Basic concepts of Design

Chapter Two
By Daniel Dibaba
May, 2023
Introduction
• Design is a process used in engineering to specify how to
create or do something.
• A design must satisfy such requirements like, functional,
performance and resource usage.
• It is also expected to meet restrictions on the design process,
time of completion, cost, or the available tools for doing the
design.
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Design Concept
• Design concept is an impressive term that we use to describe
the real essentials of design.

• So the structural design concept encompasses reasons for our

choice of:

– Analytical techniques
– Structural design considerations.
– Design loads,
– Design philosophies,
– Design procedures,
– Preference for particular structural systems,
– Economic optimization of the structure.
– Aesthetic considerations.
Design Concept
• The nature of loads and their effect on
structural systems are mandatory in the
understanding of structural behavior of
buildings.

• And the structural design is to match the

structural systems to specific types of loading.

• But to understand the real behaviour of the

buildings the appropriate choices of the
Analytical techniques is crucial.
Structural Analysis
• Structural Analysis is the analysis of a given
structure subjected to a given loads, and the
idea is to predict the response of the structure
(system) in terms of forces & displacements.

Loads Response
(inputs) (outputs)

STRUCTURE (SYSTEM)
Structural Analysis
• We analyze the “model” of a structure.
Structural Analysis
• But the Structural Analysis is only ascertained
correct when the following requirements are
satisfied;-

a. Equilibrium Conditions.
b. Compatibility of Displacement.
c. Force/Displacement Relations.
Structural Analysis
• Therefore, In every forms of the structures, the
structural analysis and design has to consider
the following purposes.
• Stability,
• Strengths,
• Stiffness,
• Economy, as well as
• Aesthetic aspects of the structure.
Structural Analysis
• Structural Analysis is an integral part of a
structural Design project.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Architectural
Functional Plans Final Design

Structural Detailing
System

Connection
Trial Sections Design
Yes

Revise Acceptable
Modeling
Sections
No

Member
Analysis Design

MODELING & ANALYSIS DESIGN & DETAILING

Structural Analysis
• Structural Analysis Output .

• Displacements
• Axial Forces
• Shear Forces
• Bending Moments
• Stresses
Design Codes and Standards
• The design codes are very important guidelines
in the structural design of any project.

• ES EN 1991:2015.
• ES EN 1992-1-1:2015.
• ES EN 1998-1:2015.
Design Codes and Standards
• The design codes are used for the following
purposes.
– To determine all the loads acting on the Structure
(Gravity or lateral loads).
– To define all the material properties to be used for
the construction.
– To design all the structural Elements.
– For the Detailing purposes.
– Generally they are to be used as a guidance for the
whole process in the structural analysis and design
of any project.
Architectural Vs. Structural Design
• In reinforced concrete buildings, architectural planning
and design is carried out to determine the arrangement
and layout of the building to meet the client’s
requirements.
• The structural engineer then determines the best
structural system or forms to realize the architect’s
concept.
Structural Design
• Buildings shall be designed for specified limit
states to achieve the objectives of:

 Constructability,
 Safety
 Functionality
 Serviceability
 Durability
 Inspect ability
 Economy and
 Aesthetics
Design Philosophies
• A design philosophy is a set of assumptions and
procedures which are used to meet the structural design
objectives.
• Like conditions of serviceability, safety, economy and
functionality of the structure.
• Several design philosophies have been introduced from
different parts of the world.
• Some of the most popular design philosophies that has
been used by engineers are:

1. The working Stress design (WSD) method

2. The ultimate strength design (USD) method

3. The limit state design (LSD) method

Design Philosophies

• Structural design methods are selected based on

the local practices.

• The current design philosophy according to ES is

based on the Capacity Design Method.

• Which is adopted from Limit State Design

Method.

• These are the methods used for the design of

structural members and are guided by the
relevant standard code of practice.
Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

– This is the earliest design method, which was

introduced in 20th century.

– Used for the design of reinforced concrete, Steel

and timber structures.

