIC materials are those materials that cannot be attracted by magnets.
These include among others: aluminium, wood, plastic, rubber etc.

HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Soft magnetic materials, such as iron, are easily magnetized, but also tend to lose their
magnetism easily.
Hard magnetic materials, such as cobalt and nickel, are difficult to magnetize, but tend to retain
their magnetism.

Permanent magnets are made of magnetically HARD materials such as steel. These materials
retain their magnetisation once magnetised. Magnetically SOFT materials, such as iron, lose their
magnetisation easily. They are suitable for temporary magnets such as electromagnets.

IRON STEEL
Easily magnetized by weak magnetic field Harder to magnetise and demagnetize
Can be magnetized by weak magnetic field Requires strong magnetic field to magnetize
When mixed with other metals like Ni, Cu, Mn, Very good for making permanent magnets
Sn powerful magnets can be made
Used in electromagnets, transformer coils Used in bar magnets
and magnetic shields

Theory of Magnets: Magnetic domains

a. b.
Magnets and non-magnetic materials are made up of small tiny magnets called DIPOLES. These
dipoles are grouped together in regions called DOMAINS. Domains consists of dipoles which are
facing in the same direction

In magnets, the dipoles are aligned in one direction. In what are called hard magnetic materials
or magnets, domains remain aligned even after the external field is removed; the result is a
permanent magnet.
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Bar magnet U shaped magnet

In soft magnetic materials, such as iron, once the external field is removed, thermal agitation
produces motion of the domains and the material quickly returns to an unmagnetized state.

INDUCED MAGNETISM

When a magnetic material is brought into contact with a magnet, magnetism is induced in it.
Dipoles are aligned to one direction. The magnetized material will behave like a magnet. This
means that it will have two poles and it too can attract another magnetic material. This process is
called Magnetic Induction.

If you hold a bar magnet near or in contact

with a soft iron nail, the nails becomes a
magnet by induction. The nail retains its
magnetism only if the magnet is in contact
with the magnet. It will pick several pins.

The number of pins attracted will depend on

the strength of the magnet. Immediately
when the nail in contact with the magnet is
removed, all nails will fall.

If steel pins are used instead of iron nail, when the pin in contact with the magnet is removed, the
pins will still be attracted to one another because is a hard magnetic material.

Magnetism can be induced in a magnetic material if it is placed within a magnetic field. If the
material is magnetically hard it will retain its magnetism once removed from the field. Certain rocks
in the Earth’s crust such as lodestone have been magnetised in this way by the Earth’s magnetic
field.
 137

MAGNITIZATION: inducing magnetism on magnetic material

1. STROKING/TOUCH METHOD.

a) Single stroking/touch: a steel bar is stroked from end to end several times in the
same direction with a known pole of permanent magnet. The end of the steel bar
where the stroking ends will have the opposite pole of the stroking pole

b) Double stroking/touch: A bar is stroked from the center outward with unlike poles
of two magnets

Double touch will produce a stronger magnet than single touch stroking

2. Magnetism can also be induced in iron (and other materials) by other means. For example,
if a piece of unmagnetized iron is placed near a strong permanent magnet, the piece of
iron eventually becomes magnetized. The process can be accelerated by heating and
then cooling the iron. Naturally occurring magnetic materials such as magnetite are
magnetized in this way because they have been subjected to Earth’s magnetic field for
long periods of time. The extent to which a piece of material retains its magnetism depends
on whether it is classified as magnetically hard or soft.

3. USING DIRECT CURENT

The magnetic effect of current is used to make magnets. A coil of insulated copper wire is
connected to direct current (dc). A soft iron or steel is placed inside the solenoid (solenoid
is a coil of wire carrying an electric current) and the current switched on and off repeatedly.
 138

Magnetic strength can be increased by:

 Increasing the current
 Increasing the number of turns(windings) in the coil

To find the polarities of the ends of the magnet, the right-hand grip rule is used.

The fingers are placed in the direction that the

eclectic current flows around the coil. The thumb
points towards the North Pole end of the coil

DEMAGNETISATION

It means taking away magnetism or causing the dipoles to misalign. This can be achieved by:

a) Hammering/hitting/dropping the magnet

b) Heating the magnet
c) Placing the magnet inside a solenoid connected to alternating current. While the current
is flowing the magnet is pulled out of the solenoid

MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnetic field is a volume of space where magnetic force is exerted. All magnets are
surrounded by magnetic fields. The shape of a magnetic field can be shown by

1. Iron filings: A bar magnet is placed beneath a sheet of paper. Iron fillings are then
sprinkled lightly on top of the paper. The paper is tapped gently. Iron fillings will arrange
in a particular pattern.

2. Plotting compasses: a bar magnet is placed on top of a plain sheet of paper and its
edges traced out. A plotting compass is placed at some point around the magnet. Two
dots are made, one at the end of the pointer and the other at the tail of the pointer. The
 139

compass is then moved from one point to another around the magnet. Joining the dots
gives a pattern. This method gives the direction of the field.

Magnetic field around a bar magnet

Magnetic fields between two bar magnets

The Earth’s magnetic field

The earth’s magnetic field is similar in shape to that around a bar magnet. It is thought to be
caused by electric currents flowing through the molten outer core of the Earth. At the present the
field pattern is like that with a magnetic SOUTH pole situated somewhere below northern
Greenland
 140

MAGNETIC SHIELDING
Magnetic shielding is a process that limits the coupling of a magnetic field between two locations.
The purpose is most often to prevent magnetic fields from interfering with electrical devices.

Unlike electricity, magnetic fields cannot be blocked or insulated, which makes shielding
necessary. Therefore, magnetic field lines must terminate on the opposite pole. There is no way
to block these field line; nature will find a path to return magnetic field lines back to an opposite
pole. This means that even if a nonmagnetic object – for example, glass – is placed between the
poles of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic field will not change.
Instead of attempting to stop these magnetic field lines, magnetic shielding re-routes them around
an object. This is done by surrounding the device to be shielded with a magnetic material.
Magnetic permeability describes the ability of a material to be magnetized
 141

ELECTROMAGNETS
An electromagnet consists of a current carrying coil wrapped around an iron core.

Strength of the electromagnet can be increased by:

 Increasing the current
 Increasing the number of turns(windings) in the coil

Uses of electromagnets

1. Scrap yard crane

The iron core of the electromagnet is a SOFT magnetic material. When current flows the iron
becomes strongly magnetised and so picks up the scrap iron and steel. When the current is turned
off the iron loses its magnetisation and so releases the scrap.

2. The electric bell

When the push switch is closed, current flows

around the circuit turning on the
electromagnet. The soft iron armature is
pulled towards the electromagnet and the
hammer hits the gong. This causes the
contact switch to open cutting off the electric
current. The spring now pulls the armature
back again closing the contact switch. Current
now flows again and the hammer hits the
gong again
 142

3. The relay switch

A relay switch is a way of using a low voltage circuit to switch remotely a high voltage (and possibly
dangerous) circuit.

When switch is closed, the small

current provided by the cell
causes the electromagnet to
become magnetised. The iron
armature is then attracted to the
electromagnet causing the
springy contact switch to close in
the high voltage circuit.

4. Circuit breaker

Current normally flows between terminals A and B through the contact and the electromagnet.

When the current in a circuit increases, the

strength of the electromagnet will also increase.
This will pull the soft iron armature towards the
electromagnet. As a result, spring 1 pulls apart
the contact and disconnecting the circuit
immediately, and stopping current flow. The reset
button can be pushed to bring the contact back to
its original position to reconnect the circuit.

5. REED SWITCH

When current flows in the coil, the magnetic

field produced magnetises the strips (called
reeds) of magnetic material. The ends become
opposite poles and one reed is attracted to the
other, so completing the circuit connected to
AB.

Permanent magnets and electromagnets

Steel is used in making permanent magnets and iron makes temporary magnets.Uses of
permanent magnets

 Loudspeakers, Electric motors, Dynamos, Voltmeters, Telephone earpiece, Generators

 143

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electric Charge
Static electricity describes the situation when electric charges remain stationary. This occurs best
with insulators. Electric charge can be either positive or negative.
In an atom an electron has a negative charge that is of the same size as the positive charge of a
proton. Neutrons have no electric charge. As an atom has the same number of electrons as
protons it is uncharged.

CHARGING MATERIALS USING FRICTION

When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other they become electrically
charged.
Electrons are rubbed off one material onto the other. The material that gains electrons become
negatively charged. The material that loses electrons is left with an equal positive charge.
NB: Only electrons move.
When an insulator is rubbed with a cloth, electrons can either move from or move to it depending
on the type of the material.
 Polythene and ebonite gain extra electrons when they are rubbed and become negatively
charged.
 Cellulose acetate, perspex and glass have electrons removed when they are rubbed
and become negatively charged.

The symbol for charge is Q. Charge is measured in coulomb (C)

 144

Attraction and repulsion

 Two bodies that carry different types of charge attract.
 Two bodies that carry the same type of charge repel.

THE LAW OF CHARGES:

LIKE CHARGES REPEL, UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT.

TESTING FOR A CHARGE

Repulsion between two objects is a reliable test that they are both charged. Charge can be tested
using a Gold Leaf Electroscope. The electroscope uses repulsion to indicate that something is
charged.

When a charged object is brought close to the metal cap, electrons are either repelled from the
metal cap to the leaf and metal plate or electrons are attracted from the metal plate and leaf to
the metal cap. The metal plate and the leaf will have similar charges and repel each other. When
the object is removed, the leaf falls fully.
 145

a. b.
A charged electroscope can be used to test for the charge of an object.
 If deflection increases, the object will have a charge similar to that of electroscope
 If the deflection reduces or leaf collapses, the charge will be unlike that of the electroscope
When a charged body or object touches the metal cap, its charge will neutralise the charge on
the metal cap, metal rod and the leaf. When the charged body/object is removed, the leaf will
remain raised.
When the leaf is raised and the metal cap touched with a finger or earthed, the electrons will either
move from metal cap to ground or ground to metal cap depending on the charge on the metal
cap.

DISCHARGING
Electric charge in a charged object can be neutralised or reduced when the object comes into
contact with an object which has an opposite charge. Discharging can also be obtained by
earthing the charged objects. Some objects can discharge on their own by ionising the air around
them and reducing the charge to the air.
LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
Lightning is an electric discharge in the form of spark or flash. Before a lightning discharge, charge
will accumulate in clouds as a result of friction between clouds and air molecules. The bottom of
clouds will be negatively charged. The negative charges in the clouds will induce positive charges
on the ground. At a high sufficient potential difference between ground and cloud there is
discharging causing a very large spark to jump between them.
 146

This releases a tremendous amount of energy in the lightning flash, most of which is used to heat
up the atmosphere, producing light and give sound as rumblings of thunder. There is so much
energy dissipated that the air is superheated and explode, we hear this as Thunder.

