Section-A

1. Write the V-I relations of a Resistor.

Voltage V=IR
V
Current I=R
2. Write the V-I relations of an Inductor.
di(t)
Voltage v(t)= L dt
1
Current i(t)= L ∫ v(t)dt
3. Write the V-I relations of a Capacitor.
1
Voltage v(t)= C ∫ i(t)dt
dv(t)
Current i(t)= C dt
4. Sktech the V-I characteristics of a Resistor.

5. Sktech the V-I characteristics of an Inductor.

6. Sktech the V-I characteristics of a Capacitor.

7. Identify the number of Branchesn in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.

• 2Ω resistor (one branch)

• 30A current source (one branch)
• 6Ω resistor (one branch)
• 4Ω resistor (one branch)
• 8A current source (one branch)
No of branches=5
8. Identify the number of Nodes in the circuit shown in Fig.l.

There are 5 distinct nodes in the circuit.

No of nodes=5
9. Identify the number of Meshes in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.

Number of Meshes=3
10. Identify the number of loops in the circuit shown in Fig.3.
 Number of loops =7 (ABCDEFGA, ABHGA, GHEFG, BCDEHB, ABHEFGA,
GHBCDEFG, GABCDEHG)
11. Mention the Form factor and Peak factor of the Sinusoidal signal.
Vm 2Vm
For sinusoidal signal Vrms = , Vavg =
√2 π
Vm
RMS Value
Form Factor = = √2
2Vm =1.11
Average Value
π
Peak Value Vm
Peak Factor = = Vm =1.414
RMS Value
√2
12. Mention the Form factor and Peak factor of the Cosine signal.
Vm 2Vm
For cosine signal Vrms = , Vavg =
√2 π
Vm
RMS Value
Form Factor = = √2
2Vm =1.11
Average Value
π
Peak Value Vm
Peak Factor = = Vm =1.414
RMS Value
√2
13. Mention the Form factor and Peak factor of the Square wave signal.
For square wave Vrms = Vm , Vavg = Vm
Vm
Form Factor = =1
Vm
Vm
Peak Factor = =1
Vm
14. Mention the Form factor and Peak factor of the Triangular signal.
Vm Vm
For triangular wave Vrms = , Vavg =
√3 2
Vm

Form Factor= √3
Vm =1.15
2
Vm
Peak Factor= Vm =1.732
√3
15. Define Impedance and Reactance.
Impedance Z is the combination of resistance R and reactance X (for both
capacitance (C) and inductance(L)).
 Z=R+j(X L − X C )
Total opposition (combination of resistance and reactance) to A.C. current flow.
The total reactance X is the difference between inductive and capacitive
reactances: X = X L − X C
Opposition to the flow of A.C. current due to inductance or capacitance.
16. Mention the value of power factor in a series resonance circuit at resonance
frequency.
Power factor at resonance frequency (f=fr ) is
Power Factor (pf)=cos𝜑=1 when the impedance Z=R
17. Mention the value of power factor in a series resonance circuit below resonance
frequency.
Power factor below resonance frequency (f<fr ) is leading and less than 1.
Thus, the power factor is leading (φ<0°), meaning 0<cosφ<1 (capacitive
behavior)
18. Mention the value of power factor in a series resonance circuit above resonance
frequency.
Power factor above resonance frequency (f>fr ) is lagging and less than 1.
Thus, the power factor is lagging (φ>0°), meaning 0<cosφ<1 (inductive
behavior)
19. Mention the impedance in a series resonance circuit below resonance frequency.
The impedance below the resonance frequency (f<fr ) is
Z=R+j(X L − X C )
1
=R+j(ωL − )
ωC
1
Since ωL < below resonance, the impedance is dominantly capacitive and
ωC
decreases with frequency.
20. Mention the impedance in a series resonance circuit at resonance frequency.
The impedance at resonance frequency (f=fr ) is Z=R
Since X L = X C , they cancel out, the impedance Z=R (pure resistor).
21. Mention the impedance in a series resonance circuit above resonance frequency.
The impedance above the resonance frequency (f>fr ) is
Z=R+j(X L − X C )
1
=R+j(ωL − )
ωC
1
Since ωL > above resonance, the impedance is dominantly inductive and
ωC
increases with frequency.
Section B (13 to 17 problems) and Section C (1 to 5 problems) provide
important tips on calculating polar to rectangular and rectangular to polar
conversion
1. Choose Degree mode in the calculator (Check the video links shared
in WhatsApp group: How to solve polar to rectangular & rectangular
to polar conversion in scientific calculator?)
An important hint to calculate maximum current (𝐈𝐦 ) and current (I) in
Section C (1 to 5 problems)
𝐕𝐦 is maximum(peak) voltage; 𝐕 or 𝐕𝐑𝐌𝐒 is supplied voltage (RMS
voltage)
2. L value is given; if questions are asked for maximum current, we can take
V
Im = |Xm|
L
3. C value is given; if questions are asked for maximum current, we can take
V
Im = |Xm|
c
4. R, L, C value is given, if questions are asked for maximum current, we
V
can take Im = m
Z
5. L, C value is given, if questions are asked only for maximum current, we
V
can take Im = Zm
V V
6. If questions are asked only for current, we can take I = Z or RMS
Z
7. At resonance XL = XC , the voltage across the inductor is the same VL =
VC
8. At resonance Z=R
 Section-B
1. State and explain Kirchoff's laws
• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) states that the total voltage around any
closed loop in a circuit is zero.
• The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is zero.
Σ Voltage Drops - Σ Voltage Rises = 0

• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that the total current entering a
node in an electrical circuit is equal to the total current leaving the node.
• The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.
Σ Currents In - Σ Currents Out = 0
2. State and explain Maximum Power transfer theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is transferred
(delivered) from a source to a load when the load resistance (R L ) is equal to the
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance (Rth) of the source circuit.

Consider a Thevenin equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source

Vth with an internal resistance Rth, connected to a load resistance RL .
Power delivered to the load is given by
PL = IL2 RL
V2th
= (R 2 RL
th +RL )
To maximize power, differentiate PL with respect to RL and set it to
zero
dPL
=0
dR L
Which leads to Rth−RL=0
∴RL = R th
V2th
= (R 2 Rth
th +Rth )
Maximum power delivered to the load is

3. State and explain Norton’s theorem

Any two-terminal linear circuit having a number of voltage current sources and
resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a Norton
current source (IN) in parallel with a resistance (RN).
 Two terminal Linear Circuit

The equivalent Norton current IN is the short-circuit current between the two
terminals, and the Norton resistance RN is the same as the Thevenin resistance
Rth which is found by deactivating all independent sources and calculating the
equivalent resistance seen from the terminals.
Simple Steps/Procedure to analyze electric circuit through Norton’s Theorem and
determine IN, RN, and IRL:
1. Remove the load resistor (RL) and replace it with a short circuit (ISC=IN).
2. Calculate the Norton current (IN)-the current through the short circuit.
3. All voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and all current
sources are replaced with open circuits. Calculate the Norton resistance
(RN)-the total resistance between the open circuit connection points.
4. Now, Redraw the circuit with the Norton current source (IN) in parallel
with the Norton resistance (RN). The load resistor (RL) re-attaches
between the two open points of the equivalent circuit. Now find the total
RN
current flowing through the load resistor by using IRL = IN .
(RN +RL )
4. State and explain Thevenin’s theorem
Any two-terminal linear circuit having a number of voltage current sources and
resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single
voltage source (Vth) in series with a resistance (Rth).
 Simple Steps/Procedure to analyze electric circuit through Thevenin’s Theorem
and determine Vth, Rth, and IRL:
1. Open/remove the load resistor (RL).
2. Calculate the Thevenin Voltage (Vth) (Open Circuit Voltage).
3. Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources. Calculate the Thevenin
Resistance (Rth) (Open Circuit Resistance).
4. Now, Redraw the circuit with (Vth) in Step (2) as voltage Source and (Rth) in
step (3) as a series resistance and connect the load resistor (RL) which we had
removed in Step (1). This is the Equivalent Thevenin Circuit. Now find the
total current flowing through load resistor by using the Ohm’s
Vth
Law IRL = .
(Rth +RL )
5. State and explain Superposition theorem
The response in any two-terminal linear circuit with multiple independent
sources is the sum of the individual responses, considering one source at a time
while the other sources are non-operative.

