AR3202

STRUCTURAL
MECHANICS
ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

UNIT 1
FORCES SYSTEMS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A particle may be defined as a portion of a matter which is infinitely small in size in all its directions.
i.e., a particle has no size but it has a mass. It is to be noted that the term particle is only a relative
term. For example, in astronomical calculations, the earth may be assumed to be a particle; but to an
earth-bound observer, the earth is a body of great size. For mathematical description, a particle
denotes a body in which all the materials are concentrated at a point. As all the materials are
concentrated at a point, a particle is always subjected to a force system.

1.2 MECHANICS
Mechanics is the branch of Physics deals with motions and forces producing motion. The branch of
science which deals with the behavior of a body with state of rest or motion, subjected to the action of
forces is called Engineering Mechanics. The branch of Engineering Mechanics which deals with the
study of different laws of mechanics as applied to the solution of Engineering problems is called as
Applied Mechanics.

Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics of Rigid bodies Mechanics of deformable bodies Mechanics of Fluids

1.2.1 MECHANICS OF RIGID BODIES

• Deformations are assumed to be very small and hence neglected
• Small deformations do not appreciably affect the conditions of equilibrium.

1.2.2 MECHANICS OF DEFOEMABLE BODIES

• In actual structure and Machines, the deformations are also analyzed.
• This branch of mechanics is called Mechanics of deformable bodies
• It is also called as Mechanics of materials or Strength of Materials

1.2.3 MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

• Branch of science deals with behavior of fluids, subjected to the action of forces in the state of
rest or motion.

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1.3 MECHANICS OF RIGID BODIES

Mechanics of Rigid Bodies

Statics Dynamics

Kinematics

Kinetics

1.3.1 STATICS

Branch of science which deals with the study of body at rest is called Statics. It is the study of
equilibrium of bodies under the action of forces of stationery bodies.
Example,

• Equilibrium of book lying on table

• Support reaction of beam subjected to external loads

• Member forces in a truss

1.3.2 DYNAMICS

Branch of science which deals with the study of body in motion is called Dynamics. It is the
study of equilibrium of bodies under the action of forces in motion.
Example,
• Force applied on brakes, when moving vehicle is brought to rest
• Force hit by a cricket bat on ball

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1.3.2.1 KINEMATICS AND KINETICS

S.NO KINEMATICS KINETICS

Study of a body in motion without Study of a body in motion with considering

1
considering the forces that cause the motion the forces that cause the motion
To predict the motion of body caused by
It relates to displacement, velocity,
2 given force or force required to produce a
acceleration, time etc.,
given motion

1.4 FUNDAMENTALS OF STATICS

There are three basic fundamentals of statics.

MATTER : All things susceptible of sense of touch

• Space
BODY : Any definite portion of matter
• Matter
PARTICLE : An infinitesimal portion of matter. A body is
• Force composed of large number of particles.

1.4.1 MASS AND WEIGHT

S.NO MASS WEIGHT

Force with which the body
Quantity of matter
1 is attracted towards center
contained in a body
of earth
2 Constant at all places Not constant at all places

3 Resists motion a body Provides motion in a body

4 Scalar quantity Vector Quantity

5 Never Zero Zero at center of earth

6 Unit : Kilogram (Kg) Unit : Newton (N)

Weight = Mass x
Acceleration
w =mxg
= Kg x m/𝑠 2
= Newton (N)

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1.4.2 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

Units of Measurements

Basic Units Derived Unit

BASIC UNITS : Measurement of basic or fundamental quantities. Eg : Mass, Length, Time

DERIVED UNITS : Measurement of physical quantities other than fundamental ones. Eg: Area,

Volume, Speed, Velocity, etc.,

1.4.2.1 SYSTEMS OF UNIT

• Foot Pound Second System (FPS System)

• Centimeter Gram Second System (CGS System)

• Meter Kilogram Second System (MKS System)

• System of International (SI System)

1.4.2.2 SI SYSTEM

• SI system has 6 fundamental units

S.NO QUANTITY UNIT

1 Length Meter

2 Mass Kilogram

3 Time Second

4 Current Ampere

5 Temperature Kelvin

6 Luminous Intensity Candela

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• Derived units

S.NO QUANTITY UNIT

1 Length m Meter

2 Area 𝑚2 Square meter

3 Volume 𝑚3 Cubic meter

4 Time s Second

5 Velocity m/s Meter per second

6 Acceleration m/𝑠 2 Meter per second square

7 Mass kg Kilogram

8 Weight N Newton

9 Force N Newton

10 Density kg/𝑚3 Kilogram per meter cube

11 Pressure N/𝑚2 Newton per meter square

12 Work Nm (J) Newton meter (Joule)

13 Energy Nm (J) Newton meter (Joule)

14 Power Nm/s Newton meter per second

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1.5 LAWS OF MECHANICS

FIRST LAW OF MECHANICS

A particle remains in its position (rest or
motion) if the resultant force acting on the
particle is zero

SECOND LAW OF MECHANICS

Acceleration of the particle will be
proportional to the resultant force and in the
same direction if the resultant force is not
zero

THIRD LAW OF MECHANICS

Action and reaction forces between the
interacting bodies are in the same line of
action, equal in magnitude but acts in
opposite direction

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1.6 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY

It states that “If a force acts at any point on a rigid body it may also be considered to act at any
other point on its line of action”.

• For Example, consider a force “F” acting at point “A” on a rigid body

• “B” is another point on the line of action of force “F”

• Apply two opposite forces F1 and F2 each equal to F

• Hence any force acting at a point on a rigid body can be transmitted to act at any other
point along its line of action without changing its effect on the rigid body

EXAMPLE

A person pushing a cart with a 100 kg force

will cause the same result as a person pulling
the cart with a 100 kg force

1.7 FORCES

• Force is an agent which changes or tends the state of rest or of uniform motion of a
body upon which it acts

• A force represents the action of

one body on another

• Force is a vector quantity

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1.7.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE

• Magnitude

• Line of action

• Direction

MAGNITUDE:

• It is denoted by certain number of units

• Unit : Newton (N)

• 1kN = 1000 N = 103 N

• 1MN = 1000000 N = 106 N

• 1GN = 1000000000 N = 109 N

LINE OF ACTION:

• An infinite straight line along which the force

acts is called line of action of force

• Line of action of force is denoted by an angle

with some fixed axis

• This angle with fixed axis and the sense of

force represents the direction

DIRECTION:

• Sense of force (Arrow head) indicates whether

the force acts outwards from a particle or
towards a particle.

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1.8 SYSTEMS OF FORCES

• A body with two or more forces acting simultaneously on it constitute a system of

forces.

• Force system is classified into sub divisions

Systems of forces

Coplanar Non Coplanar or Spatial

Collinear Concurrent Non concurrent Concurrent Non concurrent

Like Unlike Parallel Non Parallel Parallel Non parallel

Like Unlike Like Unlike

COPLANAR FORCES
• All forces acts in one plane
• Also called “Forces in plane”

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NON-COPLANAR FORCES
• All forces do not acts in one plane
• Also called “Forces in space”

COLLINEAR FORCES

• Forces acts on a common line of action

• Forces acts in same direction - Like
collinear
• Forces acts in opposite direction -
Unlike collinear

CONCURRENT FORCES

• All forces intersect at a common point

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PARALLEL FORCES

• Line of action of forces are parallel to

each other
• Parallel forces acting in same direction
are called Like Parallel forces
• Parallel forces acting in opposite direction
are called Unlike Parallel forces

LIKE COLLINEAR COPLANAR FORCES

• Forces acting in same direction

• Lies on a common line of action
• Acts in single plane

UNLIKE COLLINEAR COPLANAR FORCES

• Forces acting in opposite direction

• Lies on a common line of action
• Acts in single plane

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COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES

• Forces intersect at a common point
• Acts in single plane

COPLANAR NON CONCURRENT FORCES

• Forces do not intersect at a common point Atomic Movements
• Acts in single plane
• They may be either parallel or non-
parallel

NON COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES

• Forces intersect at a common point

• Lines of action do not lie on the same
plane

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NON COPLANAR NON CONCURRENT FORCES

• Forces do not intersect at a common

point
• Lines of action do not lie on the same
plane

1.9 RESULTANT OF A FORCE SYSTEM

If a number of forces acting on a particle simultaneously are replaced by a single force, which
could produce the same effect as produced by the given forces. That single force is called
Resultant Force. It is an equivalent of all given forces.

1N 2N 3N
a b

• 3 collinear forces 1N, 2N and 3N acts on a line a-b in same direction.

• These forces can be replaced by a single force equals sum of the given forces, which
acts on the same line a-b in same direction.

• Hence, Resultant Force = 1N+2N+3N = 6N

1N 2N 3N 6N
=
a b a b

1.9.1 METHODS TO DETERMINE RESULTANT OF A FORCE SYSTEM

• Methods to determine Resultant Force

• Analytical Method

• Graphical Method

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1.10 RESULTANT OF A COLLINEAR FORCE SYSTEM

1.10.1 RESULTANT OF A LIKE COLLINEAR FORCE SYSTEM

• Consider 3 collinear forces P, Q and S acting on common line of action and in same
direction.

• Magnitude of resultant of these forces is Sum of all forces

Resultant Force, R = P + Q + S

P Q S R
=
1.10.2 RESULTANT OF A UNLIKE COLLINEAR FORCE SYSTEM

• Consider 3 collinear forces P, Q and S acting in different direction.