Stream of positive air

Spikes

Copper strip

Tall building -
Electrons repelled
-
to earth
-
-

Metal plate in ground

Lightning Conductor: used to protect buildings from being stuck by lightning. It is made out of a
thick copper/aluminium rod which connects spikes (sharp metal points) above the building to a
metal plate buried deeply on the ground. When there is lightning, the charge will be conducted
safely down to the ground without damaging the building.

ELECTRIC FIELD
When an electric charge is placed near to another electric charge it experiences a force. The force
acts through space. The region of space where an electric charge experiences a force due to
other charges is called Electric Field.
The direction of the field denoted by arrows is the direction in which a small positive charge placed
in the field would move.
a. Electric field for individual charges

I. Positive charge II. Negative charge

 147

b. Electric field between charges

I. Unlike charges II. Like charges

NB: Point C is called the Neutral Point. No electric force is experienced by a charge placed at
this point
c. Electric field due to charged plates

Force and charge

When a charged object is brought close to an uncharged one the two objects attract each other

Hazards of static electricity

The main danger of static electricity is in situations where a spark can cause a fire or an
explosion. The Buncefield oil depot explosion (opposite) in December 2005 was thought to have
been caused by a spark
Fuel pipe problems: When oil or petrol is pumped along pipes a static charge can build up on
the pipe which could result in a spark. This could cause an explosion when the fuel vapour reacts
with oxygen in the air.
Antistatic floors: In operating theatres it is important that the doctors to do not become statically
charged when walking around. This is because some of the anaesthetic gases used are
explosive. Antistatic material is used for the floor surface so that any charge is conducted to earth.
 148

Uses of static electricity:

1. Paint spraying
The spray nozzle is connected is connected to the positive terminal of an electrostatic generator.
As the paint droplets leave they repel each other and spread out to form a fine cloud of paint.
The metal panel to be painted is connected to the negative terminal. The negatively charged metal
panel attracts the positively charged paint

2. Ink-jet Printer
Spots of ink are given an electric charge
as they leave the ink nozzle. The deflecting
plates cause the drops to hit the right part
of the paper. The charges on the deflecting
plates change many times per second so
that each drop hits the paper in a different
position.
3.

Photocopier

4. Smoke precipitator
An electrostatic precipitator is used to prevent the dust and ash produced by coal fired power
stations from entering the atmosphere. The ash and dust becomes charged as it passes through
 149

the charged grid of wires. The ash and dust is then attracted to the oppositely charged metal
plates. When the plates are shaken the accumulated ash and dust falls down to be collected and
removed

CHARGING CONDUCTOR BY INDUCTION (SEPARATION OF CHARGES)

Insulator

a. P and Q in contact b. charges are induced on P and Q (electrons

from P are repelled to Q

c. P and Q are separated in the

presence of the strip d. Strip is removed, P and Q
acquire opposite charges

CHARGING CONDUCTOR BY EARTHING

1. Obtaining a Positive Charge
 150

a. Metal sphere b. Electrons c. Electrons flow to d. Polythene is

uncharged repelled to the earth by touching removed and sphere
far end of sphere is left positively
charged

2. Obtaining a Negative Charge (Assignment)

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free electrons that are not
bound to atoms and can move relatively freely through the material Materials such as glass,
rubber, and wood fall into the category of electrical insulators. When such materials are charged
by rubbing, only the area rubbed becomes charged, and the charged particles are unable to move
to other regions of the material.
Electrical insulators are materials in which all electrons are bound to atoms and cannot move
freely through the material. Materials such as copper, aluminium, and silver are good electrical
conductors. When such materials are charged in some small region, the charge readily distributes
itself over the entire surface of the material.
If you hold a copper rod in your hand and rub it with wool or fur, it will not attract a small piece of
paper. This might suggest that a metal cannot be charged. However, if you attach a wooden
handle to the rod and then hold it by that handle as you rub the rod, the rod will remain charged
and attract the piece of paper.
 151

ELECTRICITY CURRENT
ELECTRIC SYMBOLS: A circuit diagram uses a standard set of symbols to show how electrical
components are connected together.

SYMBOL MEANING/FUNCTION SYMBOL MEANING/FUNCTION

Cell: required to push Voltmeter: measures voltage
electrons around a in volts(V)
circuit
Battery: consists of Diode: allows current to flow
two or more cells in one direction (indicated by
the arrow)
Conducting wire: Light Emitting
drawn as straight line Diode(LED):A diode that
emits light when it allows the
flow of current
Indicator (often a Light Dependent Resistor
light bulb):used to (LDR): a device whose
whether the circuit is Resistance decreases with
on brightness
Old symbol of an Fixed Resistor.
indicator (lamp) Limit current in a circuit
Wire Junction: Variable resistor
Varies current in a circuit

Thermistor: a device Fuse: is designed to melt and

whose resistance so break an electric current
decreases with when too much current flows
temperature
Heater: device used to Ammeter: measures electric
convert electrical current in amperes(A)
energy to heat energy
Switch: enables the Capacitor; it stores charges
current in a circuit to
turned on or off
Variable resistor: old/ Earth
alternative symbol

Resistor: old/
alternative symbol
 152

ELECTRIC CURRENT:
An electric current occurs when electric charges are moving from one place to another. This
occurs best with conductors.

ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW

Conventional current flow
Electric current flows from the POSITIVE
terminal of a power supply around a circuit to
the NEGATIVE terminal. The longer thinner
line of the symbol for a cell is the positive
terminal

An electric current is the rate of flow of electric

charge. It is defined as the flow of charge per unit time across a conductor.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸)
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑰) = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
Where: Q is charge in coulombs(C)
t is time in seconds(s)
I is current in Amperes(A)

Current is measured in Amperes (A) using an instrument called Ammeter.

An electric current of one ampere (A) flows when a charge of one coulomb (C) passes a point
in an electric circuit in one second In metallic conductors (e.g. copper wire) electrons carry
negative charge from the negative side of a power supply, around a circuit and back into the
positive side.
An electric current will only flow if there is a complete, unbroken electric circuit that contains a
power supply.

EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the charge passing through a device when a current of 500mA flows for 3 minutes.
Q=Ixt
= 500 mA x 3 minutes
= 0.5A x 180s
= 90C
2. Calculate the current flowing when a charge of 240C flows through a device in 80s.
 153

ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT

d. SERIES CIRCUITS
Circuit components are said to be connected in series if the same electric current passes through
each of them in turn. In a series circuit all of the components can be controlled by using just one
switch.

Current: is the same at all points

in the circuit.
That is, I = I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 =
I6

The bulbs will be dimmer.

b. PARALLEL CIRCUITS: For parallel circuit, all of the components can be controlled
individually by using separate switches. In a parallel circuit, the sum of current entering
the junction is equals to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

That is, I = I1 + I2
I The bulbs will be very bright
I
I1 I1

I2
I2

That is, the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate
components
 154

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (Pd), VOLTAGE (V)

A battery gives electrical charge energy. The voltage of a battery is equal to the energy in joules
provided when a charge of one coulomb passes through the battery. The maximum voltage a cell
can produce is called the electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts. When a current is being
supplied, the voltage is lower because of the energy wastage inside the cell. A cell produces its
maximum PD when not in a circuit and not supplying current.

Potential Difference
Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as voltage. Voltage is the amount of energy
the cell gives the electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is measured by a
voltmeter (connected in parallel). If a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each coulomb
of charge (J/C).

𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝑬)
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑽) =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸)
𝑬
𝑽=
𝑸

Where: E is energy in joules (J)

Q is charge in coulombs (C)
V is pd/emf in Volts (V)

1 volt is the same as 1 joule per coulomb

Electrical energy is therefore given by:

𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚(𝑬) = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑽) 𝒙 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸)

𝑬=𝑽𝒙 𝑸
But, 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡, therefore,
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚(𝑬) = 𝑽 𝑰𝒕

EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the voltage of a battery if it supplies 300 joules of energy to 50C of charge.
voltage = energy ÷ charge
= 300 J
50 C
= 6V
2. A charge passes through a point for 50 s in a conductor and the current is 10 A, what is the
potential difference across the conductor if the charges carries 1000 J of energy?
 155

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OR VOLTAGE IN CIRCUITS

b. PD in series circuit

V
V = V1 + V2
Each component shares the Voltage of the
power supply and so adding more bulbs in
series will cause each bulb to become
dimmer.

V2 V1
c. PD in a parallel circuit

V
The voltage across each component connected
in parallel is the same.

V1 The voltmeter reading for component V, will be

the same as the voltmeter reading for component
V1, V2. That is,

V = V1 = V2

V2

In a parallel circuit all of the components can be individually controlled by using separate switches.
Example, if one light bulb blows the other bulbs will still carry on working.
 156

EXAMPLES

1. Calculate the currents measured by ammeters A1, A2 and A3 in the circuit below.

2. What are the advantages of connecting two lamps in parallel rather than in series to a
power supply?

When connected in parallel:

3. the lamps are brighter than when connected in series
4. the lamps can be controlled individually with switches
5. one lamp will continue working even if the other does not
 157

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Resistance: is the opposition that an electrical device has to the flow of electrical current. All
devices have some resistance. A resistor is a device that has a particular resistance.

RESISTOR AND RESISTOR CODES: Resistors have colour coded bands

In the orientation shown the first two bands on the left give digits 2 and 7; the third band gives the
number of noughts (3) and the fourth band gives the resistor’s ‘tolerance’ (or accuracy, here
±10%).
So the resistor has a value of 27 000 Ω (±10%)
 158

COMBINED RESISTANCE
a. Resistance in series

For resistors I series, the total/equivalent resistance is given by the sum of resistors in series.
That is:

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 …………………… for 2 resistors in series

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑………………for 3 resistors

b. Resistance in Parallel

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +…….+
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏

For a given number of resistors, equivalent resistance will be given by:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ….
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5 𝑅𝑛

Example:
𝑅1 𝑅2
R = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ……………………. for two resistors
 159

Exercise
1. What is the equivalent resistance in the circuits below?
a.

c. d.

e. gf.
 160

OHM’S LAW

It states that: The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the (voltage) p.d.
across its ends if the temperature and other conditions are constant.

that is: V α I
Therefore,
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑽) = 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) 𝒙 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑹)
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽)
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑹) =
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰)
𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
Where: Voltage is in volts (V)
Current is in amperes (A)
Resistance is in ohms (Ω)
EXAMPLES

1. Calculate the resistance of a lamp if a voltage of 12V causes a current of 3A to flow through
the lamp.
resistance = voltage
current
resistance = 4 ohms (4Ω)

2. Calculate the resistance of a heater if a voltage of 230V causes a current of 200mA to flow
through the heater.
3. Calculate the voltage across a resistance of 40Ω when a current of 5A is flowing.
4. Calculate the current flowing through a wire of resistance of 8Ω when a voltage of 12V is
connected to the wire.
 161

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY OHM’ S LAW

Apparatus: voltmeter Ammeter
Variable resistor/rheostat Switch
Power supply Connecting wires
Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure below

2. Use the variable resistor to apply a range of voltages across the resistor R
3. For a set of voltage, record the corresponding current.

