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Q. Derive the EMF equation of single phase transformer.

• When a AC voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux sets up in the iron core of the
transformer. This alternating flux links with both primary and secondary winding.
• The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.
• Let,
∅m be the maximum value of flux in Wb
f be the supply frequency in Hz
N1 be the number of turns in the primary winding
N2 be the number of turns in the secondary winding
∅ is the flux per turn (in Weber)
• As shown in the figure that the flux changes from + to – in half a cycle of 12f second.
• By Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding.

• Consider ac sinusoidal flux,

• Ø=Øm sinwt

• By faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction EMF induced is, for a single turn.

• e=−d∅dte=−d∅dt
• For N, number of turn

• e=−Nd∅dte=N(−d∅dt∅msinwt)=N∅mcoswtw=−N∅m2πfcoswte=∅mN.2πsin(wt−π2)emax=N.∅m2πfERMS=emax2–
√=4.44NN∅mfPrimary induced emt,E1=4.44N1∅mfE2=4.44N2∅mf

Q. What is three-phase transformer? Compare the advantages and limitations of a single unit of three
winding transformer with a bank of three single-phase units forming a three phase transformer

Let us have detailed comparison assuming same rating for both type of transformers.
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Bank of 3 Single Phase Transformer Single Three Phase Transformer

It is more expensive due to requirement of 3 single phase

It is quite economic due to the use of less iron core, less
transformer. 3 single phase transformer means requirement of
volume of tank and hence less volume of Transformer Oil.
more iron for core, oil and accessories.

In such case star or delta connection on HV side requires six

This only requires three / four HV Bushings as the delta / star
different HV Bushings to bring out the HV terminals of 3 single
connection is done inside the tank of transformer.
phase transformers.

Space requirement is more for installation. Less space requirement for installation.

Due to single unit, it doesn’t have any flexibility in erection and

It offers greater flexibility in erection and installation.
installation.

The spare inventory cost is less. Only one single phase

transformer is required as spare which is less costly. Suppose a The cost of single three phase transformer as spare is quite
generating station has 2 generating units. For both the high when compared with a single unit of single phase
generating units (2xbank of three single phase transformer), transformer.
only one single phase transformer is required as spare.

The maintenance becomes easier due to separate units.

It is quite difficult to repair and replace.
Replacement of single unit is also easy.

This is less efficient due to losses in the three units. The losses It is more efficient and losses are less due to lesser
are more due to use of more iron core. requirement of iron core.

.
The three-phase system is used to generate, transmit, and distribute electrical power. It generates power on a large scale to
meet the needs of industries and commercial establishments. Three identical single-phase transformers are connected suitably
or combined on a single core to form a three-phase system. Based on various types of industrial needs, the step-up and step-
down transformers are employed for generating, transmission, and distributing the electric power. The building of a three-
phase transformer unit is economical as it consumes less material compared to connecting three individual single-phase
transformers. Additionally, the three-phase system transfers AC power instead of DC and is simple to construct.

Q.Explain open delta connection of 3Ø transformer & derive its output rating. An open delta connection transformer uses two
single-phase transformers to provide a three-phase supply to the load. An open delta connection system is also called a V-V
system. Open delta connection systems are usually only used in emergency conditions, as their efficiency is low when compared
to delta-delta (closed delta) systems (which are used during standard operations). Suppose you have three single-phase
transformers of 10 kVA each. They are connected in (both primary & secondary sides) in a delta connection, then it can be said
they are connected in a closed delta system.
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Q. What is necessity of parallel operation of transformer? Discuss the conditions to be satisfied for
Proper parallel operation of two transformers.

Ans- necessity of parallel operation of transformer.

The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the transformers is more than its capacity. The reliability is
increased with parallel operation than to have single

Larger unit. The cost associated with maintaining the spares is less when two transformers are connected in parallel.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Transformer

For parallel connection of transformers, primary windings of the transformers are connected to source bus-bars and secondary
windings are connected to the load bus-bars. Various conditions that must be fulfilled for the successful parallel operation of
transformers are

• Same voltage ratio and turns ratio (both primary and secondary voltage rating is same)
– Same percentage impedance and X/R ratio.

• Identical position of tap changer

• Same KVA ratings

• Same phase angle shift (vector group are same)

• Same frequency rating

• Same polarity

• Same phase sequence.

Some of these conditions are convenient and some are mandatory. The convenient are same voltage ratio and turns ratio, same
percentage impedance, same kva rating, and same position of tap changer. The mandatory

conditions are same phase angle shift, same polarity, same phase sequence and same frequency. When the convenient
conditions are not met, paralleled operation is possible but not optimal.

Q. Draw a neat sketch of lap and wave winding used in a D C machine Distinguish between

Lap winding-
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Wave winding

Lap Winding Wave Winding

The lap winding can be defined as a coil which can be lap back toward The wave winding can be defined as the loop of the winding can form
the succeeding coil. the signal shape.