• Magnitude of resultant of these forces is Algebraic sum of all forces

Resultant Force, R = P - Q + S
P Q S R
=

1.10.3 SIGN CONVENTIONS USED IN COLLINEAR FORCE SYSTEM

• Upward vertical force = = Positive

• Downward Vertical force = = Negative

• Left to right Horizontal force = = Positive

• Right to Left Horizontal force = = Negative

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1. Find the resultant force of the collinear force as shown in figure

8N 10N 12N 4N

Given:

F1 = 8N F2 = 10N F3 = 12N F4 = 4N

Solution:

Resultant Force, R = F 1 + F2 + F3 + F4

R = 8 + 10 +12 +4

Resultant Force, R = 34 N

Result:

8N 10N 12N 4N 34N

2. Find the resultant force of the collinear force as shown in figure

8N 10N 12N 4N

Given:

F1 = 8N F2 = 10N F3 = 12N F4 = 4N

Solution:

Resultant Force, R = +F1 - F2 + F3 - F4

R = +8 - 10 +12 -4

Resultant Force, R=+6N

Result:

8N 10N 12N 4N 6N

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1.11 RESULTANT OF A CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM [ANALYTICAL METHOD]

Resultant of Concurrent Forces

• Resultant force of two concurrent forces

• Parallelogram Law of Forces

• Resultant force of more than two concurrent forces

1.11.1 RESULTANT OF TWO CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

It states that “If two forces acting simultaneously at a point, be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant of these two forces is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of that parallelogram originating from
that point”

In order to prove the parallelogram law of forces, Extend OA, the line of action of the force P,
till it meets the perpendicular drawn from point C

Let the point of intersection is D

From geometry of parallelogram,

OB = AC OA = BC

OA = BC = P OB = AC = Q OC =R

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In triangle ACD
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐷
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐷
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑄 𝑄

CD = Q sin θ AD = Q cos θ

By Pythagoras Theorem

𝑨𝑪𝟐 = 𝑨𝑫𝟐 + 𝑪𝑫𝟐

In triangle OCD

OC 2 = OD2 + CD2

= (OA + AD)2 + CD2

= (OA2 + AD2 + 2 OA AD) + CD2

= OA2 + (AD2 + CD2 ) + 2 OA AD

OC 2 = OA2 + AC 2 + 2 OA AD

R2 = P 2 + Q2 + 2 P Q cos θ

𝑹 = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑷 𝑸 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

The angle of inclination of R with line of action P be ‘α’

In triangle OCD
𝐶𝐷
tan 𝛼 =
𝑂𝐷

𝐶𝐷
tan 𝛼 =
𝑂𝐴+𝐴𝐷

𝑸 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 =
𝑷+𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

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3. Two concurrent forces 12 kN and 18 kN are acting at an angle of 600. Find the
resultant force.

Given:

P = 12N Q = 18N θ = 600

Solution:

Resultant Force, R = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑷𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

R = √122 + 182 + (2 ∗ 12 ∗ 18 ∗ cos 60)

R = √144 + 324 + 216

R = √684

Resultant Force, R = 26.15 kN

𝑸 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Inclination of R with P, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 =
𝑷+𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

18 ∗ sin 60
tan 𝛼 =
12+18 ∗ cos 60

15.58
tan 𝛼 =
21

tan 𝛼 = 0.742

𝛼 = tan−1 (0.742)

𝛼 = 36.575

Inclination of R with P, 𝛼 = 360 34′ 31′′

Result:

Resultant Force, R = 26.15 kN

Inclination of R with P, 𝛼 = 360 34′ 31′′

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4. Two concurrent forces acts at an angle of 300. The resultant force is 15 kN and one of
the forces is 10 kN. Find the other force.

Given:

P = 10 N R = 15N θ = 300

Solution:

Resultant Force, R = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑷𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

15 = √102 + 𝑄2 + 2 ∗ 10 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ cos 30

15 = √100 + 𝑄2 + 17.32𝑄

Taking square on both sides,

152 = 100 + 𝑄2 + 17.32𝑄

225 = 100 + 𝑄2 + 17.32𝑄

𝑄2 + 17.32𝑄 + 100 − 225 = 0

𝑄2 + 17.32𝑄 − 125 = 0

Q = 5.48 N or -22.8 N

Q = + 5.48 kN

Result:

Other Force, Q = 5.48 kN

5. Find the magnitude of 2 forces such that if they act at right angles, their resultant is
√𝟏𝟎 N. But if they act at 600, resultant is √𝟏𝟑 N.

Given:

Case A : R = √10 N θ = 900

Case B : R = √13 N θ = 600

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Solution:

CASE A CASE B

R = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑷𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 R = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑷𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

√10 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2 𝑃𝑄 cos 90 √13 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2 𝑃𝑄 cos 60

√10 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 √13 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 𝑃𝑄

Squaring on both the sides Squaring on both the sides
10 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 13 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 𝑃𝑄
𝑃2 + 𝑄2 = 10 (Equation 1) 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + PQ = 13 (Equation 2)

𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + PQ = 13

Sub the Eqn 1 in Eqn 2, 10 + PQ = 13

PQ = 13-10

PQ = 3 (Equation 3)

(𝑃 + 𝑄)2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄

(𝑃 + 𝑄)2 = 10 + 2 ∗ 3

(𝑃 + 𝑄)2 = 16

(𝑃 + 𝑄) = 4 (Equation 4)

Sub Eqn 3 in Eqn 4

3
(𝑃 + 𝑃) = 4

𝑃2 +3
( 𝑃
)= 4

(𝑃2 + 3) = 4𝑃

𝑃2 − 4𝑃 + 3 = 0

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P = 1 OR 3

Consider P = 1, Sub in Eqn 4, (1+Q) = 4

Q=4–1

Q=3

Consider P = 3, Sub in Eqn 4, (3+Q) = 4

Q=4–3

Q=1

Result:

Hence, the forces were 1N and 3N

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. Two forces of magnitude 20N and 40N are acting on a particle such that the angle
between them is 1350. If both the forces are acting away from the particle,
calculate their resultant.

2. Two forces 70N and 60N are acting at and away from point. If the angle between
them is 500, find their resultant in magnitude and direction.

3. Two forces of 13N and 23N acts at a point O. Find the magnitude of their resultant
and the angle that it makes with the force of 13N. Assume the angle between the
forces as (a) 600 (b) 1200

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1.11.2 RESULTANT OF MORE THAN TWO CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

RESOLUTION OF FORCES

• Basically, a force is either horizontal or vertical.

• Horizontal force has either right or left side direction.

• Vertical force has either upward or downward direction.

• Here inclined forces are considered

“Splitting up a force into components along the fixed reference axes is called Resolution
of a force”

In triangle OBA
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐵
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴

𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐵
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
𝐹 𝐹

AB = F sin θ OB = F cos θ

AB = OC = F sin θ OB = F cos θ

𝑭𝒗 = F sin θ 𝑭𝒉 = F cos θ

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In triangle OAC
𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐶
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴

𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐶
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
𝐹 𝐹

AC = F sin θ OC = F cos θ

AC = OB = F sin θ OC = F cos θ

𝑭𝒗 = F sin θ 𝑭𝒉 = F cos θ

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PROCEDURE FOR FINDING RESULTANT OF MORE THAN 2 CONCURRENT FORCES

STEP 1 : RESOLUTION OF FORCES

STEP 2 : ALGEBRAIC SUM OF HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS

∑ 𝑯 = 𝑭𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑭𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑭𝟑 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟑

STEP 3 : ALGEBRAIC SUM OF VERTICAL COMPONENTS

∑ 𝑽 = 𝑭𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 − 𝑭𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟑

STEP 4 : MAGNITUDE OF RESULTANT FORCE

𝟐 𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝑹 = √(∑ 𝑯) + (∑ 𝑽)

STEP 5 : DIRECTION OF RESULTANT FORCE

∑𝑽
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = ∑𝑯

∑𝑽
𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (∑ )
𝑯

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6. Three coplanar concurrent forces acting at a point. Determine

the resultant in magnitude and direction.

Solution:

S.N Forces Resolution of Forces Horizontal Component (N) Vertical Component (N)

1
200 cos 450 +141.42 200 sin 450 +141.42

2 400cos 300 -346.41 400 sin 300 +200

3 600 cos 600 +300 600 sin 600 -519.62

ΣH 95.01 ΣV - 178.2

𝚺𝐕
Resultant Force, R = √(𝚺𝑯)𝟐 + (𝚺𝑽)𝟐 Direction of Resultant, α = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝚺𝐇
R = √(95.01)2 + (−178.2)2 178.2
α = tan−1 ( )
95.01
R = √40782.14
α = 61.930
R = 201.95 N
Result:

Resultant Force = 201.95 N α = 61.930

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7. The Four coplanar concurrent forces acting at a point.

Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction.

Given:

F1 = 104N F2 = 156N F3 = 252N F4 = 228N

θ1 = 100 θ2 = 240 θ 3 = 30 θ 4 = 90

Solution:

S. Resolution of Vertical Component

Forces Horizontal Component (kN)
No Forces (kN)

104 cos 100

1 +102.42 104 sin 100 +18.06

2 156 sin 240 -63.45 156 cos 240 +142.51

3 252 cos 30 -251.65 252 sin 30 -13.19

4 228 sin 90 -35.67 228 cos 90 -225.19

ΣH -248.35 ΣV -77.81

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𝚺𝐕
Resultant Force, R = √(𝚺𝑯)𝟐 + (𝚺𝑽)𝟐 Direction of Resultant, α = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝚺𝐇
R = √(−248.35)2 + (−77.81)2 77.81
α = tan−1 ( )
248.35
R = √67732.1186
α = tan−1(0.3133)
R = 260.25 N
α = 17.40

Result:

Resultant Force = 260.25N α = 17.40

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. Locate the resultant force for the following system of forces.

2. Locate the resultant force for the following system of forces.

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8. Particle “O” is acted on by the following forces:

i) 20N inclined 300 to North of East

ii) 25N towards North

iii) 30N towards North of West with 450

iv) 35N inclined 400 to South of West.

Find the Resultant force.