Steps of Applying Superposition Principle:

1. Deactivate all independent sources except one source. If the internal
resistance of the sources is neglected then the deactivated voltage source is
replaced with a “Short Circuit” (R= 0 Ω) and the deactivated current source
is replaced with an open circuit (R = ∞) respectively then find the
corresponding (V or I) due to that active source.
2. Repeat step (1) for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution (V or I) by adding algebraically all the voltages or
currents due to the independent sources.
6. List out difference between ideal and real voltage sources.
Ideal voltage sources Real voltage sources
Ideal voltage sources (VS) are Real voltage sources (VS) have limitations
perfect models used for theoretical due to internal resistance (RS), leading to
analysis. voltage drops and power losses in practical
applications.

Maintains a constant voltage Provides voltage that decreases with

regardless of load current. increasing load due to internal resistance.

Internal Resistance (R s ) is zero. Small but nonzero (R s > 0) causing

causing no voltage drop. voltage drop.
Voltage remains constant under Voltage drops as current increases.
any load condition.
No internal power loss. Some power is lost due to internal
resistance (P= I 2 R s ).
7. List out difference between ideal and real current sources.
Ideal current sources Real current sources
The ideal current source (IS) The real current source (IS) is connected in
provides the same current to any parallel with the internal resistance (RS), and
load resistance and doesn’t the current flowing through it depends on
change its current by changing a the load.
load resistance.
 Maintains a constant current Provides current that decreases with
regardless of load current. increasing load due to internal resistance.

Source resistance (RS) is infinite. Source resistance (RS) is high.

Current remains constant under Current drops as voltage increases.
any load condition.
No internal power loss. Some power is lost due to internal resistance
(P= I 2 R s ).
8. List out the differences between Mesh and Nodal Analysis.
Feature Mesh Analysis Nodal Analysis
Equations Equations are formed by applying Equations are formed by
KVL to each mesh. applying KCL at each node.
Use of Supermesh is used when a current Supernode is used when a
Supermesh/ source is present between two loops voltage source is present
Supernode between two nodes
Unknown Solves for mesh currents (currents Solves for node voltages
Variables flowing in closed loops). (voltages at circuit nodes).
Preferred Preferred for planar circuits Preferred for both planar and
Use (circuits that can be drawn on a non-planar circuits.
plane without overlapping wires).
Best suited for circuits with many Best suited for circuits with
Applicability series elements and fewer current many parallel elements and
fewer voltage sources.
 sources.
Complexity Easier to use when the circuit has Easier to use when the circuit
fewer meshes (loops). has fewer nodes.
9. List out the steps followed in Mesh analysis.
1. Identify Meshes and Assign Currents
• Identify all independent meshes in the circuit.
• Assign a clockwise mesh current to each mesh.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Write KVL equations for each mesh.
• Use Ohm’s Law (V = IR) to express voltages in terms of mesh currents.
3. Consider Current Sources (Supermesh Technique)
• If a current source is between two meshes, apply the Supermesh
technique by forming a larger loop and using KVL.
• Apply KCL at the branch to form the current source equation (Is =I1 − I2 )
as an additional constraint.
4. Solve the simultaneous equations to find mesh currents.
5. Determine Branch Currents
• Use mesh currents to calculate branch currents, considering shared
branches.
10. List out the steps followed in Nodal analysis.
1. Identify and Select the Reference Node
• Identify the total number of nodes (n) in the circuit and choose one node as
the reference (ground) node.
• Assign voltages (V1, V2, etc.) to the remaining nodes.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Write KCL equations at each node.
• Use Ohm’s Law (I = V/R) to express branch currents considering
entering/leaving direction.
3. Consider Voltage Sources (Supernode Technique)
• If a voltage source is between two non-reference nodes, form a Supernode by
enclosing the voltage source and its connected nodes.
• Apply KVL at the branch to form the voltage source equation (Vs =V1 − V2 )
as an additional constraint.
4. Solve the simultaneous equations to find unknown Node Voltages
5. Determine Branch Currents
• Use the calculated node voltages to find branch currents using Ohm’s Law
(I = V/R).
 11. List out the steps followed to find Thevenin's theorem.
Statement: Any two-terminal linear circuit having a number of voltage current
sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of a single voltage source (Vth) in series with a resistance (Rth).
Simple Steps/Procedure to analyze electric circuit through Thevenin’s
Theorem and determine Vth, Rth, and IRL:
1. Open/remove the load resistor (RL).
2. Calculate the Thevenin Voltage (Vth) (Open Circuit Voltage).
3. Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources. Calculate the Thevenin
Resistance (Rth) (Open Circuit Resistance).
4. Now, Redraw the circuit with (Vth) in Step (2) as voltage Source and (Rth)
in step (3) as a series resistance and connect the load resistor (R L) which
we had removed in Step (1). This is the Equivalent Thevenin Circuit.