The connection of the lap winding is, the armature coil end is The connection of the wave winding is, the armature coil end is
connected to the nearby section on the commutators. connected to commutator sections at some distance apart.

The numbers of the parallel path are equal to the total of number
poles. The number of parallel paths is equal to two.

Another name of lap winding is multiple winding otherwise Parallel

Winding Another name of wave winding is Series Winding otherwise Two-circuit
The e.m.f of lap winding is Less The e.m.f of wave winding is More

The no. of brushes in lap winding is Equivalent to the no. of parallel

paths. The no. of brushes in wave winding is Equivalent toTwo

The types of lap winding are Simplex lap winding & Duplex lap
winding. The types of wave winding are Progressive & Retrogressive
The efficiency of the lap winding is Less The efficiency of the wave winding is High

The additional coil used in the lap winding is Equalizer Ring The additional coil used in the wave winding is Dummy coil
The winding cost of the lap winding is High The winding cost of the wave winding is Low

The applications of wave winding include low current and high

The lap winding used for high current, low voltage machines. voltage machines.

Q.Why starter is necessary for D C motor? Describe with neat sketch working of three-point starter.

Ans-

Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high current and torque during startup. They
do this by providing external resistance to the motor, which is connected in series to the motor's armature winding and restricts
the current to an acceptable level.

Three point starter Diagram-

The circuit diagram of the three-point starter is shown in the figure. It is called three-point starter because it has three terminals
viz. L, Z and A. It consists of a graded starting resistance to limit the starting current and is connected in series with the armature
of the motor. The tapping points of the starting resistance are taken out to a number of studs. The three terminals L, Z and A of
the starter are connected to the positive terminal, The no-volt trip coil (NVC) is connected in shunt field circuit, which provides
protection against the open circuit in the field winding. The NVC is also known as under-voltage protection of the motor.
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One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the overload trip coil (OLC) and the other end of the handle moves
against the force of control spring and makes contact with each stud during the starting period of operation. The starting
resistance is cutting out gradually as the handle passes over each stud in clockwise direction.

Q.Explain Constructional details of reluctance motor.

The reluctance motor consists of a stator

and a squirrel-cage rotor as shown in the figure.
The stator is carrying a 1-phase main winding along with an auxiliary winding to produce a synchronously revolving magnetic
field.
The rotor has an unsymmetrical magnetic construction. The unsymmetrical construction of the rotor is achieved by removing
some of the teeth from the squirrel-cage rotor to produce salient poles on the rotor.
The number of salient poles produced on the rotor must be equal to the poles on the stator. The salient poles of the rotor offer
low reluctance to the stator flux and hence become strongly magnetised.

Characteristics of Reluctance Motor

A reluctance motor possesses the following characteristics −

• Reluctance motors have poor efficiency and torque.

• Reluctance motors have low power factor.
• Reluctance motors cannot accelerate high inertia loads to the synchronous speed.
• Reluctance motors are cheaper than any other kind of synchronous motors.

Applications of Reluctance Motor

Reluctance motors are widely used in applications where constant-speed is required such as timing and signalling devices.
Q.Draw a neat sketch of a D C machine label component parts and discuss the functions of; i) Field
pole system ii) Armature and iii) commutator
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Commutator- The main function of the commutator in the DC machine is to collect the current from the armature conductor as
well as supplies the current to the load using brushes. And also provides uni-directional torque for DC-motor. The commutator
can be built with a huge number of segments in the edge form of hard drawn copper. The Segments in the commutator are
protected from the thin mica layer.
1. Armature- Armature core includes a huge number of slots within its edge. The armature conductor is located in these slots.
It provides the low-reluctance path toward the flux generated with field winding. The materials used in this core are
permeability low-reluctance materials like iron otherwise cast. The lamination is used to decrease the loss because of the
eddy current.
2. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not only provides mechanical
strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
3. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry field winding and pole shoes
are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap
uniformly.
4. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are connected
in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
5. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding.
The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with
air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is keyed (fixed) to the shaft.
6. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The armature conductors are
insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods;
lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
each armature slot will carry two different coils.
7. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-brush
arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in armature conductors.
Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator
consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number
of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed (or fixed) to the shaft.
Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when
the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

Q.Explain cooling methods of transformer.

Cooling Methods For Dry Type Transformers

Air Natural Or Self Air Cooled Transformer

This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA). In this method the transformer is
allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.

Air Blast
For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this method, air is forced on the core
and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in
ventilation ducts. This method can be used for transformers upto 15 MVA.
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Cooling Methods For Oil Immersed Transformers

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the core and winding is transferred to
the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil flows in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The
vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural
air flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to natural convection and dissipating
heat in atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be used for transformers upto about 30 MVA.
Oil Natural Air Forced
The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating surface. Forced air provides faster heat
dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic
starting arrangement, which turns on when temperature increases beyond certain value. This transformer cooling method is
generally used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced through the heat exchangers. Then
compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted separately
from the transformer tank and connected through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type of cooling is
provided for higher rating transformers at substations or power stations.