Solution:

S. Resolution of
Forces Horizontal Component (N) Vertical Component (N)
No Forces

1 20 cos 30 17.32 20 sin 30 10

-
2 - 25 25

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3 30 cos 45 - 21.21 30 sin 45 21.21

4 35 cos 40 -26.81 35 sin 40 -22.49

ΣH -30.7 ΣV 33.72

𝚺𝐕
Resultant Force, R = √(𝚺𝑯)𝟐 + (𝚺𝑽)𝟐 Direction of Resultant, α = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝚺𝐇
R = √(−30.7)2 + (33.72)2 33.72
α = tan−1 ( )
30.7
R = √2079.5284
α = tan−1(1.098)
R = 45.6 N
α = 47.670
Result:

Resultant Force = 45.6N α = 47.670

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9. Five forces of magnitude 300N, 250N, 150N, 100N and 200N are acting at point O (direction
of each force is away from point O). The angles made by 300N, 250N, 150N, 100N and 200N
forces with positive X axis are 400, 800, 1200, 1600 and 2400 respectively. Determine magnitude
and direction of resultant.

Solution:

S. Resolution of
Forces Horizontal Component (N) Vertical Component (N)
No Forces

1 300 cos 40 229.81 300 sin 40 192.83

2 250 cos 80 43.41 250 sin 80 246.20

3 150 sin 30 -75 150 cos 30 129.90

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4 100 cos 20 -93.97 100 sin 20 34.20

5 200 cos 60 -100 200 sin 60 -173.21

ΣH 4.25 ΣV 429.92

𝚺𝐕
Resultant Force, R = √(𝚺𝑯)𝟐 + (𝚺𝑽)𝟐 Direction of Resultant, α = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝚺𝐇

R = √(4.25)2 + (429.92)2 α = tan−1 (

429.92
)
4.25
R = 429.94 N
α = 89.440

Result:

Resultant Force = 429.94N α = 89.440

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. A particle is subjected to
i) 250N towards North
ii) 300N towards North of West
iii) 200N inclined at 300 towards North of East
iv) 350N inclined at 400 towards South of West
Find the magnitude and direction of resultant force acting over the particle.

2. Five forces acting on a particle. The magnitude of the forces is 300N, 600N, 700N,
900N and 1000N and their respective angles with the horizontal are 0 0, 600, 1350,2100 and
2700. Calculate magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

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10. The forces 10N, 20N, 30N and 40N are acting on one of the vertices of regular pentagon
towards the other four vertices taken in order. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force R.

Solution:

Sum of the interior angles of a polygon = (2n-4)*900

θ+θ+θ+θ+θ = (2 * 5 - 4)*900

5θ = 5400

θ = 5400/5

θ = 1080

Angle of one of the interior angle = 1080

Angle of each vertices = 1080/3

Angle of each vertices = 360

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S. Resolution of
Forces Horizontal Component (N) Vertical Component (N)
No Forces

1 10 10 - -

2 20 cos 36 16.18 20 sin 36 11.76

3 30 cos 72 9.27 30 sin 72 28.53

4 40 cos 72 -12.36 40 sin 72 38.04

ΣH 23.09 ΣV 78.33

𝚺𝐕
Resultant Force, R = √(𝚺𝑯)𝟐 + (𝚺𝑽)𝟐 Direction of Resultant, α = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝚺𝐇

R= √(23.09)2 + (78.33)2 α = tan−1 (

78.33
)
23.09
R = 81.66 N
α = 73.570

Result:

Resultant Force = 81.66N α = 73.570

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1.12 RESULTANT OF A CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM [GRAPHICAL METHOD]

Resultant of Concurrent Forces

• Resultant force of two concurrent forces

• Parallelogram Law of Forces

• Triangle Law of Forces

• Resultant force of more than two concurrent forces

• Polygonal Law of Forces

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

It states that “If two forces acting simultaneously at a

point, be represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant of
these two forces is represented in magnitude and direction
by the diagonal of that parallelogram originating from that
point”

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES

It states that “If two forces acting at a point are represented by

2 sides of a triangle, take in order, then their resultant force is
represented by third side taken in opposite order”

POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

It states that “If a number of coplanar concurrent forces are represented in magnitude and
direction by sides of polygon taken in an order, then their resultant force is represented by
closing side of the polygon taken in reverse order”

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1.13 EQUILIBRIUM

If the resultant of a number of forces acting on a particle is zero, the particle is in equilibrium. The set
of forces, where resultant is zero are called Equilibrium forces.

• Let the resultant of the force system is R, with the direction of α with horizontal

• Due to this resultant force, the particle may starts moving in the direction of resultant forces.
• But if we apply additional force of same magnitude and direction as that of resultant force, on
the same line of action but in opposite direction, then the movement of the particle is arrested
or particle is said to be in equilibrium.
• Equilibrant (E) is equal to resultant force (R) in magnitude and direction, collinear but
opposite nature.

1.13.1 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

For equilibrium condition of force system, the resultant is zero

𝑅=0

√(∑ 𝐻 )2 + (∑ 𝑉 )2 = 0

If ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0, then R = 0

ΣH = 0, Algebraic sum of all the Horizontal forces = 0

ΣV = 0, Algebraic sum of all the Vertical forces = 0

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1.13.2 PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM

TWO FORCE PRINCIPLE

If a body is subjected to two forces, then the body will
be in equilibrium if the two forces are collinear, equal
and opposite

THREE FORCE PRINCIPLE

If a body is subjected to three forces, then the body will be in equilibrium if the resultant of any two
forces is equal, opposite and collinear with third force