Now find the total current flowing through load resistor by using the Ohm’s
Vth
Law IRL = .
(Rth +RL )
12. List out the steps followed to find Norton's theorem.
Statement: Any two-terminal linear circuit having a number of voltage current
sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of a Norton current source (IN) in parallel with a resistance (RN).
Simple Steps/Procedure to analyze electric circuit through Norton’s Theorem
and determine IN, RN, and IRL:
1. Remove the load resistor (RL) and replace it with a short circuit (ISC=IN).
2. Calculate the Norton current (IN)-the current through the short circuit.
3. All voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and all current
sources are replaced with open circuits. Calculate the Norton resistance
(RN)-the total resistance between the open circuit connection points.
 4. Now, Redraw the circuit with the Norton current source (IN) in parallel
with the Norton resistance (RN). The load resistor (RL) re-attaches
between the two open points of the equivalent circuit.

Now find the total current flowing through the load resistor by using
RN
IRL = IN .
(RN +RL )
13. Two sinusoidal signals i1 = 100sin100t and i2 = 200cos(100t + 30°).
Calculate i = i1 + i2

14. Two sinusoidal signals i1 = 100cos100t and i2 = 200sin(100t + 30°).

Calculate i = i1 − i2
15. Two sinusoidal signals i1 = 100sin100t and i2 = 200sin(100t + 30°).
Calculate i = i1 ∗ i2

16. Two sinusoidal signals i1 = 100cos100t and i2 = 200cos(100t + 30°).

Calculate i = i1 ÷ i2

17. Two sinusoidal signals i1 = 100sin100t and i2 = 200cos(100t + 30°).

Calculate i = (i1 ∗ i2 )3
18. Show that in pure resistor ac current and voltages are in same phase.

19. Show that in pure inductor ac current lags over voltage by 90° phase.

20. Show that in pure capacitor ac current leads over voltage by 90° phase.
 Section-C
1. A 50μF capacitor is connected across a 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the
reactance offered by the capacitor (b) the maximum current (c) the r.m.s. value of
the current drawn by the capacitor (d) the maximum energy stored in the capacitor
and (e) plot the current and voltage waveforms.
2. A l0mH inductor is connected across a 230V, 50Hz supply. calculate (a) the
reactance offered by the inductor (b) the maximum current and (c) the rms value
of the current drawn by the inductor (d) the maximum energy stored in the
inductor and (e) plot the current and voltage waveform.
3. A series circuit with R = lkΩ, L = l00mH and C = l0μF is supplied with l00V,50
Hz. Determine the impedance, current, power factor, resonance frequency, Q-
factor and bandwidth of the circuit.
4. A series circuit with R = l00Ω, L = l0mH and C = l0μF is supplied with 230V,50
Hz. Determine the impedance, current, power factor resonance frequency, Q-
factor and bandwidth of the circuit.
5. A 1mH inductor and a 1µF capacitor are connected in series with a 230V, 50 Hz
supply. calculate (a) the reactance offered by the inductor (b) the maximum
current and (c) the rms value of the current drawn by the inductor (d) the
maximum energy stored in the inductor and (e) plot the current and voltage
waveform.
6. For a series R-L-C circuit the inductor is variable. Source voltage is 283sin100πt.
Maximum current obtainable by varying the inductance is 0.314 A and the voltage
across the capacitor then is 300V. Find the circuit element values, resonance
frequency, Q-factor and bandwidth of the circuit.

7. Using Thevenin’s theorem find the current flowing through the 8Ω resistor of the
network shown in Fig.a.

Fig.a
8. Using Norton’s theorem find the current flowing through the 10Ω resistor of the
network shown in Fig.b

Fig.b
9. Using Superposition theorem find the current flowing through the 20Ω resistor of the
network shown in Fig.c

Fig.c
10. Using Mesh analysis determine the currents in 4Ω, 6Ω and 8Ω resistor of the network
shown in Fig.a.

Fig.a
11. Using Nodal analysis determine the currents in 4Ω, 8Ω, 10Ω and 12Ω resistor of the
network shown in Fig.b.

Fig.b
12. In the circuit shown in below (a) obtain the condition from maximum power transfer
to the load RL. Hence determine the maximum power transferred.