DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY,

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Assignment-II
Course: M.A. History
Paper: History of Early Medieval India –ca.600-1300 CE
Semester: 3

Submitted to: Submitted by:

The Early Medieval period in India, spanning approximately from 600 to 1300 CE, marks a
transitional phase in the Indian subcontinent's historical and cultural trajectory. It serves as a
bridge between the ancient and medieval periods, characterized by dynamic socio-economic,
political, and cultural transformations. The debate surrounding "Indian feudalism"
underscores this era's complexity, with scholars analysing the continuity and change in state
structures, agrarian relations, and cultural interactions. Central to this phase are the
developments in religious practices, temple networks, the Bhakti movement, Tantricism,
and the rise of vernacular literature. This essay explores these themes, emphasizing the
plurality and inclusivity that shaped societies during this period.
A significant feature of this era was the evolution of socio-economic structures, influenced
by royal land grants, agrarian expansion, and changing production relations. These dynamics
led to a process often referred to as the "feudalization" of state apparatus, where rulers
distributed lands to religious and secular donees, consolidating their authority. This
redistribution of land fostered agrarian hierarchies and the proliferation of castes,
incorporating aboriginal communities into peripheral agrarian systems. A major shift towards
rulers assuming grandiose titles like maharajadhiraja, parameshvara, parama-bhattaraka
etc. is also evident. The regionalization of political power is evident in the emergence of
Rajputs, the decentralization of urban centers, and the formation of regional identities in
literature, architecture, and language.
B.N.S. Yadava and R.S. Sharma link socio-economic transition in this period with the
concept of Kali Age-a period of crisis and decadence mentioned in Epics and Puranas, as a
prelude to feudalism due to generic tendencies like foreign invasions, natural calamities like
famines and droughts, deficit currency supply, varṇasaṃkara (intermixture of varnas), refusal
of Vaishyas and Shudras to perform varna-specific functions, peasant subjugation evident
from forced-labour and exorbitant taxes, etc.
Cultural transformations during this period were profoundly shaped by the resultant
interaction between local, regional, and transregional traditions. The rise of Puranic
Hinduism, the Bhakti movement, and Tantricism exemplify this synthesis. The Bhakti
movement, a socio-religious phenomenon emphasizing devotion and personal connection
with the divine, emerged as a potent force in South India during the 7th to 10th centuries. The
Alvar and Nayanar saint-poets catalysed this movement, creating a rich tapestry of devotional
literature. Vaishnavite Alvars and Shaivite Nayanars composed hymns that celebrated
intimate relationships with deities, envisioning God as a parent, friend, or beloved. Their
works, such as the Nalayira Divyaprabhandam and the Tirumurai, continue to influence
spiritual traditions.
The Tamil Bhakti movement reflected the inclusivity of its time, incorporating diverse
social groups into its fold. It embraced both intellectual asceticism and emotional devotion,
offering paths of rigorous renunciation and accessible participation. Female saint-poets like
Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar contributed to this tradition, demonstrating its gender
inclusivity. However, the movement was not devoid of conflict. Its vehement opposition to
heterodox sects like Jainism and Buddhism, as seen in the works of Appar and Sundarar,
reveals an undercurrent of sectarian rivalry.
M.G.S. Narayanan and Keshvan Veluthat have tried to analyse the movement not only
within the larger framework of the development of society and culture in India, but also in its
socio-economic context with special reference to the elements of dissent, protest and reform.
However, these elements were seemingly subordinated to the overall pattern of a greater
trend – the consolidation and extension of classical Brahmanical and Puranic socio-religious
character in Early Medieval India.
The transformation of Vedic Brahmanism into Puranic Hinduism further illustrates the
period's cultural dynamism. Puranic Hinduism evolved by assimilating local deities and
traditions, creating a more inclusive religious framework. Tribal gods were integrated into the
pantheon as avatars of Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi. The shift from yajna-based rituals to idol
worship and temple-based practices marked a significant departure, making religion
accessible to a broader populace. Temples, often architectural marvels, became focal points of
social, economic, and cultural activity. They not only housed deities but also facilitated trade,
education, and irrigation management. B.N.S. Yadava also noted that Puranic traditions
catered to agrarian communities by integrating their seasonal festivals and local myths,
reinforcing the cultural hegemony of Brahmanism.
Tantricism, with its emphasis on esoteric rituals and the interdependence of male and female
principles, added another dimension to religious plurality. Its practices, encapsulated in texts
like the Tantras and Agamas, extended across social strata, challenging Brahmanical
exclusivity. Tantric traditions influenced Hinduism and Buddhism, incorporating local
customs and rituals. The sects of Shaiva Siddhantas and Shaktism reveal the adaptability of
Tantric practices to regional contexts. Its focus on personal empowerment and physicality
contrasted with ascetic traditions, showcasing the era's religious diversity.
Institutions such as temples, mathas, and viharas played a pivotal role in disseminating
cultural and religious ideas. Temples, supported by royal patronage, acted as hubs of
economic redistribution and social organization. They reflected regional architectural styles
like Dravida, Nagara, and Vesara, underscoring the localization of artistic traditions. Mathas
and viharas preserved and transmitted knowledge, fostering intellectual exchanges.
Pilgrimage centres like Varanasi served as melting pots of cultural interactions, drawing
devotees from diverse regions.
The dissemination of shastric, epic, and puranic ideas, alongside the rise of vernacular
literature, exemplifies the cultural flows of this period. Sheldon Pollock's concept of the
"Sanskrit cosmopolis" highlights Sanskrit's role as a transregional lingua franca, fostering a
shared intellectual heritage. However, the localization of these ideas into vernacular
languages marked a shift toward regional identities, as emphasized by scholars like B.D.
Chattopadhyaya. Works like Kamban's Tamil Ramayana and Pampa's Kannada Bharata
adapted classical narratives to regional contexts, creating a dialogue between the
cosmopolitan and the local.
The portrayal of the "other" in religious and cultural narratives reflects the inclusivity and
exclusivity of early medieval societies. While Puranic texts often marginalized tribal and
pastoral communities, they also integrated local traditions into mainstream frameworks. This
duality underscores the complexity of cultural negotiations, where inclusion served as a
means of legitimizing authority. Similarly, architectural motifs and trade networks facilitated
the blending of local and transregional elements, creating a cohesive yet diverse cultural
landscape.
The regionalization of architecture and state formation further demonstrates the interplay
of local and transregional influences. The integration of Dravidian architectural styles into
Southeast Asian temples exemplifies the migration of artistic traditions. Scholars like
Hermann Kulke and Burton Stein have examined these processes through models of state
formation, emphasizing the role of ritual and economic integration in creating cohesive
polities. Temples served as symbols of divine kingship, legitimizing political authority and
fostering regional unity.
In conclusion, the Early Medieval period in India was marked by fluid cultural flows and
vibrant pluralism. The synthesis of local, regional, and transregional traditions in religious
practices, literature, and architecture laid the foundation for India's diverse cultural heritage.
Despite political decentralization, mechanisms like temple networks, pilgrimage centres, and
vernacularisation facilitated social cohesion. This era exemplifies the adaptability and
inclusivity of Indian society, creating a legacy of cultural richness that resonates to this day.