FOUR FORCE PRINCIPLE

If a body is subjected to four forces, then the body will be in equilibrium if the resultant of any two
forces is equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of other two
```

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1.14 LAMI’S THEOREM

It states that “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two”.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑹
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜸
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

LIMITATIONS:

1. Lami’s theorem is only applied for 3 coplanar concurrent forces which are in equilibrium. Also
the concurrent forces should act outwards from a point.

2. Lami’s theorem cannot be applied directly for 3 coplanar concurrent equilibrium forces as shown
in the figure. Force F1 acting towards O. Hence force can be taken outward and Lami’s theorem
is applied.

𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟑
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟑

3. These forces can also be solved directly equations of equilibrium.

ΣH = 0, Algebraic sum of all the Horizontal forces = 0
ΣV = 0, Algebraic sum of all the Vertical forces = 0

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11.Forces are acting on a particle and keep the particle in

equilibrium. The magnitude of force F1 is 250N. Find the
magnitude of forces F2 and F3.

Method 1 : By Lami’s Theorem

Angle of a straight line = 1800

600 + θ1 + 300 = 1800

θ1 + 900 = 1800

θ1 = 1800 - 900

θ1 = 900

Similarly from the figure,

θ2 = 900

θ3 = 900

α = 300 + θ3 = 300 + 900 = 1200

𝛽 = 600 + θ2 = 600 + 900 = 1500

𝛾 = θ1 = 900

By Lami’s Theorem,
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟑
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜸

250 𝐹2 𝐹3
= =
sin 1200 sin 1500 sin 900
250 𝐹2 250 𝐹3
= =
sin 1200 sin 1500 sin 1200 sin 900
sin 1500 sin 900
𝐹2 = 250 𝐹3 = 250
sin 1200 sin 1200

𝐹2 = 144.34 𝑁 𝐹3 = 288.68 𝑁

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Method 2 : Conditions of Equilibrium

By Equilibrium of Forces,

F1 = 250N

Resolution of
S.No Forces Horizontal Component (N) Vertical Component (N)
Forces

F1 cos 60 F1 sin 60
1 -125 216.51
250 cos 60 250 sin 60

2 F2 cos 30 F2 cos 30 F2 sin 30 F2 sin 30

3 - - F3 -F3

F2 cos 30 - 216.51+F2sin30
ΣH 125 ΣV -F3

ΣH = 0, ΣV = 0,
- 125 + F2 cos 30 = 0 216.51 + F2 sin 30 - F3 = 0
F2 cos 30 = 125 216.51 + (144.34 * sin 30) - F3 = 0
125 216.51 + 72.17 - F3 = 0
F2 = cos 30
288.68 - F3 = 0
F2 = 144.34 N
F3 = 288.68 N

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12. Examine whether the particle A acted upon by forces is in

equilibrium.

Solution:

S.No Forces Resolution of Forces Horizontal Component (kN) Vertical Component (kN)

1 8.76 cos 45 6.194 8.76 sin 45 6.194

2 4.39 cos 60 2.195 4.39 sin 60 3.801

20
3 -20 - -

4 - - 10 -10

5 16 16 - -

ΣH 0 ΣV 0
Conditions of equilibrium, ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0

As both the conditions are satisfied, This system of forces are in equilibrium.

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13. The four coplanar forces are acting at a point in

equilibrium. One of the forces is unknown and its
magnitude is P. Determine the unknown force P and its
inclination with X-axis.

Solution:

S.No Forces Resolution of Forces Horizontal Component (N) Vertical Component (N)

1 P cos θ +P cos θ P sin θ +P sin θ

2 - - 500 +500

3 775 -775 - -

4 800 cos 20 +751.75 800 sin 20 -273.61

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Conditions of equilibrium, ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0

ΣH = 0 , P cosθ – 775 + 751.75 = 0

P cosθ – 23.25 = 0

P cosθ = 23.25

ΣV = 0, P sinθ + 500 -273.61 = 0

P sinθ + 226.39 = 0

P sinθ = - 226.39

Solving both the equations, Squaring both the equationa and add them,

𝑃 sin 𝜃 −226.39
= (𝑃 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝑃 sin 𝜃)2 = (23.25)2 + (−226.39)2
𝑃 cos 𝜃 23.25

sin 𝜃
= −9.71 𝑃2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑃2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 = 51792.99
cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 = −9.71 𝑃2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃) = 51792.99

𝜃 = tan−1 (−9.71) 𝑃2 (1) = 51792.99

𝜃 = 84.120 𝑃 = 227.58 𝑁

Subtitute θ in the above equation,

P cos θ = 23.25 P cos θ = 23.25

P cos (84.12) = 23.25 227.58 cos θ = 23.25

23.25
P * 0.102 = 23.25 cos θ =
227.58

23.25
P= cos θ = 0.102
0.102

P = 227.94 N 𝜃 = cos −1 (0.102)

𝜃 = 84.140

RESULT :

Unknown force P = 228N and θ = 840

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14. An unknown force P keeps the four coplanar concurrent forces

in equilibrium as shown in the figure. Find the force P and its
direction.

Solution:

S. Resolution of Horizontal Vertical Component

Forces
No Forces Component (N) (N)

1 18 +18 - -

2 20 cos 45 +14.14 20 sin 45 +14.14

3 - - 30 +30

4 10 cos 30 -8.66 10 sin 30 -5

(+) P cos
5 P P P cos θ P sin θ (+)P sinθ
θ

Conditions of equilibrium, ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0

ΣH = 0 , + 18 + 14.14 - 8.66 + P cosθ = 0

P cosθ + 23.48 = 0 P cosθ = - 23.48

ΣV = 0, + 14.14 + 30 – 5 + P sinθ = 0

P sinθ + 39.14 = 0 P sinθ = -39.14

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Since horizontal component and vertical component are negative values, then the unknown force P is
acting in third quadrant.

Solving both the equations,

𝑃 sin 𝜃 −39.14
=
𝑃 cos 𝜃 −23.48

sin 𝜃
= 1.667
cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 = 1.667

𝜃 = tan−1 (1.667) 𝜃 = 59.090

Subtitute θ in the above equation,

P cos θ = -23.48

P cos (59.09) = 23.25

P * 0.513 = 23.25
23.25
P= P = 45.32 N
0.513

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. Determine the magnitude of unknown force F and angle θ

for the particle which is in equilibrium.

2. The shown force system is in equilibrium. Determine the forces P and Q.

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3. Given figure shows the joint of a roof truss where 4 forces meet.
Calculate the forces marked X and Y in the figure, if the external force
P = 2kN.

1.15 FREE BODY DIAGRAM

In equilibrium analysis of structures or machines, it is necessary to consider all the forces acting on
the body and exclude all the forces which are not directly applied to it. The problem becomes much
simple if each body is considered as an isolation i.e., separate from surrounding body or bodies.

Such a body which has been so separated or isolated from the surrounding bodies is called Free body.

Let’s consider a fan of weight “w” suspended by the string AO from the ceiling as shown in the
figure. Weight of the fan is acting through its center.

• Free body diagram shows the forces acting on fan,

• The self-weight of the fan, which acts vertically downwards (W)

• To keep the fan in the condition of equilibrium, there must be some upward force in the string
AO, which is holding the weight of the fan in position. Let it be “T”.

• This is called Free body Diagram.

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FREE BODY DIAGRAM:

• Free body diagram at B.

• Weight of body attached at B acting downwards (𝑊𝐵 )

• Tension on string AB, acting at B and towards A (𝑇𝐵𝐴 )

• Tension on string BC, acting at B and towards C (𝑇𝐵𝐶 )

• Free body diagram at C.

• Weight of body attached at C acting downwards (𝑊𝐶 )

• Tension on string CB, acting at C and towards B (𝑇𝐶𝐵 )

• Tension on string CD, acting at C and towards D (𝑇𝐶𝐷 )

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15. An electric light fixture weighing 150 newtons hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and
BC as shown. Determine the forces in the strings AC and BC.

Solution:

From the equation of straight line,

∠BCO = 180 – 60 = 120

∠ACO = 45 + 90 = 135

∠BCA = 60 + 45 = 105

By Lami’s Theorem,

𝑻𝑪𝑩 𝑻𝑪𝑨 𝑻𝑪𝑶

= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟎

𝑇𝐶𝐵 𝑇𝐶𝐴 150

= =
sin 1350 sin 1200 sin 1050
𝑇𝐶𝐵 150 𝑇𝐶𝐴 150
= =
sin 1350 sin 1050 sin 1200 sin 1050

sin 1350 sin 1200

𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 150 𝑇𝐶𝐴 = 150
sin 1050 sin 1050

𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 109.80𝑁 𝑇𝐶𝐴 = 134.48𝑁

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16. A 300N force is applied at C which is in equilibrium.

Determine,

(i) the value of the angle θ

(ii) Tension in cables AC and BC

Solution:

By the principle of opposite angles are

equal

The angles are resolved as like shown in

the figure.

In order to make the system to be in

equilibrium, then θ = 600, so that it will
produce equal tensile forces on both the
strings.

By Lami’s Theorem

𝑨 𝑩 𝟑𝟎𝟎
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝐴 300 𝐵 300
= =
sin 1500 sin 600 sin 1500 sin 600

sin 1500 sin 1500

𝐴 = 300 𝐵 = 300
sin 600 sin 600

A = 173.21 N B = 173.21 N

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17. A String of length 310mm has its extremites attached to two fixed points situated 250mm
apart in horizontal line. If the string can bear any tension up to 36N, find the greatest load that
can be supported at a point of the string distant 240mm from one extremity.

Solution :

θ1 θ2
Let a = 240mm b = 70mm c = 250mm
𝒂𝟐 +𝒄𝟐 −𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐 +𝒄𝟐 −𝒂𝟐
θ3 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 =
𝟐𝒂𝒄 𝟐𝒃𝒄

𝑎2 +𝑐 2 −𝑏2 2402 +2502 −702

cos 𝜃1 = = = 0.96 𝜃1 = cos −1 (0.96) 𝜃1 = 16.260
2𝑎𝑐 2∗240∗250

𝑏2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2 702 +2502 −2402

cos 𝜃2 = = = 0.28 𝜃2 = cos −1 (0.28) 𝜃2 = 73.730
2𝑏𝑐 2∗250∗70

α = 900 + θ1 = 900 + 16.260 = 106.260

β = 900 + θ2 = 900 + 73.730 = 163.740

γ = 3600 - 106.260 – 163.740 = 900

By Lami’s Theorem,
𝑻𝑪𝑨 𝑻𝑪𝑩 𝑾 𝑇𝐶𝐴 𝑇𝐶𝐵 𝑊
= = = =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜸 sin(163.740 ) sin(106.260 ) sin(900 )
𝑇𝐶𝐴 𝑇𝐶𝐵 𝑊
= =
0.2802 0.96 1
𝑇𝐶𝐵 36
=𝑊 =𝑊
0.96 0.96