– This design concept is based on elastic theory,

assuming a straight line stress distribution along
the depth of the concrete.
Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

Stress and Strain Diagram Based on Working Stress Method

Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

– The main assumption in the WSM is that the behaviour

of structural material is restricted with in linear-elastic
region.

– And the safety of it is ensured by restricting the

stresses(allowable) coming on the members by working
loads.

– Thus the allowable stresses will come in the linear

portion of the stress-strain curve. Thus a factor of safety
was introduced to the design.
Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

“Factor of safety is the ratio of strength of material to the

permissible stress”

Yielding of Steel – Stress Strain Curve

Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

– When we consider the effect of creep, shrinkage, stress

concentrations and others secondary effects the
assumption of material behavior in the elastic range will
not hold.

– These will lead to increase of stresses into the inelastic

range.
Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

– WSD cannot account for loads acting simultaneously,

but has different degrees of uncertainty.

– It cannot account for the loads having counteracting

effects, such as dead load and wind load.

– The above will lead to non-conservative design.

– Working Stress method will lead to large FOS and over-

sized sections, thus reducing the design economy.
Design Philosophy
• Working Stress Design:

– WSD is still being using in special structures such as

water tanks.

– Elastic regions holds good in serviceability checks such

as crack width, deflection etc.

– Because of the differences in the realism and reliability

over the past several decades, the USD method
displaced this design method.
Design Philosophy
• Ultimate Strength Design:

– This method is introduced after the working stress

design method in 1950s.

– This method is based on the ultimate load which

can be carried out by material.

– This is also known as load factor method.

Design Philosophy
• Ultimate Strength Design:

– In this method we make use of the nonlinear region

of stress strain curves of steel and concrete.

– The safety is ensured by introducing load factor.

– “Load factor is the ratio of ultimate strength to the

service loads”
Design Philosophy
• Ultimate Strength Design:

Yielding of Steel – Stress Strain Curve

Design Philosophy
• Ultimate Strength Design:

– The fall-back in the method was that even though the

nonlinear stress strain behaviour was considered for the
sections.

– But the nonlinear analysis of the structural was not

carried out for the load effects.

– Thus the stress distribution at ultimate load was just the

magnification of service load by load factor following
the linear elastic theory.
Design Philosophy
• Ultimate Strength Design:

Stress and Strain Diagram Based on Ultimate Strength Method

Design Philosophy
• Ultimate Strength Design:

– The USD makes it possible to consider the effects of

different loads acting simultaneously thus solving the
shortcomings of WSD.

– As the ultimate strength of the material is considered

we will get much slender sections for columns and
beams compared to WSM method.

– But the serviceability criteria is not met because of large

deflections and cracks in the sections.
Design Philosophy
• Limit State Design:

– The most recently accepted code of practice is

based on limit state method.

– This philosophy is an advancement over the

traditional design philosophies.

– The design specifications for different limit states

as per the Limit State Design method are adopted
in our country.
Design Philosophy
• Limit State Design:

– Limit state design is also known as Load and

Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).

– It is a further step in the strength design

method.

– It considers the safety at the ultimate load and

serviceability at the working load.

– Sort of extension of the WSD and USD.

Design Philosophy
• Limit State Design:

– There are 2 types of limit states:

• Ultimate Limit State: Deals with the Load carrying

capacity (involves safety, stability and durability)

• Serviceability Limit State: Deals with the condition

of the building during its service period. Like the
Deformation (deflection, vibrations, and impact)
and the formation of cracks.
Design Philosophy
• Limit State Design:

– It uses multiple safety factors for the required

safety and serviceability at the ultimate load and
working load respectively.

– By considering all limit states. These are called

“partial safety factors”.
Design Philosophy
• Limit State Design:

Stress and Strain Diagram Based on Ultimate Strength Method

Design Philosophy
• Limit State Design:

Yielding of Steel – Stress Strain Curve

Design Philosophy

• Load factors and load combinations:

– In LSD method, load factors are applied to

the loads and resistance factors to the
internal resistances or capacities of
sections.