RESULT
VOLTAGE/V CURRENT/A

4. plot a graph of voltage (V) against current (A)

5. Calculate the gradient of the line of best fit

The current-voltage graph of a wire or a fixed resistor at a constant temperature is a straight line
graph from the origin (0, 0)
 162

The wire or resistor obeys Ohm’s law

which states that:

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE

a. Length of the wire (conductor): if the length of the conductor/wire is increased, the
resistance also increases, resistance is directly proportional to length of conductor

b. Thickness or diameter or area of cross section of the conductor: if the area of cross
section is increased, the resistance of the conductor will decrease

Therefore:

𝑳𝑬𝑵𝑮𝑻𝑯 (𝒍)
R= 𝒙 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝝆)
𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 (𝑨 )

Resistivity quantifies how strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric current. A low
resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electric charge. The SI unit
of resistivity is Ohm metre (Ωm)
c. Temperature: at high temperature resistance decreases because electron has
energy.

Example
1. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire 1.0 km long and 0.50 mm diameter if the
resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10–8 Ω m.
Converting all units to metres, we get
length l = 1.0 km = 1000 m = 103 m
diameter d = 0.50 mm = 0.50 × 10–3 m
If r is the radius of the wire, the cross-sectional area

A = πr2 = π(d/2)2 = (π/4)d2, so

𝐿𝐸𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐻 (𝑙)
R= 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 (𝐴 )
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜌)
= 85 Ω
 163

OHMIC AND NON OHMIC CONDUCTORS

a) Metallic conductors (OHMIC OR LINEAR CONDUCTORS)

Metals give I–V graphs that are a straight line through the origin as long as their temperature is
constant. I is directly proportional to V. Such conductors obey Ohm’s law.

The resistance of an ohmic conductor therefore does not change when

the p.d. does.

b) Semiconductor diode

Current passes when the p.d. is applied in one direction but is almost
zero when it acts in the opposite direction. A diode has a small
resistance when connected one way round but a very large resistance
when the p.d. is reversed. It conducts in one direction only and is a
non-ohmic conductor.

c) Filament lamp

A fi lament lamp is a non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures. For a

fi lament lamp the I–V graph bends over as V and I increase. That is,
the resistance (V/I) increases as I increases and makes the fi lament
hotter.

d) Thermistors (Variation of resistance with temperature)

An increase of temperature increases the resistance of metals but it

decreases the resistance of semiconductors. The resistance of
semiconductor thermistors decreases if their temperature rises, i.e. their
I–V graph bends upwards

e) Light dependent resistors (LDRs): Variation of resistance with light intensity

The resistance of some semiconducting materials decreases when the

intensity of light falling on them increases.
 164

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1. A pd. of 24 V from a battery is applied to the network of resistors in Figure below

a What is the combined resistance of the 6 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in parallel?

b What is the current in the 8 Ω resistor?
c What is the voltage across the parallel network?
d What is the current in the 6 Ω resistor?

2. Fig. 2.1 shows a 12 V battery connected to a number of resistors.

Fig. 2.1
(a) Calculate the current in the 8Ω resistor. [2]

(b) Calculate, for the resistors connected in the circuit, the combined resistance of
(i) the two 5Ω resistors, [1]
(ii) the two 4Ω resistors. [2]

(c) The total current in the two 4Ω resistors is 6 A. [2]

(d) What will be the reading on a voltmeter connected across

(i) the two 4Ω resistors,
(ii) one 5Ω resistor? [2]

(e) The 8Ω resistor is made from a length of resistance wire of uniform cross-sectional area.
State the effect on the resistance of the wire of using

(i) the same length of the same material with a greater cross-sectional area,
(ii) a smaller length of the same material with the same cross-sectional area. [2]
 165

THE HEATING EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

House wiring is made of copper wire and is designed to let electric current flow through it easily.
It is said to have a low resistance. However, the parts of some devices such as the heating
elements of kettles and toasters are designed to have a high resistance. Resistance causes heat
energy to be produced when an electric current flows. The greater the resistance and current the
hotter the heating element may become.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER (P)

The electrical power, P of a device is equal to the rate at which it transforms energy from electrical
to some other form (such as heat).

Electrical energy = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝒗)𝒙 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑰) 𝒙 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)

𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒑) = 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) 𝒙 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝒗)

𝑷=𝑰𝑽
𝑣
But, V = IR, and I= 𝑅

Therefore power cn be expressed as:

𝑽𝟐
P= = I2 R
𝑹

electrical power is measured in watts (W)

energy in joules (J)
time in seconds (s)

also:
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1 000 watts
1 megawatt (MW) = 1 000 000 watts

Electrical power ratings

These are always shown on an electrical device along with voltage and
frequency requirements.
 166

Question 1
Calculate the power of a light bulb that uses 1800 joules of electrical energy in 90 seconds.

electrical power = electrical energy

time
= 1800 J
90 s
electrical power = 20 watts
Question 2
Calculate the energy used in joules by a heater of power 3kW in 1 hour.

electrical power = electrical energy

time
becomes:
electrical energy = power x time
= 3 kW x 1 hour
= 3000 W x 3600 seconds
electrical energy used = 10 800 000 joules (or 10.8 MJ)
Question 1
Calculate the power of a 230V television that draws a current of 2.5A.

electrical power = current × voltage

= 2.5A x 230V
power = 575W

Question 2
Calculate the current drawn by a kettle of power 2kW when connected to the mains 230V power
supply.
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑥𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑃 ÷ 𝑉
= 2kW ÷ 230V
= 2000W ÷ 230V
electric current = 8.7A

1. Calculate the energy used in joules by a 12V car starter motor when drawing a current of 80A
for 3 seconds.
E=IxVxt
= 80A x 12V x 3s
electrical energy used = 2 880J

2. Calculate the energy used in joules by a hairdryer of power 1kW in 1 hour.

𝐸 = 𝐼𝑥𝑉𝑥𝑡
but electrical power 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑥 𝑉
and so: 𝐸 = 𝑃 𝑥 𝑡
= 1 kW x 1 hour
= 1000 W x 3 600 seconds
 167

CALCULATING COST OF ELECTRICITY (Electricity bill)

An electricity meter is used to measure the usage of electrical

energy. The meter measures in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

A kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy used by a device of power

one kilowatt in one hour
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑥𝑡
= 1 kW x 1 hour
= 1000 W x 3600 seconds

electrical energy used = 3 600 000 joules (or 3.6 MJ) = 1 kWh = 1 unit

1 . Calculate kilowatt-hours used from: kilowatt-hours = kilowatts x hours = units

2 . Calculate cost using: Cost = kilowatt-hours x cost per kWh

EXAMPLE
1. Electricity currently costs about 12t per kWh. Calculate the cost of using an electric heater of
power 2kW for 5 hours if each kWh costs 12t.
kilowatt-hours = kilowatts x hours
= 2kW x 5 hours
= 10 kWh(units)
cost = kilowatt-hours x cost per kWh
= 10 kWh x 12t
= 120 t

2. Calculate the cost of using a mobile phone charger power 10W for 6 hours if each kWh costs
12t
No of units = kilowatts x hours
= 10W x 6 hours
= 0.01 kW x 6 hours
= 0.06 kWh
cost = kilowatt-hours x cost per kWh
= 0.06 kWh x 12t
= 0.72 t
 168

MAINS ELECTRICITY

a. Direct current (d.c)

Cells and batteries supply electric current which

always flows in the same direction. This is called direct
current (d.c.).

b. ALTERNATING CURRENT (a.c)

An alternating current (a.c.) is one which is constantly

changing direction. Alternating current constantly changes
direction. The lamp works with a.c. and d.c

The electricity supplied to our homes is called Mains Electricity. It is an alternating current supply.
In Botswana, the current changes direction every 1/100th of a second. This means it completes
a complete cycle of changes every 1/50th of a second. It therefore has a frequency of 50 cycles
per second or 50 hertz (50 Hz

The LIVE and NEUTRAL terminals

One side of the a.c. supply changes constantly between +230V and
– 230V. This terminal is called the LIVE. Touching this terminal
can be fatal!

EARTH

The other terminal remains at about 0V. This terminal is called the
NEUTRAL
 169

Voltage variation of the LIVE terminal

The voltage of the LIVE terminal varies

SINUSOIDALLY between +230V and –
230V taking 1/50th or 0.02 second to
complete one complete cycle.

Electrical cable

Electrical cable consists of:

1. A LIVE wire: with BROWN insulation
2. A NEUTRAL wire: with BLUE insulation and except with some devices
with plastic cases
3. An EARTH wire : with YELLOW-GREEN striped insulation.

These are all surrounded by an outer layer made of rubber or flexible

plastic

The EARTH wire: This is a safety feature.

The earth wire is connected to the metal casing of a device. The other end of this wire is connected
to a metal rod or pipe that goes into the ground below a building. Appliances that have plastic
cases, for example hairdryers, do not need the earth wire connection.

The three pin plug

 170

Materials used in plugs, sockets and wires

BRASS – Hard rigid metal and electrical conductor and used for plug pins and socket terminals
COPPER – Flexible electrical conductor and used for the wires
PLASTIC – Hard rigid electrical insulator and used to make the plug and socket
RUBBER – Soft flexible electrical insulator and used for wire insulation

THE DANGERS OF MAINS ELECTRICITY

The two main dangers of mains electricity are:

1. FIRE: This can be caused by too high a current flowing along cables or through appliances. A
fuse or circuit breaker is used to limit the current to a safe level.

To reduce the risk of fi re through overheated cables, the maximum current in a circuit should
be limited by taking these precautions:

● Use plugs that have the correct fuse.

● Do not attach too many appliances to a circuit.
● Don’t overload circuits by using too many adapters.
● Appliances such as heaters use large amounts of power (and hence current), so do not
connect them to a lighting circuit designed for low current use.

Thick wires have a lower resistance than thin wires so are used in circuits expected to carry
high currents.

Damaged insulation or faulty wiring which leads to a large current flowing to earth through
flammable material can also start a fire.

2. ELECTROCUTION: This can occur when contact is made with the LIVE wire. Death can occur
if a current above about 100mA (0.1A) flows through the body.

The EARTH wire in combination with a fuse or circuit breaker can

prevent electrocution.

 Switch off the electrical supply to an appliance before starting repairs.