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate hear from the heat exchangers. The oil is
forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help of a pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also
forced to flow. The heated water is taken away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in very large transformers
having rating of several hundreds MVA.

Q.Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor

Let,

• P – number of poles of the machineϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.

• Z – Total number of armature conductors.
• N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
• A – number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as:

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:

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Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given by the equation shown below:

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as:

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant. Hence, equation
(5) can be written as:

Where K is a constant and given as:

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as:

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as:
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Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as:

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. The polarity of induced emf depends
upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation. If either of the two is reversed the polarity changes, but if
two are reversed the polarity remains unchanged.

This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are working as a generator or motor.

If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below:

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below:

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply voltage.

Q. Explain the Energy in a magnetic systems.

It is often necessary in today's computer controlled industrial setting to convert an electrical signal into a mechanical action. To
accomplish this, the energy in the electrical signal must be converted to mechanical energy. A variety of devices exist that can
convert electrical energy into mechanical energy using a magnetic field. One such device, often referred to as a reluctance
machine, produces a translational force whenever the electrical signal is applied. There are several variations of the reluctance
machine but all operate on the same basic electromechanical principles.The principles of electromechanical energy conversion
are investigated. The motivation for this investigation is to show how the governing equations of an electromechanical device
can be derived from a magnetic circuit analysis. An expression for the mechanical force will be derived in terms of the magnetic
system parameters.

Q. Explain in details hysteresis and eddy current losses in the magnetic circuit.
Hysteresis loss

Hysteresis loss is caused by the magnetization and demagnetization of the core as current flows in the forward and reverse
directions. As the magnetizing force (current) increases, the magnetic flux increases. But when the magnetizing force (current) is
decreased, the magnetic flux doesn’t decrease at the same rate, but less gradually. Therefore, when the magnetizing force
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reaches zero, the flux density still has a positive value. In order for the flux density to reach zero, the magnetizing force must be
applied in the negative direction.The relationship between the magnetizing force, H, and the flux density, B, is shown on a
hysteresis curve, or loop. The area of the hysteresis loop shows the energy required to complete a full cycle of magnetizing and
de-magnetizing, and the area of the loop represents the energy lost during this process.

Eddy current losses

Eddy current losses are the result of Farady’s law, which states that, “Any change in the environment of a coil of wire will cause a
voltage to be induced in the coil, regardless of how the magnetic change is produced.” Thus, when a motor core is rotated in a
magnetic field, a voltage, or EMF, is induced in the coils. This induced EMF causes circulating currents to flow, referred to as
eddy currents. The power loss caused by these currents is known as eddy current loss.Motors armature cores use many, thin
pieces of iron (referred to as “laminations”), rather than a single piece, because the resistance of individual pieces is higher than
the resistance of one, solid piece. This higher resistance (due to smaller area per piece) reduces eddy currents, and in turn, eddy
current losses. The laminations are insulated from each other with a lacquer coating to prevent the eddy currents from
“jumping” from one lamination to another.

Q. EMF Equation Of A DC Generator

Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,

P = number of field poles

Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)

Now,
Average emf generated per conductor is given by dΦ/dt (Volts) ... eq. 1

▪ Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = dΦ = PΦ ….(Weber),

▪ Number of revolutions per second (speed in RPS) = N/60
▪ Therefore, time for one revolution = dt = 60/N (Seconds)
▪ From eq. 1, emf generated per conductor = dΦ/dt = PΦN/60 (Volts) …..(eq. 2)
Above equation-2 gives the emf generated in one conductor of the generator. The conductors are connected in series per
parallel path, and the emf across the generator terminals is equal to the generated emf across any parallel path.

Therefore, Eg = PΦNZ / 60A

For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 60P

For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2),
Therefore, for simplex wave wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 120

Q. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of single phase transformer.

The maximum efficiency in transformer is copper loss = iron loss. The transformer will attain maximum efficiency when the
variable copper losses become equal to the fixed iron losses. It is at this time when the losses will get the value of the original
current required, and thus transformer will attain maximum efficiency at this stage.

The Condition for Maximum Efficiency in Transformer is

The efficiency of a transformer is maximum at copper loss = iron loss. The transformer will attain maximum efficiency when the
variable copper losses become equal to the fixed iron losses. To explain it in detail, the efficiency of a transformer will be
maximum when the constant losses i.e. iron losses and variable losses i.e. copper losses are equal. The formula to calculate
transformer efficiency is (input – losses) / input = 1 – (losses/input). The manufacturing quality, the material utilised, the flux
loss, etc., are just a few of the variables that affect a transformer’s efficiency.
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