– Moreover, the load combinations and load

factors are considered accordingly.
Design Philosophy

• Load factors

– In practice the applied load may be greater

than the characteristic load for any of the
following reasons:

– Calculation errors

– Constructional inaccuracies

– Unforeseen increases in load

Design Philosophy

Ultimate Strength
Working Stress Method Limit State Method
Method
It is also called
It is also known as elastic method
ultimate load design It is also termed as plastic design
of design or modular ratio method
method or load factor method.
or alternate design method.
method
It is based on the
It is based on the elastic theory ultimate strength, This method is based on the actual
which assumes that concrete and when the design stress-strain curves of steel and
steel are elastic and the stress strain member would fail. It concrete. For concrete the stress-
curve is linear for both. uses the actual stress- strain curve is non-linear.
strain curve.
It is stress based method of RCC It is strain based It is strain based method of RCC
design. method of design. design.
Limits the structural usefulness of Limits the structural usefulness of
Limits the structural
the material of the structure up to a the material of the structure up to a
usefulness of the
certain load at which the maximum certain load at which acceptable
material of the
stress in extreme fiber reaches the limit of safety and serviceability are
structure up to
characteristic strength of material applied so that the failure of
ultimate load.
in bending. structure does not occur.
Design Philosophy

Ultimate Strength
Working Stress Method Limit State Method
Method
It uses factors of safety for stresses
Load factors are used on
only (to get permissible stresses) and Partial factor of safety is
service loads and
not for loads. As a result, it does not considered on both loads and
strength reduction
give true margin of safety with stresses (to get design values of
factors are employed on
respect to loads because the failure stresses).
materials.
load is not known.
Limit state method advances
Ultimate load method
than other two methods. it takes
Working stress method only deals only deals with on safety
into account the ultimate
with serviceability such as crack, such as strength,
strength of the structure and
vibration, deflection etc. overturning, and sliding,
also the serviceability
buckling, fatigue.
requirements
Designed sections are uneconomical Designed sections are
since they are oversized and use Designed sections are economical from both ultimate
larger reinforcement ratio compare economical. limit state and serviceability
with other two design philosophy. limit state point of view.
Design Philosophy

Working Stress Method Ultimate Strength Method Limit State Method

Despite the fact that the nonlinear stress
The process of stress
strain behavior of materials is considered,
redistribution and moment
the nonlinear analysis of the structural has
redistribution are
not been carried out for the load effects.
– considered in the analysis
Consequently, the stress distribution at
and more realistic factor of
ultimate load is just the magnification of
safety values are used in
service load by load factor following the
the design
linear elastic theory.
It provides better
serviceability
performance under It does not take into consideration the Designed sections perform
service loads compare serviceability criteria of deflection and satisfactorily in terms of
with ultimate strength cracking. serviceability requirements
method since designed
sections are large.
Design Philosophy

Limit State
Working Stress Method Ultimate Strength Method
Method
It is only the method available when one has to
investigate the reinforced concrete section for
– –
service stresses and for the serviceability state of
deflection and cracking.
It considers the effects of
It fails to differentiate between different types of
different loads acting
loads that act simultaneously but have different –
simultaneously but has different
uncertainties.
uncertainties.
The load factor gives the exact Exact margin
Exact margin of safety is not known. margin of safety against of safety is
collapse. known.
The method does not take into
It does not account for shrinkage and creep
consideration the effects of –
which are time dependent and plastic
creep and shrinkage.
Design Philosophy

Working Stress Ultimate

Limit State Method
Method Strength Method
The acceptable limits of safety and serviceability
It pays no attention The method is requirements before failure occurs is called a limit
to the conditions based on the state. This method is based on the concept of safety at
that arise at the time ultimate strain as ultimate loads (ultimate load method) and
of collapse. the failure criteria. serviceability at working loads (working stress
method).
Material strength is Material strength
not fully utilized in is fully utilized in Material strength is fully utilized in the designed
the designed the designed member
member member
Design Philosophies

• Summary

WSD Method USD Method LSD Method

Strength
Serviability X
Economy X

• Capacity design method

• The new Ethiopian Standard ES EN 2015.