 Use plugs that have an earth pin and a cord grip; rubber or plastic case is preferred
 Do not allow appliances or cables to come into contact with water. For example holding
a hairdryer with wet hands in a bathroom can be dangerous. Keep electrical appliances
well away from baths and swimming pools
 Do not have long cables trailing across a room, under a carpet that is walked over
regularly or in other situations where the insulation can become damaged.
 171

In case of an electric shock, take the following action:

1 Switch off the supply if the shocked person is still touching the equipment.
2 Send for qualified medical assistance.
3 If breathing or heartbeat has stopped, commence CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) by
applying chest compressions at the rate of about 100 a minute until there are signs of chest
movement or medical assistance arrives.

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

1. FUSE AND FUSE RATING

A fuse is a length of wire designed to melt and so breaking a circuit when the current passing
through it goes above a certain level.

The thicker the fuse wire the greater is the current required to cause it to melt (or fuse). Fuses are
only supplied with a limited number of ratings.

FUSE RATINGS

The equation:

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒑) 𝑷
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) = = is used to find the fuse rating
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) 𝑰
of a device.

The correct fuse rating is that next above the normal current required by an appliance.

Example:
i. A 5A fuse should be used with a device that needs a current of 3.5A. Fuses of 3A, 5A and 13A
are available. What fuse should be used with a 60W, 230V lamp?
I=P÷V
= 60W ÷ 230V
= 0.26A
Fuse to be used = 3A

Example of fuse ratings

Choices from 3A, 5A and 13A
 172

All of the devices below are 230 V mains appliances

DEVICE AND POWER(W) NORMAL FUSE
CURRENT(A) CHOICE/RATING
Computer, 300W 1.3A 3A
Mivrowave, 900w 3.9A 5A
Charger, 10W 0.04 3A
Heater 2kW 8.7 13A
2990W 13A 13A

2. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that breaks a circuit when the current goes above
a certain value. Current normally flows between terminals A and B through the contact

When the current in a circuit increases, the strength of the electromagnet will also increase. This
will pull the soft iron armature towards the electromagnet. As a result, spring 1 pulls apart the
contact and disconnecting the circuit immediately, and stopping current flow. The reset button can
be pushed to bring the contact back to its original position to reconnect the circuit

Comparison of fuses and circuit breakers

 Both can prevent fire by limiting the current flowing through a cable or appliance.
 Fuses are simple and are cheap to replace.
 Circuit breakers act more quickly than fuses and can be reset.
 173

3. The action of the EARTH wire

Appliances with metal cases such as a
tumble dryer are usually earthed by having
the EARTH wire connected to their metal
case.
Normally current flows to and fro between
the LIVE and NEUTRAL wires through the
heater of the dryer. The metal case is at
zero volts and is safe to touch. If the LIVE
wire became loose inside the dryer it might
touch the metal case.

The metal case would now be dangerous

to touch and could give a fatal electric
shock.

However, the EARTH wire provides a

low resistance path to the ground. A
large current now flows through the fuse and causes it to melt. The dryer’s metal casing is now
isolated from the LIVE connection and is safe to touch.

4. Double insulation

Many electrical appliances have casings made from an insulator such as

plastic rather than metal. The electrical parts of the device cannot therefore
be touched by the user. The appliance is said to have double insulation.
Such appliances will only have two-wire cables as they do not need the
EARTH wire.

HOUSE CIRCUITS
 174

Electricity comes by cable containing is a.c. supply with two wires, the live (L) and the neutral
(N). The neutral is earthed at the local sub-station and so there is no p.d. between it and earth
and the live wire is alternately positive and negative.

a) Circuits in parallel: Every circuit is connected in parallel with the supply. The advantages of
having appliances connected in parallel, rather than in series is that:

(i) The p.d. across each lamp is fixed (at the mains p.d.), so the lamp shines with the same
brightness irrespective of how many other lamps are switched on.

(ii) Each lamp can be turned on and off independently; if one lamp fails, the others can still be
operated.

b) Switches and fuses: These are always in the live wire. If they were in the neutral, light
switches and power sockets would be ‘live’ when switches were ‘off’ or fuses ‘blown’. A fatal
shock could then be obtained by, for example, touching the element of an electric fire when it
was switched off.

c) Staircase circuit: The light is controlled from two places by the two two-way switches.

d) Ring main circuit: The live and neutral wires each run in two complete rings round the
house and the power sockets, each rated at 13 A, are tapped off from them. Thinner wires can
be used since the current to each socket flows by two paths, i.e. from both directions in the ring.
The ring has a 30 A fuse and has many sockets, all can be used so long as the total current
does not exceed 30 A, otherwise the wires overheat.
QUESTIONS

1. Fig. 1.2 shows a circuit.

Fig. 1.2

(i) In the space aside the circuit, draw the circuit using circuit symbols.
[1]
(ii) On your circuit diagram drawn above in (i), add a voltmeter connected to measure the potential
difference across the cell. [1]
(iii) When the switch is pressed so that the contacts join, which of the lamps light up?
[1]
(iv)When there is a current in the circuit, ammeter 1 reads 0.5 A.
What current does ammeter 2 read? [1]
(v) One lamp “blows”, so that its filament breaks. What happens in the circuit?
[1]
 175

2. The lamps in a house are connected in parallel to the mains supply.

(a) On Fig. 2.1, draw three lamps and their switches connected to the mains supply.

(b) Each lamp is labelled 240 V, 30W. Calculate the current in one lamp when it is operating
correctly.
(c) State the current from the mains supply when the three lamps are switched on.
[1]

3. Fig. 3.1 shows a circuit in which a voltmeter is placed across a resistor.

Fig. 3.1
The potential difference across the 12 Ω resistor is 4.0 V.
The voltmeter has three different ranges: 0 to 3.0 V, 0 to 6.0 V and 0 to 30 V. The best range
for use in this circuit is 0 to 6.0 V.
(a) Explain why
(i) using the voltmeter on the range 0 to 3.0 V is unsuitable,
(ii) using the voltmeter on the range 0 to 30 V is unsuitable. [2]
(b) (i) Calculate the current in the 12 Ω resistor. State the formula that you use.
(ii) Calculate the p.d. between A and B in Fig. 3.1. [4]

4. Fig. 4.1 shows a mains extension lead. The six sockets allow several electrical appliances to
be connected to the mains supply through one cable.

Fig. 4.1
(a) The cable connects the sockets to the mains supply.
The cable contains three wires: live, neutral and earth. State the colour and what
is meant by
(i) live
 176

(ii) neutral
(iii) earth. [3]

(b) Six powerful lamps are plugged into the sockets and switched on, one by one.
(i) State what happens in the cable as the lamps are switched on, one by one.
[1]
(ii) Describe why it can be dangerous when a fuse of the wrong value is used in the plug.
(c) Explain why your hands should be dry when you put a plug into a socket.

5. A 3 ohm resistor, an unknown resistor, R, and two ammeters, A1 and A2, are connected as
shown below with a 12 volt source. Ammeter A2 reads a current of 5.0 amperes.

a. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown.

b. Calculate the current measured by ammeter A1 in the diagram shown.
c. Calculate the resistance of the unknown resistor, R in the diagram shown.

6. The load across a 50 V battery consists of a series combination of two lamps with resistances
of 125  and 225.
a. Find the total resistance of the circuit.
b. Find the current in the circuit.

c. Find the potential difference across the 125amp.

7. The load across a 12V battery consists of a series combination of three resistances are 15,
21, and 24, respectively.
a. Draw the circuit diagram.
b. What is the total resistance of the load?
c. What is the magnitude of the circuit current?
8. The load across a 40-V battery consists of a series combination of three resistances R1, R2,
and R3. R1 is 240  and R3 is 120. The potential difference across R1 is 24 V.
a. Find the current in the circuit.
b. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
c. Find the resistance of R2.
 177

9. The load across a 12V battery consists of a series combination of three resistances R1, R2,
and R3. R1 is 210, R2 is 350, and R3 is 120.
a. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. Find the current in the circuit.
c. Find the potential difference across R3.

10. Two resistances, one 12  and the other 18, are connected in parallel. What is the
equivalent resistance of the parallel combination?

11. Three resistances of 12  each are connected in parallel. What is the equivalent
resistance?

12. Two resistances, one 62  and the other 88, are connected in parallel. The resistors are
then connected to a 12V battery.
a. What is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination?
b. What is the current through each resistor?

13. A 110V household circuit that contains an 1800 W microwave, a 1000 W toaster, and an
800 W coffeemaker is connected to a 20 A fuse. Determine the current. Will the fuse melt if the
microwave and the coffeemaker are both on?

14. A 35, 55, and 85 resistor are connected in parallel. The resistors are then connected to
a 35 V battery.
a. What is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination?
b. What is the current through each resistor?

15. Resistors R1, R2, and R3 have resistances of 15.0, 9.0, and 8.0  respectively. R1 and R2
are connected in series, and their combination is in parallel with R3 to form a load across a 6.0-V
battery.
a. Draw the circuit diagram.
b. What is the total resistance of the load?
c. What is the current in R3?
d. What is the potential difference across R2?
 178

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

If an electrical conductor cuts through magnetic field lines, a voltage is induced across the ends
of the conductor. If the wire is part of a complete circuit, a current is induced in the wire. This is
called electromagnetic induction and is sometimes called the generator effect.
An induced EMF can be made in several ways:
1. If a wire is passed across a magnetic field

A small EMF is induced, this is

electromagnetic induction. If the wire forms
part of a complete circuit, the EMF makes a
current flow. This can be detected using a
galvanometer. The EMF induced in a
conductor is proportional to the rate at which
the magnetic field lines are cut by the
conductor.

The induced EMF can be increased by:

 moving the wire faster
 using a stronger magnet
 Increasing the length of wire in the magnetic field – for example, looping the wire through
the field several times.

The current and EMF direction can be reversed by:

 moving the wire in the opposite direction
 turning the magnet round so that the field direction is reversed

The current direction is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule:

 179

2. A bar magnet is pushed into a coil. If the coil is part of a circuit, a current will flow;

a) magnet into coil b) magnet moved out of coil

LENZ LAW: An induced current always flows in a direction such that it opposes the change which
produced it. When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of the coil and magnet next to each
other are the same. When the magnet is moved away the poles are opposite (opposite poles
attract). The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the direction in which the current is induced.
The direction of the current is given by the right-hand grip rule:
The fingers point in the conventional current direction and the
thumb gives the North Pole.

The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:

 moving the magnet faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the number of turns in the coil

NOTE:
-If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the induced EMF (and current) is reversed
-using the S pole instead of the N pole reverses the direction of the induced EMF (and current)
-if the magnet is held still, there is no EMF
 180

Bicycle generator

When the wheel turns the magnet is made to rotate next to the
fixed coil of wire. Electromagnetic induction occurs and an
alternating voltage is induced in the coil. This causes an
alternating current to flow to the light bulb of the bicycle.