𝑊 = 37.5 𝑁

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18. Two equal weights each of 1000 N is supported by a

flexible string as shown in the figure. Find the tension
in the portions AC, CD & BD of the string

Soultion:

Let the free body diagram of the given figure be,

0.5
tan 𝜃 = = 0.5
1

𝜃 = tan−1 (0.5)

θ = 26.560

∠ACW = ∠BDW = 26.56+90 = 116.560

∠ACD = ∠BDC = 63.44+90 = 153.440

∠DCW = ∠CDW = 900

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𝑻𝑪𝑨 𝑻𝑪𝑫 𝑾 𝑻𝑫𝑪 𝑻𝑫𝑩 𝑾

= = = =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟏𝟔.𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟑.𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟏𝟔.𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟑.𝟒𝟒𝟎

𝑇𝐶𝐴 1000 𝑇𝐶𝐷 1000 𝑇𝐷𝐶 1000 𝑇𝐷𝐵 1000

= = = =
sin 900 sin 153.440 sin 116.560 sin 153.440 sin 116.560 sin 153.440 sin 900 sin 153.440

sin 900 sin 116.560 sin 116.560 sin 900

𝑇𝐶𝐴 = 1000 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 1000 𝑇𝐷𝐶 = 1000 𝑇𝐷𝐵 = 1000
sin 153.440 sin 153.44 0 sin 153.440 sin 153.440

𝑇𝐶𝐴 = 2236.46 𝑁 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 2000.44 𝑁 𝑇𝐷𝐶 = 2000.4 𝑁 𝑇𝐷𝐵 = 2236.46 𝑁

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. A force P is applied at O to the string AOB as shown in the figure. If the tension is each part
of the string is 50N, find the magnitude and direction of P for equilibrium conditions

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1.16 ACTION AND REACTION

• Consider a ball placed on a horizontal surface.

• The self-weight of the ball is acting vertically downwards, through its center of gravity.

• This force is called Action.

• Now the ball can move horizontally; but its vertical downward motion is resisted due to
resisting force developed at support, acting vertically upwards.

• This force is called Reaction.

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19. A smooth sphere of weight w is supported by a string fastened to a

point A on the smooth vertical walls, the other end is in contact with point
B on the wall as shown in the figure. If the length of the string AC is equal
to radius of the sphere, find the tension in the string and reaction of the
wall.

Given :

Length of the string AC = Radius of the sphere

Solution :

Let the radius of the sphere be “r”

Then, OB = OC = r

Also Length of the string AC = r

Also, OA = OC + CA = r + r = 2r
𝑂𝐵 𝑟 1 1
cos 𝜃 = = = ⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) ⇒ 𝜃 = 600
𝑂𝐴 2𝑟 2 2

∠W O RB = 900

∠W O TCA = 90 + 60 = 1500

∠TCA O RB = 30 +90 = 1200

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By Lami’s Theorem,

𝑻𝑪𝑨 𝑹𝑩 𝑾
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑇𝐶𝐴 𝑊 𝑅𝐵 𝑊
= =
sin 900 sin 1200 sin 1500 sin 1200

sin 900 sin 1500

𝑇𝐶𝐴 = 𝑊 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑊
sin 1200 sin 1200

𝑇𝐶𝐴 = 1.155 𝑊 𝑅𝐵 = 0.577 𝑊

20. String AO holds a smooth sphere on an inclined plane ABC as shown

in the figure. The weight of the sphere is 1000N and the plane is smooth.
Calculate the tension in the string and the reaction at the point of contact
B.

Given :

Weight of the sphere = 1000 N

Solution :

∠AOB θ = 180-15-90 = 75

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∠W O RB = 90+45 = 135

∠W O TOA = 90 +30 = 120

∠TOA O RB = 60+45 = 105

By Lami’s Theorem,

𝑻𝑶𝑨 𝑹𝑩 𝑾
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟎
𝑇𝑂𝐴 1000 𝑅𝐵 1000
= =
sin 1350 sin 1050 sin 1200 sin 1050

sin 1350 sin 1200

𝑇𝑂𝐴 = 1000 𝑅𝐵 = 1000
sin 1050 sin 1050

𝑇𝑂𝐴 = 732.6 𝑁 𝑅𝐵 = 896.5 𝑁

1.17 RESULTANT OF PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEM

• While finding resultant of collinear and concurrent forces, we find the magnitude and direction
of resultant force, location of resultant force is not required.
• But in parallel force system location of resultant force is also required.
• To find the location of resultant, Principle of Moments is applied.

1.17.1 MOMENT

• Moment of a force about a point is defined as “The product of the force and the perpendicular
distance of the line of action of the force from that point”

Moment about the point A

𝑴𝑨 = F * x

Unit : Nm

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1.17.1.1 TYPES OF MOMENT

• Moment is classified into two types

• Clockwise Moment ( )
• Anticlockwise Moment ( )

• Moment of F1 about the point O

𝑴𝟎 = F1 * a (Clockwise)
• Moment of F2 about the point O
𝑴𝟎 = F2 * a (Anti-Clockwise)

1.17.1.2 SIGN CONVENTION FOR MOMENT

• Clockwise Moment ( ) - Positive

• Anticlockwise Moment ( ) - Negative

1.17.1.3 MOMENT OF VERTICAL FORCE

In the first figure, the rod is rotating in clockwise manner,

hence the moment is in Clockwise direction

In the Second figure, the rod is rotating opposite to clockwise

manner, hence the moment is in Anti-Clockwise direction

1.17.1.4 MOMENT OF HORIZONTAL FORCE

In the first figure, the rod is rotating in clockwise manner,

hence the moment is in Clockwise direction

In the Second figure, the rod is rotating opposite to

clockwise manner, hence the moment is in Anti-Clockwise
direction

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1.17.2 VARIGNON’S THEOREM

It states that “Algebraic sum of the moments of any number of forces about any point in their plane is
equal to the moment of their resultant about the same point”

• Consider a rigid body subjected to 3 coplanar forces F1, F2

and F3 at perpendicular distance d1, d2 and d3 from point O
respectively.
• Let resultant force R is at a distance “d” from point O
• By Varignon’s theorem,
F1d1 + F2d2 + F3d3 = R.d

• Sum of the moment of all the forces about the point = Moment of their resultant force about
same point

1.17.3 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

It states that “In equilibrium, The total clockwise moment about a point equals the total anticlockwise
moment about the same point”

Moment about the point O with respect to 𝐹1 ,

𝑴𝟏 = 𝑭𝟏 * x (Clockwise Moment)

Moment about the point O with respect to 𝐹2 ,

𝑴𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐 * y (AntiClockwise Moment)

In equilibrium, Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment

𝑭𝟏 * x = 𝑭𝟐 * y

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21. Find the resultant force for the given parallel force system.

Solution:

(A) Magnitude of resultant Force:

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = F1 + F 2

R = 24 + 36

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = + 60 N

(B) Direction of resultant Force:

Direction of Resultant Force, R = 60 N (Upward Force)

(C) Location of resultant Force:

By Varignon’s Theorem

ΣM of all forces about a point = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

Let us consider the reference point as A,

ΣM of all forces about A

ΣMA = (24 * 0) - (36 * 12) = - 432 N cm

ΣMA = 432 N cm (Anticlockwise Moment)

Moment of Resultant force about A

Moment of the Resultant force about A = R * x = 60x

ΣMA = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

432
432 = 60 x x=
60

Location of Resultant force, x = 7.2 cm

Result:

Magnitude of Resultant force = 60 N

Direction of Resultant force = Upward Force

Location of Resultant force = 7.2 cm from point A

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22. Four parallel forces of magnitude 10N, 15N, 20N and 35N are
shown in the figure. Determine the magnitude and direction of
resultant force. Find distance of the resultant force from point A.

Solution:

(A) Magnitude of resultant Force:

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
R = 10 – 15 – 20 + 35
Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = + 10 N

(B) Direction of resultant Force:

Direction of Resultant Force, R = 10 N (Upward Force)

(C) Location of resultant Force:

By Varignon’s Theorem

ΣM of all forces about a point = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

ΣM of all forces about A

ΣMA = (10 * 0) + (15 * 1) + (20 * 3 ) – (35 * 4)

ΣMA = - 65 Nm
ΣMA = 65 N cm (Anticlockwise Moment)
Moment of Resultant force about A

Moment of the Resultant force about A = R * x = 10x

ΣMA = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

65
65 = 10 x x=
10

Location of Resultant force, x = 6.5 m

Result:

Magnitude of Resultant force = 10 N

Direction of Resultant force = Upward Force

Location of Resultant force = 6.5 m from point A

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23. For the parallel forces shown in the figure, determine magnitude, direction and location of
the resultant force.

Solution:

(A) Magnitude of resultant Force:

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = 30 – 40 – 15 + 25 - 60

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = -60 N

(B) Direction of resultant Force:

Direction of Resultant Force, R = 60 N (Acting towards Left)

(C) Location of resultant Force:

By Varignon’s Theorem

ΣM of all forces about a point = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

Let us consider the reference point as A,

ΣM of all forces about A

ΣMA = (60 * 0) + (25 * 2) - (15 * 4 ) – (40 * 7) + (30 * 8)

ΣMA = - 50 Nm

ΣMA = 50 N cm (Anticlockwise Moment)

Moment of Resultant force about A

Moment of the Resultant force about A = R * x

Moment of the Resultant force about A = 60 x

ΣMA = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

50
50 = 60 x x=
60

Location of Resultant force, x = 0.833 m from A

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Result:

Magnitude of Resultant force = 60 N

Direction of Resultant force = Acting towards Left

Location of Resultant force = 0.833m from point A

24. Three parallel forces shown in the figure are in equilibrium. Find the
magnitude of the force P and its point of application.

Solution:

From equations of Equilibrium

ΣV = 0, 250 + 400 – P = 0 P = 650N

ΣMA = 0, (250 * 0 ) + (P * x ) – (400 * 2) = 0

0 + (650 * x) – 800 = 0

650 x = 800
800
x=
650

x= 1.23m

Result:

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PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. Find the resultant force for the given parallel force system.

2. A coplanar parallel force system consisting of two forces acts

on a rigid bar. Find the simplest equivalent action of the force
system.

1.17.4 COUPLE

“When two equal and opposite parallel forces act on a body,

at some distance apart, the two forces form a couple”.

Couple has tendency to rotate the body. The perpendicular

distance between the parallel force is called arm of the
couple. In a couple, sum of the moments about any point is
same.

Consider a couple

Here, OA = x and OB = a – x

Moment at the point A, Σ 𝑀𝐴 = F * a (Clockwise)

Moment at the point B, Σ 𝑀𝐵 = F * a (Clockwise)

Moment at the point O, Σ𝑀𝑂 = (F * x) + (F * (a-x))

= Fx + Fa – Fx

Σ𝑀𝑂 = Fa

• Sum of the moments of couple forces about any point is same in magnitude and nature

• Moment of a couple = Force * Arm of the couple

M = Fa

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RESOLUTION OF FORCE INTO A FORCE AND COUPLE AT A POINT

• Consider a force P acting on a rigid body at a point A.

• Principle of transmissibility says that, the force P can be

placed anywhere but on its line of action.

• But we cannot move the force P to another point say B

which is away from the original line of action, without
modifying the action of P on the rigid body.

• To reduce the system, introduce two equal and opposite

imaginary collinear forces at B of same magnitude and
parallel to the line of action of the original force.

• Now there are 3 equal forces in the system

• Two forces i.e., force P at A and oppositely directed force P

at B form a couple.

• The moment of this couple is (M=P*a) Pa and the nature is

clockwise.

• Third force is acting at B in the same direction in which the

force at A is acting.

• The system of force is called Force couple system

EXAMPLE:

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25. A system of parallel forces are acting on rigid bar as shown.

Reduce the system to
i. A Single force
ii. A single force and a couple at A
iii. A single force and a couple at B
Solution:

CASE (i) A SINGLE FORCE

(A) Magnitude of resultant Force:

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = 30 -150 +70 -10

Magnitude of Resultant Force, R = - 60 kN

(B) Direction of resultant Force:

Direction of Resultant Force, R = 60 kN (Downward Force)

(C) Location of resultant Force:

By Varignon’s Theorem

ΣM of all forces about a point = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

Let us consider the reference point as A,

ΣM of all forces about A

ΣMA = (30*0) + (150*1) – (70*2) + (10*3.5)

ΣMA = + 45 kNm

ΣMA = 45 kNm (Clockwise Moment)

Moment of Resultant force about A

Moment of the Resultant force about A = R x = 60x

ΣMA = Moment of a resultant force about the same point

45
45 = 60 x x=
60

Location of Resultant force, x = 0.75 m from A

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Result:

Magnitude of Resultant force = 60 kN

Direction of Resultant force = Downward Force

Location of Resultant force = 0.75m from A

CASE (ii) A SINGLE FORCE AND A COUPLE AT A

CASE (iii) A SINGLE FORCE AND A COUPLE AT B

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UNIT 2
SUPPORTS AND REACTIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Previously, we have studied Equilibrium of rigid bodies in two dimensions. In general for the
condition of equilibrium, action and reaction are equal but opposite to each other. This chapter is
dealing with support reactions of a statically determinate beams, frames and truss which are subjected
to a general coplanar force system and designed for equilibrium. Beams and frames are examples of
Coplanar force system.

BEAMS

A beam is a horizontal structural member which carries a load,

transverse (Perpendicular) to its axis and transfers the load through
support reactions to supporting columns or walls.

FRAMES

A structure made up of several members, riveted or bolted or welded

together is known as frame.

2.2 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

The force of resistance exerted by the support on the beam

is called as support reactions. Support reaction of beam
depends on the type of loading and support.

• Roller supports

• Hinged supports

• Fixed supports

2.2.1 ROLLER SUPPORT

• This is the simplest type of support

• It may consist of either a single roller or a group
of rollers
• This type of support cannot withstand any force
parallel to its own plane
• The support will simply roll of if there is some
parallel force to its plane
• Roller support has only one Reaction

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2.2.2 HINGED SUPPORT

• It is also called pin-joint support

• This type of support can withstand any type of force both horizontal and vertical
• Hence it has two reaction components
• If the load is vertical, the reaction will be vertical only
• If the load is horizontal, the reaction will be horizontal only
• If the load is inclined, the reaction will be inclined only.
• The inclined reaction can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components

2.2.3 FIXED SUPPORT

• Both roller and hinged supports can resist only displacements (Horizontal and Vertical
movements of Beams) but rotation of beam is not resisted by both the supports
• This can be given by fixed supports
• Hence fixed support has three reaction components
Fixed support is considered as strongest support

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2.3 TYPES OF LOADS

• Point load
• Uniformly distributed load
• Uniformly varying load

POINT LOAD / CONCENTRATED LOAD

• A load acting at a point on a beam is known
as a point load
• It is also called as concentrated load

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

• A load which is spread over a beam, in such a
manner that each unit length of the beam
carries same intensity of the load, is called
uniformly distributed load (UDL)

UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD

• A load which is spread over a beam, in such a
manner that rate of loading on each unit
length of the beam varies uniformly, is called
uniformly varying load (UVL)

2.4 DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

• A structure which can be completely analyzed by static conditions of equilibrium alone is

called Statically Determinate Structures
• A structure which cannot be completely analyzed by static conditions of equilibrium and needs
more additional equations to solve is called Statically Indeterminate Structures

NOTE:

• In all problems initially the magnitude and direction of support reacts are unknown
• Hence, their directions are assumed first as we want and the equilibrium equations are applied
• While solving if we get negative value, it indicates that the assumed direction is wrong; hence
reverse the direction

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1. Find the support reactions of a simply supported beam.

Solution:

Step 1 : Support reactions Representation:

Step 3 : ΣV = 0

VA – 8 + V B = 0
VA + V B – 8 = 0
VA + V B = 8
Step 3 : ΣM = 0

Taking moment about a point A, ΣMA = 0

(VA * 0) + ( 8 * 2) - *(VB * 4) = 0
16 – 4VB = 0
- 4VB = -16
VB = 4 kN
Step 4 : Determination of Reaction

VA + V B = 8
VA + 4 = 8
VA = 4 kN
Result:

VA = 4 kN VB = 4 kN

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2. Find the support reactions of a simply

supported beam.

Solution:

Step 1 : Support reactions Representation:

Step 2 : ΣH = 0

HB = 0

Step 3 : ΣV = 0

VA – 4 – 8 + VB = 0
VA + VB – 12 = 0
VA + VB = 12
Step 3 : ΣM = 0

Taking moment about a point A, ΣMA = 0

(VA * 0) + (4 * 2) + ( 8 * 6) - *(VB * 8) = 0
8 + 48 – 8VB = 0
56 - 8VB = 0
8VB = 56
VB = 7 kN
Step 4 : Determination of Reaction

VA + V B = 12
VA + 7 = 12
VA = 5 kN
Result:

HB = 0 VA = 5 kN VB = 7 kN

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3. Find the support reactions of a simply supported beam.

Solution:

Step 1 : Support reactions Representation:

Step 2 : ΣH = 0

HA – (8* Cos 600) + (10* Cos 450) = 0

HA – 4 + 7.07 = 0
HA + 3.07 = 0
HA = - 3.07 kN

Since HA is negative, the assumed direction is wrong.

HA = 3.07 kN (Acting towards left)
Step 3 : ΣV = 0

VA – 6 - (8* sin 600) - (10* sin 450) + VB = 0

VA – 6 – 6.93 – 7.07 + VB = 0
VA – 20 + VB = 0
VA + V B = 20 kN

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Step 3 : ΣM = 0

Taking moment about a point A, ΣMA = 0

(VA *0) +(6*2)+ (8 sin 600 * 3.5) + (10 sin 450 * 6.5) + (VB*7) = 0
12 + 24.25 + 45.96 + 7VB = 0
82.21 - 7VB = 0
7VB = 82.21
VB = 82.21
7
VB = 11.74 kN
Step 4 : Determination of Reaction

VA + V B = 20
VA + 11.74 = 20
VA = 20 – 11.74
VA = 8.26 kN

Result:

HA = 3.07 kN VA = 8.26 kN VB = 11.74 kN

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4. Find the support reactions of a simply supported beam.

Solution:

Step 1 : Support reactions Representation:

Point Load : W Uniformly distributed load : w Span of the beam : L

𝑘𝑁
To convert a udl to a point load : W = w*L = 4 * 5 m = 20 kN
𝑚

This point load is acting at mid-point of uniformly distributed load i.e., 5/2 = 2.5 m from both ends

Step 3 : ΣV = 0

+VA – 20 + VB = 0
VA + VB = 20
Step 3 : ΣM = 0

Taking moment about a point A, ΣMA = 0

(VA*0) +(20*2.5)-(VB*5) = 0
0 + 50 - 5 VB = 0
5 VB = 50
VB = 10 kN

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Step 4 : Determination of Reaction

VA + V B = 20

VA + 10 = 20

VA = 20-10

VA = 10 kN

Result:

VA = 10 kN VB = 10 kN

5. Find the support reactions of a simply supported beam.

Solution:

Step 1 : Support reactions Representation:

Point Load : W Uniformly Varying load : w Span of the beam : L

1 1
To convert a uvl to a point load : W = Area of triangle = ∗ 𝑏 ∗ ℎ = ∗ 5𝑚 ∗ 2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 = 5 kN
2 2