A.C. GENERATOR

The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is rotated by turning the shaft. The slip rings are
fixed to the coil and rotate with it. The brushes are in contacts which rub against the slip rings and
keep the coil connected to the outside part of the circuit, usually made of carbon.

When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an EMF is generated, which makes a
current flow.

Each side of the coil travels upwards then downwards then upwards etc. so the current flow
backwards then forwards then backwards etc. so it is an alternating current. The current is
 181

maximum when the coil is horizontal since field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and 0 when
the coil is vertical, since it is cutting NO field lines.

 Slip rings are attached to the armature and rotate with it.
 Carbon brushes ride against the slip rings to conduct current from the armature to a
resistive load.
The EMF can be increased by:
- Increasing the number of turns on the coil - increasing the area of the coil
- Using a stronger magnet - rotating the coil faster

EXERCISE
1. Fig. 1.1 shows the construction of a simple a.c. generator. When the coil is rotated an e.m.f.
is induced in the coil.

Fig. 1.1
(a) Explain why an e.m.f. is induced.
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [2]
 182

(b) State the purpose of the slip rings.

.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [1]
(c) The direction of the current in the coil can be found from Lenz’s law.
State Lenz’s law.
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [1]
(d) The induced e.m.f. can be increased by rotating the coil faster. State one other way in
which the e.m.f. can be increased.
.........................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................... [1]

2. A student holds a magnet above a solenoid, which is connected to a centre-zero milli

ammeter as shown Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1

(a) The student drops the magnet so that it falls through the solenoid.
State and explain what would be observed on the milliammeter
(i) as the magnet enters the solenoid,
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) as the magnet speeds up inside the solenoid.

.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) As the magnet passes into the coil in part (a), the coil exerts a force on the magnet even
though there is no contact between them.
(i) State the direction of this force.
………………..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain how this force is caused.
 183

ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
Mutual induction
When the current in a coil is switched on or off or changed, a voltage is induced in a neighbouring
coil. The effect, called mutual induction, is an example of electromagnetic induction

THE TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that is used to change one alternating voltage level to another

Structure of a transformer
A transformer consists of at least two coils of wire wrapped around a laminated iron core.

How a transformer works

When an alternating voltage, Vp is applied to the primary coil of Np turns it causes an alternating
to flow in this coil. This current causes a changing magnetic field in the laminated iron core which
cuts across the secondary coil of Ns turns. Electromagnetic induction occurs in this coil which
produces an alternating voltage, Vs.
 184

Why can a transformer not change the level of the voltage output of a battery?
A battery produces a steady (DC) voltage.
This voltage would cause a constant direct current in the primary coil of a transformer. This current
would produce an unchanging magnetic field in the iron core. This unchanging magnetic field
would NOT cause electromagnetic induction in the secondary coil. There would therefore be no
secondary voltage.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

a. STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS: In a step-up transformer the voltage across the secondary coil
is greater than the voltage across the primary coil. The secondary turns must be greater than
the primary turns.
Ns > 𝑵𝒑
Vs > 𝑽𝒑
Use: To increase the voltage output from a power station from 25 kV (25 000 V) to up to 400 kV.

b. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS: In a step-down transformer the voltage across the

secondary coil is smaller than the voltage across the primary coil. The secondary turns must be
smaller than the primary turns.
Ns < 𝑵𝒑
Vs < 𝑽𝒑
Use: To decrease the voltage output from the mains supply from 230V to 18V to power and
recharge a lap-top computer.

THE TRANSFORMER EQUATION

The voltages or potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer are
related by the equation:

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑵𝒐. 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚

=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑵𝒐. 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚

𝑽𝒑 𝑵𝒑
=
𝑽𝒔 𝑵𝒔
𝑁𝑝
Is referred to as turns ratio
𝑁𝑠

Only voltage is stepped not current!

 185

EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the secondary voltage of a transformer that has a primary coil of 1200 turns and a
secondary of 150 turns if the primary is supplied with 230V.
𝑽𝒑 𝑵𝒑
𝑽𝒔
= 𝑵𝒔
230 1200
=
𝑉𝑠 150
230 / 8 = Vs
= 28.8 V

2. Calculate the number of turns required for the primary coil of a transformer if secondary has
400 turns and the primary voltage is stepped up from 12V to a secondary voltage of 48V.

TRANSFORMER POWER TRANSFER EQUATION

If a transformer is (ideal) 100% efficient then the power input to the primary coil is equalled by the
power output from the secondary coil.

𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒙 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

then: conserving energy/power
power output = power input
𝑰𝒑 𝒙 𝑽𝒑 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒙 𝑽𝒔

Examples
1. Calculate the primary current if when a transformer is supplied with 230V the secondary
provides 4A at a voltage of 13V. Assume that the transformer is 100% efficient.
𝐈𝐩 𝐱 𝐕𝐩 = 𝐈𝐬 𝐱 𝐕𝐬
Ip x 230V = 4A x 13V
Ip = 52 / 230 = 0.226 A

2. Calculate the primary current if when a transformer is supplied with 230V the secondary
provides 4A at a voltage of 13V. Assume that the transformer is 100% efficient.
𝑰𝒑 𝒙 𝑽𝒑 = 𝐈𝐬 𝐱 𝐕𝐬
Ip x 230V = 4A x 13V
Ip = 52 / 230
 186

For ideal transformer if the PD is doubled the current is halved. In real transformer, it is more than
halved due to small energy losses in the transformer arising from the following three causes.

a. Resistance of winding: The winding of the copper have some resistance and heat and
therefore it loses some power from primary coil. Large transformer has to be oil-cooled to
prevent overhearing.
b. Eddy current: The changing magnetic flux in the iron core of a transformer above will
induce an emf, not only in the primary and secondary coils, but also in the iron core. The
iron core is a good conductor and due to induce emf in iron core, the currents also induced.
This current is called eddy currents in a direction which, by Lenz's law, acts to weaken the
flux created by the primary coil. The presence of eddy currents in the core create heating
effect which results in loss of power.
c. Leakage of magnetic field lines: All the magnetic field lines produced by primary may
not cut the secondary, especially if the core has air gaps or is badly designed.

TRANSFORMERS AND THE NATIONAL GRID

The National Grid is the system of cables used to deliver electrical power from power stations to
consumers at higher voltage and low current. Lower voltages result in higher electric currents
and greater energy loss to heat due to the resistance of the cables. The advantages of high-
voltage transmission: less power lost and thinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since
current is reduced

At power stations the output voltage of the generators is stepped up by transformers from 25kV
to 132kV. The voltage may be further increased to up to 400 kV for transmission over long
distance pylon lines.

The voltage is reduced in stages by step-down transformers to different levels for different types
of consumer. The lowest level is 230V for domestic use. The final step-down transformer will be
at substation within a few hundred metres of each group of houses.
Why is electrical energy transmitted over the National Grid in the form of alternating
current?
 To maximise efficiency high voltages must be used.
 Voltage therefore needs to be changed in level.
 Transformers are needed to change voltage levels.
 Transformers only work with alternating current.
 187

EXERCISE
1. A transformer has an output of 24 V when supplying a current of 2.0 A. The current in the
primary coil is 0.40 A and the transformer is 100% efficient.

(a) Calculate
(i) the power output of the transformer,

power = ................................[2]
(ii) the voltage applied across the primary coil.

voltage = ...............................[2]

(b) Explain
(i) what is meant by the statement that the transformer is 100% efficient,
....................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) how the transformer changes an input voltage into a different output voltage.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................[4]

2. The transformer in Fig. 2.1 is being used in an attempt to light a lamp using a 120 V a.c. mains
supply. The lamp is designed for use in a country where the mains supply is 240 V a.c.

Fig. 2.1
a. Calculate the voltage across the lamp in this arrangement.

voltage = .............................................. V [3]

b. Comment on the brightness of the lamp in this arrangement

.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................[2]
 188

c. The transformer is reversed, so that the 300 turn coil is connected to the 120 V a.c.
supply and the 150 turn coil is connected to the lamp.
Comment on the brightness of the lamp in this arrangement. Explain your answer.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................ [2]

3. In the National Grid system of electrical energy transmission, a transformer links the
power station to the transmission cables, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.2
(i) Why is a transformer used here?
....................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) How is power transmitted in the national grid system and why?
....................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................... [1]
4. The diagram shows a transformer with an alternating voltage of 100 V applied to the
primary coil. What is the voltage produced across the secondary coil?

voltage……………………..[2]
 189

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT: THE

MOTOR EFFECT
Oersted’s discovery

In 1819 Oersted accidentally discovered the magnetic effect of an electric current. His experiment
can be repeated by holding a wire over and parallel to a compass needle that is pointing N and
S.

The needle moves when the current is switched on. Reversing the current causes the needle to
move in the opposite direction.

Evidently around a wire carrying a current there is a magnetic field. As with the field due to a
permanent magnet, we represent the field due to a current by field lines or lines of force. Arrows
on the lines show the direction of the field, i.e. the direction in which a N pole points.

FIELD PATTERNS
a. Field due to one straight wire
If a straight vertical wire passes through the centre of a piece of card held horizontally and there
is a current in the wire iron fillings sprinkled on the card settle in concentric circles when the
card is gently tapped.
 190

Plotting compasses placed on the card

settle along the field lines and show the
direction of the field at different points.

The field will be in concentric circles

When the current direction is reversed,

the compasses point in the opposite
direction showing that the direction of
the field reverses when the current
reverses.

If the current direction is known, the direction of the

field can be predicted by the right-hand screw rule:
If a right-handed screw moves forwards in the
direction of the current (conventional), the direction of
rotation of the screw gives the direction of the field.

b. Magnetic Field between to two current carrying straight wire/conductors

i. Current into page x

Current out of page
 191

ii.

Attraction repulsion

c. Magnetic Field due to a circular coil

At the centre of the coil the field lines are

straight and at right angles to the plane of the
coil. The right-hand screw rule again gives the
direction of the field at any point.

d. Magnetic Field due to a solenoid

1. Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

2. Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the strength.
3. Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic field direction (right-hand rule).
 192

FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic

field, it warps the field lines. The field lines from
the magnet want to straighten out naturally.
The wire will experience a force provided that
the conductor is not placed parallel to the field
lines. This is called the Motor Effect.

This causes a catapult like action on the wire

creating a force. The direction of the force, current or
magnetic field is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule:

The direction of the force can be determined by Fleming’s left-hand motor rule
 193

Hold the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand at right angles to each other with the First
finger pointing in the direction of the Field and the seCond finger in the direction of the Current,
then the Thumb points in the direction of the Thrust.

Note: Magnetic field direction is from NORTH to SOUTH. Current direction is from PLUS to
MINUS
The force increases if:
 the strength of the magnetic field is increased
 the current is increased

NB: if you reverse the current, you will reverse the direction of the force and if you reverse the
direction of the field, you will reverse the direction of the force

D.C. MOTOR

When a current-carrying coil is in a

magnetic field, it experiences a
turning effect.
A DC motor runs on a direct current.
The coil is made of insulated copper
wire. It is free to rotate between the
poles of the magnet. The
commutator, or split-ring, is fixed to
the coil and rotates with it. When the
coil overshoots the vertical, the
commutator changes the direction
of the current through it, so the
forces change direction and keep
the coil turning.

The brushes are two contacts which rub against the commutator and keep the coil connected to
the battery. They are usually made of carbon. The maximum turning effect if when the coil is
horizontal. There is no force when the coil is vertical (but luckily it always overshoots this position).
The turning effect can be increased by:
-increasing the current
-using a stronger magnet
-increasing the number of coils (increases the length of coil)
-increasing the area of the coil (increases the length of coil)

•Reversing the rotation can be done by:

-reversing the battery
-reversing the poles
 194

This equation isn’t needed but is useful for remembering the ways to increase the turning effect:
Force exerted on wire = magnetic field strength × current × length of wire

1. THE LOUDSPEAKER
Alternating currents corresponding to the required sounds are fed via leads into the voice coil
from the amplifier in ratio set. The voice call now carries alternating current in a magnetic field
and hence experience back and forth motion
The sound signal consists of an
alternating current supplied by
the amplifier. This current flows
through the coil of the
loudspeaker. Due to the motor
effect, the magnetic field
around the coil causes the coil
to vibrate in step with the
alternating current.

The coil causes the diaphragm

(speaker cone) to vibrate in
step with the original sound
signal. The diaphragm causes
air to vibrate and so produces a
sound wave.
2. MOVING-COIL GALVANOMETER

A galvanometer detects small currents or small pd, often of the order of milliamperes (mA) or
millivolts (mV).
In the moving-coil pointer-type meter, a coil is pivoted between the poles of a permanent
magnet.

Current enters and leaves the coil by

hair springs above and below it.
When there is a current, a force acts
on the coil, causing it to rotate until
stopped by the springs. The greater
the current, the greater the deflection
which is shown by a pointer attached
to the coil.
 195

EXERCISE
1. Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2 show two views of a vertical wire carrying a current up through a
horizontal card. Points P and Q are marked on the card.

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2

(a) On Fig. 1.1,

(i) draw a complete magnetic field line (line of force) through P and indicate its
direction with an arrow,
(ii) draw an arrow through Q to indicate the direction in which a compass placed at Q
would point. [3]

(b) State the effect on the direction in which compass Q points of

(i) increasing the current in the wire,
...........................................................................................................................................
(ii) reversing the direction of the current in the wire.
........................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) Fig. 1.3 shows the view from above of another vertical wire carrying a current up through a
horizontal card. A cm grid is marked on the card. Point W is 1 cm vertically above the top
surface of the card.

Fig. 1.3
State the magnetic field strength at S, T and W in terms of the magnetic field strength
at R. Use one of the alternatives, weaker, same strength or stronger for each answer.
at S ........................................................................
at T ........................................................................
at W........................................................................ [3]
 196

2. Fig. 3.1 shows a vertical wire through a horizontal piece of card. There is a current down the
wire.

Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.2 shows the wire and card, viewed from above.

Fig. 3.2
The large circle is one of the magnetic field lines caused by the current.
On Fig. 3.2,
(a) show the direction of the magnetic field, [1]
(b) carefully draw three more magnetic field lines. [2]
 197

4. Fig. 4.1 shows a long straight wire between the poles of a permanent magnet. It is connected
through a switch to a battery so that, when the switch is closed, there is a steady current in the
wire.

Fig. 4.1
(a) State the direction of the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet.
............................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) The wire is free to move. The current is switched on so that its direction is into the page.
(i) State the direction of movement of the wire.
....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) Explain how you reached your answer to (b) (i).
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................[4]

(c) This experiment is the basis of an electric motor.

Describe two changes to the arrangement shown in Fig. 4.1 that would enable continuous
rotation to take place.

change 1
....................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
change 2
....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................[2]
 198

PRODUCTION AND DETECTION OF

CATHODE RAYS
Thermionic Emission: Thermionic emission refers to the emission of electrons when a metal
is heated to a high temperature.
When the metal is heated, the electrons within it gain enough kinetic energy to escape from the
inward pull of the positive nuclei at the surface.
Hence the number of electrons emitted from the surface increases sharply with increase in
temperature of the metal.
Figure below shows the cross-section of a simple thermionic diode tube.

Here electrons are emitted from the tungsten filament, which is heated to a high temperature
using a low voltage current (either A.C. or D.C. since both have a heating effect).
The metal filament is also called the cathode and hence the emitted electrons are also called
cathode rays.
 They are a stream or beam of electrons moving at a high speed.
 They are affected by a magnetic field. The direction in which an electron beam moves or
deflects is given by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
 They are affected by an electric field
 They cause fluorescence (luminous or glowing). If they are allowed to fall on a coated
screen, the screen glows
 They have less mass
 199

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

Cathode rays are thermionic emissions – if a metal or metal oxide filament is heated (to about
2000°C for tungsten), electrons can escape it. So a thermionic emission is made of electrons.
The hot conductor is the cathode (-). The other electrode is the anode (+). When the filament
(cathode) is heated, current flows to the anode. This happens in a vacuum tube (in air the
electrons would collide with air particles and the filament would burn). A vacuum tube is also
called a thermionic diode, as the electrons can only pass one way. The current can be detected
with a milliammeter.
•There is a bright spot on the fluorescent screen where the beam of electrons hits it. If you deflect
the beam, the spot can be moved. If the spot moves fast enough, it appears to be a line. The
beam is deflected using 2 sets of deflection plates:
•Y-plates move the beam vertically. The amount of vertical movement can be increased by
turning up the gain control. (A gain control of 5V/cm means the spot is deflected 1cm vertically for
every 5 volts across the Y-input terminals).
 direct current moves the position of the spot
 alternating current makes the spot oscillate vertically

•X-plates move the beam horizontally, controlled by a circuit called a timebase.

 if the timebase is on, the spot moves horizontally with a steady speed
 If the timebase is on and there is AC voltage across the Y-plates, then the spot oscillates
vertically and moves horizontally at steady speed. If the timebase is set at 10ms/cm that
means it takes 10 milliseconds to move a cm horizontally.
 200

USES OF CRO
1. Measuring voltage
2. Measuring frequency using an oscilloscope
3. Studying waveforms

Period = peak-to-peak distance × timebase control (basically time = distance × speed)

The time taken between peaks on an oscilloscope trace is equal to the time period, T of the sound
wave.
frequency = 1 / period
𝑓 = 1/𝑇
Example 1: The distance between peaks on an oscilloscope trace is 4cm. If the oscilloscope time
scale is set at 1ms/cm calculate the frequency of the sound. 1ms/cm means that the trace covers
1cm in one millisecond (0.001s)

time period, T = 4cm x 1ms/cm

= 4ms (0.004s)
f=1/T
f = 1 / 0.004
frequency = 250Hz

4. In television set
A TV set is a CRO with two time base. One moves the spot across the screen and the other
moves it vertical. The signal varies the brightness of the spot so that a picture is built up of
bright and dark spots. In a color TV there are three electron guns. These build a colored
picture using primary colors: red, green and blue.
 201

EXERCISE

1. Fig. below shows a simplified diagram of the front of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.).

(a) When the oscilloscope is switched on, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the screen.
(i) Describe what causes this bright spot.
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................[3]
(ii) The spot is rather blurred. Which control should be adjusted to make it sharper?
.................................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iii) Which control would be switched on to turn the spot into a horizontal line?
.................................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iv) Describe what happens inside the oscilloscope to turn the spot into a horizontal line.
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................[3]
(b) You have an alternating p.d. whose waveform you wish to display on the screen.
(i) Where would you connect this alternating p.d. to the oscilloscope?
……………..................................................................................................................................[1]
 202

Electronic systems
Any electronic system can be considered to consist of the three parts shown in the block diagram
of:

(i) An input sensor or input transducer,

(ii) A processor and
(iii) An output transducer

A transducer is a device for converting a non-electrical input into an electrical signal or vice versa.

The input sensor detects changes in the environment and converts them from their present form
of energy into electrical energy. Input sensors or transducers include LDRs (light dependent
resistors), thermistors, microphones and switches that respond, for instance, to pressure
changes.

The processor decides on what action to take on the electrical signal it receives from the input
sensor. It may involve an operation such as counting, amplifying, timing or storing.

The output transducer converts the electrical energy supplied by the processor into another
form. Output transducers include lamps, LEDs (light emitting diodes), loudspeakers, motors,
heaters, relays and cathode ray tubes.

ACTION AND USE OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

A. A POTENTIAL DIVIDER divides the voltage into smaller parts. To find the voltage (at Vout).
we use the following formula:

Vout = Vin x ( R2 / Rtotal )

A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the same as the one above but using a variable
resistor; it acts like a potential divider, but you can change the output voltage
 203

B. THERMISTOR. A thermistor is a heat sensor (resistor) which changes its resistance with the
change of temperature (heat) around it. Its resistance decreases as the temperature
increases which is reverse to the normal conductor.

SYMBOL:

Examples:

When the thermistor is heated, its resistance decreases

allowing current to flow and lamp lights.

The thermistor forms part of a potential divider across the

d.c. source. When the temperature rises, the resistance of
the thermistor falls, and so does the p.d. across it. The
voltage across resistor R and the relay increases. When the
voltage across the relay reaches its operating p.d. the
normally open contacts close, so that the circuit to the bell
is completed and it rings. If a variable resistor is used in the
circuit, the temperature at which the alarm sounds can be
varied.

C. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR): input sensor and a transducer. When light intensity
increases, resistance decreases.

SYMBOL:

Examples:

When light from a lamp falls on the ‘window’ of the LDR, its
resistance decreases and the light the lamp.
 204

When light falls on the LDR, the resistance of the LDR, and
hence the voltage across it, decreases. There is a
corresponding increase in the voltage across resistor R and
the relay;
At the lowest possible resistance current will pass through it
and it acts as a switch and the normally open contacts close,
allowing current to flow to the bell, which rings. If the light is
removed, the p.d. across resistor R and the relay drops
below the operating p.d. of the relay so that the relay
contacts open again; power to the bell is cut and it stops
ringing

D. CAPACITOR: store small amounts of electric charge.

When the terminals of a capacitor are connected with the battery the capacitor becomes
charged and stored energy. When the two terminals short circuited, the capacitor
discharged. If a capacitor has a higher capacitance (in μF, microfarads) means they can
store more charge. They are used in time-delay circuits.