This point load is acting at 1/3 of span from point A : 1/3 * 5 = 1.67 m from point A

This point load is acting at 2/3 of span from point B : 2/3 * 5 = 3.33 m from point B

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Step 3 : ΣV = 0

VA – 5 + V B = 0
VA + V B – 5 = 0
VA + V B = 5
Step 3 : ΣM = 0

Taking moment about a point A, ΣMA = 0

(VA * 0) + ( 5 * 1.67) - (VB * 5) = 0

8.35 – 5VB = 0
5VB = 8.35
VB = 8.35
5
VB = 1.67 kN
Step 4 : Determination of Reaction

VA + V B = 5
VA + 1.67 = 5
VA = 5-1.67
VA = 3.33 kN

Result:

VA = 3.33 kN VB = 1.67 kN

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6. Find the support reactions of a simply

supported beam.

Solution:

Step 1 : ΣH = 0

HB = 0

Step 2 : ΣV = 0

VA – 12 – 8 – 8 + VB = 0
VA + VB – 28 = 0
VA + V B = 28
Step 3 : ΣM = 0

Taking moment about a point A, ΣMA = 0

(VA * 0) + (12*2)+( 8 * 6)+(8*8) - (VB * 10) = 0

24+48+64– 10VB = 0
10VB = 136
VB = 136
10
VB = 13.6 kN
Step 4 : Determination of Reaction

VA + V B = 28
VA + 13.6 = 28
VA = 28-13.6
VA = 14.4 kN

Result:

VA = 14.4 kN VB = 13.6 kN HB = 0

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UNIT 3
SECTIONAL PROPERTIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION

Section properties involves the mathematical properties of structural shapes. they are of great use in
structural analysis and design. note that these properties have nothing to do with the strength of
material, but are based solely on the shape of the section. it explains why some shapes are more
efficient at supporting loads than others. Some of the most important properties are Centroid, Moment
of inertia, Section modulus and radius of gyration.

3.2 CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTROID (G)

Centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point through which the entire weight of the body acts.
It is referred to three dimensional figures.

Centroid is same as centre of gravity but referred to weightless laminas or plane area (having no
mass). It is referred to one and two-dimensional figures.

NOTE: Every body has only one centre of gravity, which may be within the body or even outside the
body.

3.2.1 CENTROID OF PLANE FIGURES

The centroid of plane figures is determined by geometrical consideration, by the method of moments,
by integration etc., Centroid of plane figures divided into two.

• Centroid of simple plane figures – Square, rectangle, Circle, Triangle, etc.,

• Centroid of composite plane figures – Combination of simple plane figures

3.2.2 CENTROID OF SIMPLE PLANE FIGURES

The centroid of simple plane figure is determined by,

• Geometrical considerations
• Integration

3.2.2.1 GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS

RECTANGLE : If “L” and “B” are the length and breadth of the
rectangle, then the centroid is the point of intersection of its
diagonals. From the geometry of the figure, the centroid G is the mid-
point of the length as well as mid-point of the breadth.

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TRIANGLE : Consider a triangle of base “B” and height “H”, the

centroid is the point of intersection of three medians. From the geometry
of the figure, the centroid G, divides each median internally, in the ratio
of 2:1. hence for the triangle, the centroid G is at a height of h/3 from the
base.

REFERENCE AXES AND CENTROIDAL AXES

Consider a rectangle of length “l” and height “h”. We know its centroid (G) is the point of
intersection of the diagonals. But the location of the centroid is always measured with reference to
some reference axes. Generally, two axes are used for the centroid of a plane figure.
When the reference axes OX and OY, with the point of origin O, are taken, then,

𝑳
̅=𝒂+
Horizontal distance of centroid from Vertical reference axis, 𝒙
𝟐
𝑯
̅=𝒃+
Vertical distance of centroid from Horizontal reference axis, 𝒚
𝟐

But for the same rectangle, if the reference axes are fixed at origin O. then,

𝑳
̅=
Horizontal distance of centroid from Vertical reference axis, 𝒙
𝟐
𝑯
̅=
Vertical distance of centroid from Horizontal reference axis, 𝒚
𝟐

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3.2.2.2 METHOD OF INTEGRATION

RECTANGLE:

If “b” and “h” are the breadth and height of the rectangle.
Consider a vertical rectangular strip of thickness “dx”
parallel to the height, at a distance of x from the reference
axis OY.

Area of the strip, dA = dx. h

Area of rectangle, A = bh

xs = x + dx = x (Since dx is very small)

𝒙𝒔 𝒅𝑨
Centroid, ̅= ∫
𝒙
𝑨

𝑥 dx. h
= ∫
bh
𝑥 dx
= ∫
b
1
= ∫ 𝑥 dx
𝑏
𝑏
1
= ∫ 𝑥 dx
𝑏
0

𝑏
1 𝑥2
= [ ]
𝑏 2 0

1 𝑏2
= [ − 0]
𝑏 2

𝒃
𝐱̅ =
𝟐

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Area of the strip, dA = dy. b

Area of rectangle, A = bh

ys = y + dy = y (Since dx is very small)

𝒚𝒔 𝒅𝑨
Centroid, ̅= ∫
𝒚
𝑨

𝑦 dy. b
= ∫
bh
𝑦 dy
= ∫
h
1
= ∫ 𝑦 dy
ℎ
ℎ
1
= ∫ 𝑦 dy
ℎ
0

ℎ
1 𝑦2
= [ ]
ℎ 2 0

1 ℎ2
= [ − 0]
ℎ 2

𝒉
𝐲̅ =
𝟐

𝒃 𝒉
̅, 𝒚
Co-ordinates of centroid, (𝒙 ̅) = ( , )
𝟐 𝟐

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3.2.3 CENTROID OF SIMPLE PLANE FIGURES

NAME SHAPE ̅
𝑿 ̅
𝒀 AREA

𝑎 𝑎
Square 𝑎2
2 2

𝑙 𝑏
Rectangle l*b
2 2

Triangle 𝑏 ℎ 1
(Isosceles) 𝑏ℎ
2 3 2

Triangle 𝑏 ℎ 1
(Right-Angled) 𝑏ℎ
3 3 2

𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 2
Circle 𝑑
2 2 4

𝑑 4𝑟 𝜋 2
Semi-circle 𝑑
2 3𝜋 8

4𝑟 𝑑 𝜋 2
Semi circle 𝑑
3𝜋 2 8

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NAME SHAPE ̅
𝑿 ̅
𝒀 AREA

4𝑟 4𝑟 𝜋 2
Quadrant 𝑟
3𝜋 3𝜋 4

4𝑟 4𝑟 𝜋 2
Quadrant (𝑟 − ) 𝑟
3𝜋 3𝜋 4

𝑎 𝑏 𝜋𝑎𝑏
Ellipse
2 2 4

𝑏 𝑏 + 2𝑎 ℎ (𝑎 + 𝑏 )ℎ
Trapezium ( )
2 𝑏+𝑎 3 2

𝑏 2 2
Parabola ℎ 𝑏ℎ
2 5 3

5 2 2
Semi-Parabola 𝑏 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
8 5 3

2𝑟 sin 𝛼 𝜃
Sector of circle 0 𝜋𝑟 2
3𝛼 360

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3.2.4 CENTROID OF COMPOSITE PLANE FIGURES

If the plane figure is combination of two or more simple plane figures, the algebraic sum of moments
of the individual areas about any axis of reference will be equal to the moment of the whole area
about same axis. Hence, the centroid of the composite plane figures is determined by the method of
moments.
𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏
𝐱̅ =
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏
𝒂𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏 𝒚𝒏
𝐲̅ =
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏

a1, a2, … , an = Area of the simple figures 1,2, … of the composite plane figure

x1, x2, … , xn = Horizontal distance of centroid of simple figures 1,2,..from the vertical reference axis

y1, y2, … , yn = Vertical distance of centroid of simple figures 1,2,..from the horizontal reference axis

x̅ and y̅ = Horizontal and vertical distance of the centroid of the composite plane figure from the
vertical and horizontal reference axes.

3.2.3.1 AXIS OF SYMMETRY

If a composite plane figure has an axis of symmetry, centroid lies on it. This concept reduces the
work of locating the centroid.

(i) Symmetrical about both the axes (ii) Symmetrical about X-axis

(iii) Symmetrical about Y-axis (iv) Non-Symmetrical about any axis

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3.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA (I)

We have already measured the moment of a force about a point as the product of its magnitude and
the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the point about which the force
causing rotation.

Let the moment of the force F about O at a distance of x on AB axis, Mo = F * x

This moment is also called as the first moment of the force about O.

If this moment is again multiplied by x, then we get the moment of the moment of the force or second
moment of the force. This second moment of the force is also called as the Moment of Inertia.

Moment of Inertia, MO2 = First moment * x = (Fx) * x

Moment of Inertia, MO2 = Fx2 = I

3.3.1 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE FIGURES

It is generally called as “Area moment of inertia”. the moment of inertia is denoted by I and carries
with it symbol of the axes about which it is calculated.

Moment of Inertia about an axis AB = IAB

Moment of Inertia about centroidal axes = Ixx and Iyy

METHODS TO DETERMINE MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia of simple plane figures – Method of Integration

Moment of inertia of composite plane figures – Theorems of Moment of Inertia

1. Parallel Axis Theorem

2. Perpendicular axis Theorem

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3.3.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE FIGURES – INTEGRATION METHOD

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RECTANGLE:

Let “b” and “h” are the breadth and height of the rectangle. Consider a
rectangular strip of thickness “dy” parallel to the breadth, at a distance of y
from the reference axis OX.

Area of the strip = b dy

M.I of the strip about XX axis = Area * distance2
(IXX)Strip = (b dy) y2
(IXX)Strip = b y2 dy
ℎ ℎ
To find the M.I of the whole section about XX axis, integrate the above with the limits − 𝑡𝑜
2 2
ℎ
2
(IXX)Rectangle = ∫ (𝐼𝑋𝑋 )𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
ℎ
−
2
ℎ/2

= ∫ 𝑏 𝑦 2 dy
−ℎ/2

ℎ/2
𝑦3
= b [ ]
3 −ℎ/2

𝑏 ℎ 3 −ℎ 3
= [( ) − ( ) ]
3 2 2

𝑏 ℎ3 ℎ3
= [ + ]
3 8 8

𝑏 2ℎ3
= [ ]
3 8

𝒃𝒉𝟑
(IXX)Rectangle = 𝟏𝟐

𝒉𝒃𝟑
Similarly, (IYY)Rectangle =
𝟏𝟐

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3.3.3 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM

It is states that “The moment of inertia of a lamina about any axis in the plane of lamina is equal
to the sum of the moment of inertia about a parallel centroidal axis in the plane of lamina and
the product of the area of the lamina and square of the distance between the two axes”.

IAB = IXX + A (𝐡̅𝟐 )

In integration method, the M.I of a rectangle about the horizontal centroidal axis,
𝑏ℎ 3
(IXX)Rectangle =
12

The moment of inertia of the same rectangle, about any axis, but parallel to XX axis can be
determined by parallel axis theorem. Let AB is a parallel axis, parallel to XX , at a distance of ℎ̅.