Charging discharging

When the switch is at position1, the capacitor will charge (accumulate charge) to a pd equivalent
to power supply. When the switch is open to position 2 the charged capacitor will discharge
slowly.
 205

The larger the values of R and C the longer it takes for the capacitor to charge or discharge; the
direction of the deflection of the centrezero milliammeter reverses for each process.
E. DIODE: a device that has an extremely high resistance in one direction and a low
resistance in the other, therefore it effectively only allows current to flow in 1 direction (the
arrow on it is pointing in the conventional current direction). Diodes work when the PD
exceeds 0.6V

SYMBOL:

It can be connected in two ways: forward or reverse biased

Cathode
Anode

Forward bias is when the diode is pointing in the direction of the conventional current (with
the cathode C connected to the negative terminal of the voltage supply) and reverse bias is
the opposite (blocks current)

Forward bias reverse bias

Example:
It can be used in a rectifier. A rectifier turns AC current into DC current.

F. RELAY: a switch operated by an electromagnet. An electrically operated switch, for example

a 9V battery circuit connected to the coil can switch a 230V AC mains circuit. A small current
flows to the relay which closes the mains switch; the relay also isolates the low voltage circuit
from the high voltage mains supply.

SYMBOL:
 206

Example:

How does the circuit work?

G. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED):

When forward biased (with the cathode C connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
supply), the current in it makes it emit red, yellow or green light. No light is emitted on reverse
bias (when the anode A is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage supply).

SYMBOL:
*The circle is optional

If the reverse bias voltage exceeds 5 V, it may cause damage.

In use an LED must have a suitable resistor R in series with it to limit

the current ( about 10 mA).
LEDs are used as indicator lamps on computers, radios and other
electronic equipment.

Many clocks, calculators, video recorders and measuring instruments have seven-segment red
or green numerical displays. LEDs are small, reliable and have a long life; their operating speed
is high and their current requirements are very low.
 207

RADIOACTIVITY
Atomic structure:

An atom consists of a small central nucleus composed of protons

and neutrons surrounded by electrons. An atom will always have
the same number of electrons as protons.

Atomic and Mass Number

The atomic number (A) (or proton number) of an atom is equal to the number of protons in its
nucleus.

The mass number (Z) (or nucleon number) of an atom is equal to the number of protons plus
neutrons in its nucleus.

Isotopes:
Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons. Nuclides with same Z but different A are the isotopes.

Radioactive isotopes are termedradioisotopes or radio nuclides, their nuclei are unstable.
Isotopes have same chemical properties since they have same number of electrons and occupy
the same place in periodic table. In Greek the ‘isos’ means same and ‘topos’ means place.

Hydrogen has three isotopes:

One with one proton 11𝐻 , dutreium 21𝐻 one proton and one neutron, and 31𝑇 tritium has one
proton and two neutrons. Each form of element is called nuclide.

Radioactivity or radioactive decay: It is the spontaneous process in which certain unstable

atomic nuclei (plural of nucleus) emit radiations to become stable.

The elements that emit radiations are called radioactive materials. The common examples of
radioactive materials are uranium (U), radium (Ra), polonium (Po), thorium (Th), Radon (Rn) etc.

Radioactivity is a random process; it means that in a radioactive sample one cannot predict
which atomic nucleus is going to emit radiation at any particular time, but the probability of
emission is constant.
 208

Radioactivity is spontaneous; it means that it does not depend on the environmental

conditions.
Radioactive emission is same at all temperature and pressure. Radioactivity cannot be speed
up or slow down by any scientific method.

Background radiation: is the low intensity radiation present in the earth’s atmosphere. These
are low level radiations that our body can tolerate. The sources of these radiations are:

 Radon gas accounts for about 50% of natural background radiation

 Cosmic rays are a form of natural background radiation produced by the nuclear reactions
occurring in stars and exploding stars called supernovae.
 Internal radiation is background radiation due to radioactive sources present inside our
bodies.
 Artificial radiation is background radiation due to man-made events or procedures
 Some is to due leakage and accidents associated with the generation of electricity using
nuclear energy. Some is due to fall-out from nuclear weapon testing.

When detecting and measuring the radiation from a radioactive source it is important to subtract
the background radiations for the counter readings.

TYPES OF RADIATION

There are three types of radiations:

 alpha particles,
 beta particles
 gamma radiations

A. ALPHA RADIATION (α or He):

In an alpha-radiation the unstable parent nucleus 𝑨𝒁𝑿 decays into stable nucleus by emitting alpha
particle. Alpha particle is a helium nucleus and which has two protons and two neutrons. The
parent unstable nucleus 𝑨𝒁𝑿 changes into 𝑨−𝟐
𝒁−𝟒
𝒀 daughter nucleus.

𝒁
𝑨
𝑿 𝒁−𝟒
𝑨−𝟐𝑿 + 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

(A is the mass number and Z is the proton number)

Example 1: when a radium (Ra) nucleus of mass number 226 and proton number 88 emits α-
particles, it decays into radon nucleus (Rn) of mass number of 222 and proton number of 86.
The nuclear equation that follows is:

𝟐𝟐𝟔
𝟖𝟖
𝑹𝒂 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 + 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
 209

Example 2: plutonium - 240 decays into uranium - 236 by emitting alpha particle.

𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟗𝟒
𝑹𝒂 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝑹𝒏 + 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

The value of A and Z must be balance on both sides of the equation.

B. BETA RADIATION (β or e):

In beta radiation, a neutron in the parent nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 changes to proton and electron. The
electron escapes out in the form of beta-particle and proton joins with the other protons in the
nucleus.

𝑍 0
𝑍
𝑿 𝑨
𝒁+𝟏𝑵 + −1
𝛃 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Example 1: Radioactive carbon -14 (C), decays by emitting β- particle and changes into
nitrogen -14 (N).

14 0
6
𝑪 𝟏𝟒
𝟕𝑵 + −1
𝛃 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Example 2: Radioactive caesium -137 (Cs), decays by emitting β- particle and changes into
barium - 137 (Ba).

137 0
55
𝑪𝒔 𝟏𝟑𝟕
𝟓𝟓 𝑩𝒂 + −1
𝛃 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

C. GAMMA RADIATION (γ):

The gamma radiation represents simple loss of energy from the nucleus. Gamma rays are very
high frequency electromagnetic waves.The gamma rays are released when an atomic nucleus
releases its excess energy. Emission of γ-rays does not change the mass number or atomic
number. If a nucleus is in exited state it can come to stable state by emitting a γ radiation.

𝑍
𝐴
𝑿 𝒁
𝑨𝑿 + 0
0
𝛄 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
 210

Decay type Atomic number Mass number

Alpha Down by 2 Sown by 4
Beta Up by 1 No change
gamma No change No change

Properties of radiations:
The three types of radiations have following distinct properties.
Alpha Particles (α) Beta Particles (β) Gamma Rays (γ)
Nature helium ion or helium high energy electrons high energy
nucleus made up of two emitted from the electromagnetic
protons and two neutrons nucleus radiation

Charge +2 -1 no charge
Mass 4 units 1/1836 units no mass
Ionization highest ionization effect much less ionization least ionization effect
effect due to frequent collision effect than alpha rays
in gases with gas molecules
Penetration stopped by the sheet of range of few millimetres Very high penetration
effect paper and have range of in aluminium and effect, can only be
few millimetre in air several meters in air stopped by thick
sheet of lead.
Deflection deflected by electric and deflected by electric and not deflected by
magnetic fields magnetic fields electric or magnetic
fields

PENETRATION POWER

Deflection by electric and magnetic fields

Alpha and beta particles are deflected in opposite directions due to their opposite charges. Due
to their much larger mass alpha particles are deflected far less than beta. Gamma rays are not
deflected because they are not charged. Gamma rays are not deflected because they are not
charged.

b. Deflection by magnetic fields b. Deflection in electric fields

 211

Deflection in magnetic fields: The deflections are found from Fleming’s left hand rule, taking
negative charge moving to the right as equivalent to positive (conventional) current to the left.

DETECTING RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity can be detected using ionising effect of radiation using:
 photographic film
 Geiger Muller Tube
Ionisation: Ionisation occurs when an atom loses or gains one or more electrons. When an atom
loses electrons it becomes a positive ion. When an atom gains electrons it becomes a negative
ion.

GM TUBE

Radiation produces ions in a low

pressure gas between a central
positively charged electrode and
the outer negatively charged tube.
A pulse of current then flows that is
registered by the counter. The thin
mica window allows the least
penetrating radiation (alpha) to
enter the tube. Gamma radiation
and most beta can enter through
the sides of the metal tube.
 212

RADIOACTIVITY AND HALF-LIFE

Half-life is an average time for half of the atoms in a given sample are to be decayed or average
count rate reduced to half of the original counts. It is denoted by symbol t½.

OR

The half-life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half of the original mass of the
sample to decay.

In terms of activity of a source: The half-life of a radioactive source is the average time taken
for the activity of the source to decrease to half of its initial value.

In terms of the number of nuclei: The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the average time it
takes for half of the nuclei of the isotope to decay into some other isotope. The activity of a
radioactive sample decreases over time

Half-lives of some radioactive isotopes

Uranium 238 = 4500 million years Uranium 235 = 704 million years
Plutonium 239 = 24 100 years Carbon 14 = 5600 years
Strontium 90 = 29 years Hydrogen 3 (Tritium) = 12 years
Cobalt 60 = 5.2 years Technetium 99m = 6 hours
-20

Radon 224 = 60 seconds Helium 5 = 1 x 10 seconds

Activity: The activity of a radioactive source is equal to the number of decays per second. Activity
is measured in bequerels (Bq).1 becquerel = 1 decay per second

RADIOACTIVE HALF LIFE CURVE

 213

𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑵𝒐

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝑵 =
𝟐𝒏

𝑵𝒐
𝑵 =
𝟐𝒏

Where, No is the original amount of substance

N is the amount of substance after decay
n is the number of half lives

EXERCISE

1. At 10 am in the morning a radioactive sample contains 80g of a radioactive isotope. If the

isotope has a half-life of 20 minutes calculate the mass of the isotope remaining at 11am.
2. Calculate the half-life of the radioactive isotope in a source if its mass decreases from 24g to
6g over a period of 60 days.

3. A radioactive source undergoes 72 000 decays over a ten minute period. What is its average
activity in Becquerels?

4. A radioactive source has an activity of 25 Bq. How many decays would be expected over a 3
hour period?
5. A radioactive source has a half-life of 20 minutes. What fraction is left after 1 hour?

6. In an experiment to find the half-life of radioactive iodine, the count-rate falls from 200 counts
per second to 25 counts per second in 75 minutes. What is its half-life?

7. If the half-life of a radioactive gas is 2 minutes, then after 8 minutes the activity will have fallen
to a fraction of its initial value. This fraction is….

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

a. Medical Tracers in Diagnosis: Radioactive tracers are used to follow the flow of a substance
through the body. Doctors can tell from the image obtained how well particular organs are
functioning.

Properties required of the source: The source must emit GAMMA radiation. Alpha or beta
would not be able to pass out of the patient’s body to the camera.The source must have a long
enough half-life to remain reasonably active over the period of observation - but not too long so
that it does not irradiate the patient’s body for a longer than needed. The radioactive substance
must not be toxic nor decay into a substance that is toxic or radioactive.

b. Tracing Underground Leaks in Pipes

A radioactive tracer can be added to a fluid. Where a leak occurs will be shown by an increase in
the count rate detected
 214

Properties required of the source: The source must emit BETA radiation. Alpha not be able to
pass through the ground above the pipe. Gamma radiation would give the same count rate
whether or not a leak was present. The source must have a long enough half-life to remain
reasonably active over the period of investigation but not too long so that it does not remain a
hazard to the environment.

c. Sterilisation: Micro-organisms on medical instruments such as plastic syringes can be killed

using a strongly ionising source of radiation. This is called sterilisation. This process can be
used on medical instruments while they are still within their packaging. The lifetime of food can
also be increased by irradiation.

d. Automatic thickness monitoring

The amount of radiation received by the detector depends on the thickness of the aluminium foil.
If the thickness increases then the detector reading falls. This will cause the computer to bring
the rollers closer together and so decrease the foil thickness.

Properties required of the source: A source of BETA radiation must be used. Alpha would not
pass through the thinnest aluminium. Gamma would not be affected by any thickness change. A
LONG HALF-LIFE source must be used or else a false thickness increase will be detected as the
activity of the source decreases. A suitable isotope is Strontium-90, a beta emitter with a half-life
of 29 years.

e. Smoke detectors: A radioactive source inside the alarm ionises an air gap so that it conducts
electricity. In a fire, smoke prevents the radiation causing ionisation. The drop in electric current
caused sets off the alarm.

Properties required of the source: A source of ALPHA radiation must be used. Beta or gamma
would not cause sufficient ionisation nor would they be affected by smoke. A LONG HALF-LIFE
source must be used. Or else a drop in current would set off the alarm. The commonly used
isotope is Americium-241, an alpha emitter with a half-life of 433 years.
f. Radioactive dating: Carbon-14 is used to find the age of living organism or plants. This method
is called radioactive carbon dating. There's a small amount of radioactive carbon-14 in all living
organisms. When they die no new carbon 14 is taken in by the dead organism. The carbon-14 it
contained at the time of death decays over a long period of time. By measuring the amount of
 215

carbon-14 left in dead organic material the approximate time since it died can be worked out.
(Archaeology)

g. Uranium -238 which eventually decays into lead is used to find the age of igneous rock.
(archaeology)

h. In radiotherapy the high doses of gamma radiation are used to kill the cancer cells.
(Medicine).

DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES

 The ionisation caused by radiation can damage or kill living cells.
 This can lead to genetic mutation or cancerous growth.
 Alpha particles cause the greatest amount of ionisation and are therefore
potentially the most dangerous type of radiation. They are, however, the
easiest to shield against.

Safety precautions

The main precaution is to reduce the dosage received to the minimum possible.
 To achieve this radioactive sources should: be stored in a lead-lined container
 be handled for the minimum possible time
 be handled only with tongs
 never be pointed at anyone
 never be put in pockets

Problems with nuclear waste: Nuclear waste is radioactive and may have to be stored safely
for thousands of years. The waste is stored underground in sealed containers that must be
capable of containing the radioactivity for thousands of years. Suitable sites also must be found
free of the effects of earthquakes or ground water leakage.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear reaction is a reaction in which an unstable nuclei is made more stable by bombarding it
with neutrons.

NUCLEAR FISSION: Is a process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of comparable
masses with liberating of energy and two or three more neutrons.

235 1 144 90
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 56𝐵𝑎 36Kr + 2 10𝑛 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

The energy released is very huge in the order of 200 MeV.

 216

Albert Einstein predicted that if the energy of a body changes by amount E, its mass changes by
amount m. any reaction, in which there is decrease in mass, called mass defect is a source of
energy and is given by:

E = MC2

Where m = mass defect (mass before minus after reflection)

C = speed of light in a vacuum ( 3.0 x 108 mls)

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION

UNCONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION:

When an atom of Uranium 235 is

bombarded with a neutron, 2 or 3
neutrons are produced which will
collide with more Uranium 235
atoms causing more neutrons to
be produced. This will lead to
more fission energy being
produced. This is called
Uncontrolled chain reactions,
they lead to an explosion.

CONTROLLED CHAIN REACTIONS: a controlled chain reaction is one in which production of

neutrons is controlled or regulated. The produced electrons are absorbed by using Cadmium rods
which acts as control rods. These controlled chain reaction are used in production of nuclear
electricity in nuclear reactors.

NUCLEAR REACTOR
 217

a. Nuclear fuel: the fuel used is enriched uranium 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐𝑼

b. Moderator: is a material that is used to slow down fast moving neutrons produced
during fission e.g graphite and water. It reduces the energy from 2 MeV to
O.235 eV.
c. Control Rods: these are materials that are used to absorb neutrons. e.g Cadmium/boron.
The rate of reaction is controlled by raising or lowering control rods. To speed up the
reaction, control rods are raised and lowered to slow down reaction by absorbing neutrons.
d. Coolant: material used to absorb heat generated (water)
e. Protective shield: prevent spreading of radiation.

NUCLEAR FUSION: This a process whereby two or more smaller nuclei fuse together to form a
heavy nucleus and releasing energy in the process. For nuclear fusion the two nuclei must be
brought so close to each other to overcome the repulsive force.

𝟏
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟑𝟏𝑯 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + Energy

𝟐
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟐𝟏𝑯 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆 + Energy

Nuclear Fusion releases tremendous amount of energy and not easy to generate electricity from
reactors.
 218

QUESTIONS

1. Figure below shows an experiment set up to investigate the deflection of ᵦ -particles by a

magnetic field.

a) (i) Explain the purpose of the lead sheet.

(ii) Name a suitable detector.

Even when there is no radioactive source present, a few counts are recorded each minute.

(ii) State what causes these counts.

…………………………………………………………………………………………..[1]
(b) State one precaution that should be taken when using radioactive sources.
……………………………………………………..…………………………………………….[1]
(c) Explain why a similar experiment to show the deflection of α particles must be done in a
vacuum.

(d) When demonstrating the deflection of α particles a very much stronger magnet is needed
than with the ᵦ -particles. The deflection is very much less and it is in the opposite direction.

(i) What does the small deflection and the need for a stronger magnet suggest about the
mass of the -particles compared with that of ᵦ -particles?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
(ii) What does the deflection in the opposite direction tell us about the α particles
Compared with ᵦ-particles?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]

(e) Explain why ʎ-radiation cannot be deflected however strong a magnetic field is applied.
……………………………………………………………………………...…………………….[1]

2. Protactinium has a half-life of 1 minute. In the experiment the initial count rate was 480 Bq.
Calculate the count rate after 3 minutes. Show your working.

Count rate =.................... Bq. [3]

 219

3. In an experiment the background count rate was considered. Explain what is meant by the
term background count rate.
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

4. Figure 1 shows a stream of α-particles about to enter the space between the poles of a very
strong magnet.

Describe the path of the α-particles in the space between the magnetic poles.

5. This question is about these types of radiation:

alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma radiation, infra-red radiation, ultra-violet

radiation

Which of these types of radiation

(a) Is a stream of electrons? [1]

(b) Can penetrate a thick sheet of lead? [1]
(c) Causes the most ionisation? [1]
(d) Are forms of electromagnetic radiation? [2]

6. (a) State what is meant by

(i) The half-life of a radioactive substance,

.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [3]

(ii) Background radiation.

.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [1]
 220

b) In a certain laboratory, the background radiation level is 25 counts/minute. Figure below is a

graph of the count-rate measured by a detector placed a short distance from a radioactive
source in the laboratory.

(i) At zero time, the measured count-rate of the source and background together is 80
counts/minute.
Calculate the count-rate due to the source alone.

Count-rate due to source = .................. counts/min [2]

 221

(ii) After one half-life has elapsed, what is the count-rate?

1. due to the source alone,

Count-rate =.................
2. Measured by the detector?
Count-rate = ........................ counts/min [2]

(iii) Use the graph to find the half-life of the source.

Half-life of source = ......................... min [1]

(iv)Why does the graph not drop below the 25 counts/minute line?
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [1]

(v) On Figure above, sketch the curve that might be obtained for a source with a shorter half-
life. [2]

7 (a) The α-particle source in Fig. 7.1 is placed 1 cm from a radiation detector connected to
a ratemeter. The ratemeter gives a count-rate reading of 600 counts / min.

Fig. 7.1

The source is then moved to a distance of 50 cm from the detector and the count-rate reading
on the ratemeter becomes 25 counts / min.

Predict what the count-rate will be when the source is moved to a distance of 100 cm from the
detector. Explain your answer.

Count-rate = .............................................. counts / min

explanation
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... [2]
 222

(b) Fig. 7.2 shows aluminium being rolled into a thin sheet suitable for cooking foil.
Β-particles are being used to monitor and control the thickness of the foil.

Fig. 7.2
(i) An adjustment to the rollers is made and the foil becomes thicker.
What happens to the rate at which β-particles are detected?
.................................................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) Assuming that all suitable safety precautions are taken, explain

1. Why α-particles would not be suitable in this application,

....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................[1]
2. Why γ-rays would not be suitable in this application.
......................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................[2]

12 The nucleus of uranium-238 is represented in nuclide notation as 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐𝑼

(a) (i) State the meaning of the nucleon number of a nuclide.
.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................[1]

(ii) State the value of the nucleon number of 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼
………………………………………………………………………………………......…….... [1]

(b) A nucleus of 238 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼 decays by emitting an α-particle. It becomes a nucleus of thorium
(Th).

(i) State
1. The nucleon number of an α-particle,
2. The proton number of an α-particle. .................................. [2]

(ii) In nuclide notation, the thorium nucleus formed is written as 𝑿𝒀𝑻𝒉

State the values of

1. X......................................
2. Y...................................... [2]

(c) (i) How many electrons are to be found in a neutral atom of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐𝑼 ?
.......................
(ii) Where in the atom are these electrons to be found?
........................................................................................................................................ [1]