From the parallel axis theorem, the M.I of rectangle about its bottom edge can be determined as,

IAB = IXX + A (𝐡̅𝟐 )

Area of the rectangle (A) = bh
ℎ
Distance of CG from plane AB ℎ̅ =
2

𝑏ℎ 3 ℎ 2
IAB = + [(𝑏ℎ) ∗ ( ) ]
12 2

𝑏ℎ 3 𝑏ℎ 3
= + [ ]
12 4

4𝑏ℎ 3
=
12

𝒃𝒉𝟑
IAB =
𝟑

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MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A TRIANGLE:

Consider a triangle of base “b” and height “h”.

The moment of Inertia of the triangle about its base AB is determined first, then by applying the
parallel axis theorem, we calculate the M.I about its horizontal centroidal axis

Consider a small strip of thickness “dy” at a distance of “y” from the apex C of the triangle. To find
the area of the strip, write the width of the strip in terms of available data, b and h.
𝑃𝑄 𝑦
From the geometry of the figure, =
𝐴𝐵 ℎ

𝑦
width of the strip PQ = 𝐴𝐵
ℎ

𝑦
PQ = 𝑏
ℎ

Area of the strip = Width * Thickness

𝑏𝑦
Area of the strip = * dy
ℎ

Moment of Inertia of the strip about the base AB = Area * h̅2

𝑏𝑦
= * dy * (ℎ − 𝑦)2
ℎ

𝑏𝑦
(𝐼𝐴𝐵 )𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = (ℎ − 𝑦)2 * dy
ℎ

Now to find M.I of the whole triangle about its base, integrate the above result with the limits 0 to h.
ℎ
IBase = ∫0 (𝐼𝐴𝐵 )𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
ℎ 𝑏𝑦
= ∫0 (ℎ − 𝑦)2 dy
ℎ

𝑏 ℎ
=
ℎ
∫0 𝑦 (ℎ − 𝑦)2 dy

𝑏 ℎ
=
ℎ
∫0 𝑦 (ℎ2 + 𝑦 2 − 2ℎ𝑦) dy

𝑏 ℎ
=
ℎ
∫0 (𝑦ℎ2 + 𝑦 3 − 2ℎ𝑦 2 ) dy

ℎ
𝑏 ℎ2𝑦2 𝑦4 2ℎ𝑦 3
= [ + − ]
ℎ 2 4 3 0

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ℎ
𝑏 ℎ4 ℎ4 2ℎ 4
= [ + − ]
ℎ 2 4 3 0

𝒃𝒉𝟑
IBase =
𝟏𝟐

By Parallel Axis Theorem,

IAB = IXX + A (𝐡̅𝟐 )

IXX = IAB - A (𝐡̅𝟐 )

𝑏ℎ 3 1 ℎ 2
= - [ 𝑏ℎ ∗ ( ) ]
12 2 3

𝑏ℎ 3 𝑏ℎ 3
= -[ ]
12 18

𝒃𝒉𝟑
IXX =
𝟑𝟔

𝒃𝒉𝟑
Similarly, IYY =
𝟒𝟖

3.3.4 PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM

It states that “The moment of inertia of an area about an axis perpendicular to its plane at any
point O is equal to the sum of moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axis
through the same point O and lying in the plane of area”.

IZZ = IXX + IYY

Referring to figure, if z-z is the axis normal to the plane of paper passing through the point O, as per
this theorem.

IZZ = IXX + IYY

The above theorem is easily proved. Let us consider an elemental area dA at the distance r from O.
Let the co-ordinates of dA be x and y. Then from definition:

IZZ = Σ r2dA

= Σ ( x2 + y2 ) dA

= Σ x2 dA + Σ y2 dA

IZZ = IXX + IYY

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MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A CIRCLE:

Consider a circle of radius “r” with centre O. The centroidal axes XX and YY are drawn.
Consider an elementary ring of radius “x” and thickness “dx”.
Area of the ring = 2πx dx

To find the moment of inertia of the circular section about xx and yy

axes. first find the M.I of the ring about the axis, normal to the plane of
circle (zz) and integrate with limits from 0 to r.

(𝐼𝑧𝑧 )𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = Area * h̅2

= 2πx dx * x2
(𝐼𝑧𝑧 )𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 2πx3 dx
𝑟
Moment of Inertia of the circle about ZZ axis, IZZ = ∫0 2𝜋𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑟
= 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑟
𝑥4
= 2𝜋 [ ]
4 0

𝑟4
= 2𝜋 [ ]
4

𝝅𝒓𝟒
IZZ =
𝟐
𝑑 4
𝜋( )
2
𝝅𝒅𝟒
Substituting r = d/2 IZZ = IZZ =
2 𝟑𝟐

Since the circle is symmetrical about xx and yy axis, then IXX = IYY

From Perpendicular axis Theorem, IZZ = IXX + IYY = IXX + IXX

IZZ = 2 IXX
Izz
IXX =
2

𝝅𝒅𝟒
𝟑𝟐
IXX =
2

𝝅𝒅𝟒
IXX =
𝟔𝟒

𝝅𝒅𝟒
Similarly , IXX = IYY =
𝟔𝟒

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3.3.5 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SIMPLE PLANE FIGURES

NAME SHAPE IXX IYY

𝑎4 𝑎4
Square
12 12

(𝐴4 − 𝑎4 ) (𝐴4 − 𝑎4 )
Hollow Square
12 12

𝑏ℎ3 ℎ𝑏3
Rectangle
12 12

(𝐵𝐻 3 − 𝑏ℎ3 ) (𝐻𝐵3 − ℎ𝑏3 )

Hollow Rectangle
12 12

𝑏ℎ3 ℎ𝑏3
Triangle
36 48

𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋𝑑 4
Circle
64 64

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NAME SHAPE IXX IYY

𝜋 𝜋
Hollow Circle (𝐷 4 − 𝑑 4 ) (𝐷 4 − 𝑑 4 )
64 64

𝜋𝑑 4
Semi-circle 0.0068 𝑑 4
128

Semi circle 0.055 𝑟 4 0.055 𝑟 4

3.3.6 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF COMPOSITE PLANE FIGURES

• To find the moment of inertia of a composite plane figure, at first, subdivide it into a minimum
number of simple plane figures
• Find the M.I of each plane area about the axis on which the M.I of the entire area is required.
• For this the standard results given in above table and parallel axis theorem may be used.
• Finally, the M.I of the components area summed up.
• it is to be noted that, if the moment of inertia of a composite plane figure is required about its
centroidal axes (xx and yy), the co-ordinates of the centroid should be known. If it is not given
first find x̅ and y̅

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1. Locate the centroid and determine the Moment of Inertia of the plane
shown.

Solution:

Centroid :

S.No SECTION AREA (a) [cm2] x [cm] y [cm]

2 8
1 8*2 16 1 2+ 6
2 2

6 2
2 6*2 12 3 1
2 2

𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝐱̅ = 𝐲̅ =
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐

(16 ∗ 1) + (12 ∗ 3) (16 ∗ 6) + (12 ∗ 1)

x̅ = y̅ =
16 + 12 16 + 12

52 108
x̅ = y̅ =
28 28

x̅ = 1.857 𝑐𝑚 y̅ = 3.857 𝑐𝑚

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Moment of Inertia:

S.no Section IXX IYY

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 ) Iy1 = IYY + A (h̅2 )

𝑏ℎ 3 2∗83 ℎ𝑏3 8∗23

IXX = 85.33 cm4 IYY = 5.33 cm4
12 12 12 12

1 A=b*h 2*8 16 cm2 A=b*h 2*8 16 cm2

ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦1 3.875 ~ 6 2.125 cm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥1 1.875 ~ 1 0.875 cm

Ix1 = 85.33 + (16*2.1252) 157.58 cm4 Ix1 = 5.33 + (16*0.8752) 17.58 cm4

𝑏ℎ 3 2∗63 ℎ𝑏3 6∗23

IXX = 36 cm4 IYY = 4 cm4
12 12 12 12

A=b*h 2*6 12 cm2 A=b*h 2*6 12 cm2

2
ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦2 3.875 ~ 1 2.875 cm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥2 1.875 ~ 2 0.125 cm

Ix2 = 36 + (12*2.8752) 135.18cm4 Iy2 = 4 + (12*0.1252) 4.18 cm4

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 = 157.58 + 135.18 = 293.16 cm4

IYY = IY1 + IY2 = 17.58 + 4.18 = 21.76 cm4

RESULT:

Ixx = 293.16 cm4

Iyy = 21.76 cm4

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2. Find moment of inertia of a T section of flange 100 mm x 30 mm and web 20 mm x 80 mm

about its centroidal axes.

Solution:

Centroid :

S.No SECTION AREA (a) [mm2] x [mm] y [mm]

100 30
1 100 * 30 3000 50 80 + 95
2 2

20 80
2 80 * 20 1600 40 + 50 40
2 2

𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝐱̅ = 𝐲̅ =
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐

Since the section is (3000 ∗ 95) + (1600 ∗ 40)

symmetrical by y-axis y̅ =
3000 + 1600

100 349000
𝐱̅ = y̅ =
2 4600

x̅ = 50 𝑚𝑚 y̅ = 75.87 𝑚𝑚

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Moment of Inertia:

S.no Section IXX IYY

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 ) Iy1 = IYY + A (h̅2 )

𝑏ℎ 3 100∗303 ℎ𝑏3 30∗1003

IXX = 225000 mm4 IYY = 2500000 mm4
12 12 12 12

1 A=b*h 100 * 30 3000 mm2 A=b*h 100 * 30 3000 mm2

ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦1 75.87 ~ 95 19.13 mm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥1 50 ~ 50 0

1.323 x 106
Ix1 = 225000 + (3000*19.132) IY1 = 2500000 + 0 2.5 x 106 mm4
mm4

𝑏ℎ 3 20∗803 ℎ𝑏3 80∗203

IXX = 853333.3 mm4 IYY = 53333.33 mm4
12 12 12 12

A=b*h 20 * 80 1600 mm2 A=b*h 20 * 80 1600 mm2

2
ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦2 75.87 ~ 40 35.87 mm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥2 50 ~ 50 0

2.912 x 106
Ix2 = 853333.33 + (1600*35.872) Iy2 = 53333.33 + 0 5.33 x 104 mm4
mm4

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 = 1.323 x 106 + 2.912 x 106 = 4.235 x 106 mm4

IYY = IY1 + IY2 = 2.5 x 106 + 5.33 x 104 = 2.553 x 106 mm4

RESULT:

Ixx = 4.235 x 106 mm4

Iyy = 2.553 x 106 mm4

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3. Find moment of inertia of a channel section.

Solution:

Centroid :

S.No SECTION AREA (a) [mm2] x [mm] y [mm]

110 12
1 110*12 1320 55 + 140 + 12 158
2 2

12 140
2 140*12 1680 6 + 12 82
2 2

110 12
3 110*12 1320 55 6
2 2

𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒚𝟑
𝐱̅ = 𝐲̅ =
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑

(1320 ∗ 55) + (1680 ∗ 6) + (1320 ∗ 55) Since the section is

1320 + 1680 + 1320 symmetrical by x-axis

155280 164
𝐱̅ = y̅ =
4320 2

x̅ = 35.94 𝑚𝑚 y̅ = 82 𝑚𝑚

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Moment of Inertia:

S.no Section IXX IYY

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 ) Iy1 = IYY + A (h̅2 )

𝑏ℎ 3 110∗123 ℎ𝑏3 12∗1103

IXX = 15840 mm4 IYY = 1331000 mm4
12 12 12 12

1 A=b*h 110*12 1320 mm2 A=b*h 110*12 1320 mm2

ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦1 82 ~ 158 74 mm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥1 35.94 ~ 55 19.06 mm

7.640 x 106 1.810 x 106

Ix1 = 15840 + (1320*742) mm4
IY1 = 1331000+(1320*19.062)
mm4

𝑏ℎ 3 12∗1403 2744000 ℎ𝑏3 140∗123

IXX = IYY = 20160 mm4
12 12 mm4 12 12

A=b*h 12*140 1680 mm2 A=b*h 12*140 1680 mm2

2
ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦2 82 ~ 82 0 ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥2 34.94 ~ 6 29.94 mm

2.744 x 106
Ix2 = 2744000 + (1680*0) Iy2 = 20160 + (1680*29.942) 1.526 x 106 mm4
mm4

𝑏ℎ 3 110∗123 ℎ𝑏3 12∗1103

IXX = 15840 mm4 IYY = 1331000 mm4
12 12 12 12

A=b*h 110*12 1320 mm2 A=b*h 110*12 1320 mm2

3
ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦3 82 ~ 6 76 mm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥3 34.94 ~ 55 19.06 mm

7.640 x 106
Ix3 = 15840 + (1320*762) mm4
Iy3 = 1331000+(1320*19.062) 1.810 x 106 mm4

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 + Ix3 = 7.640 x 106 + 2.744 x 106 + 7.640 x 106 Ixx = 18.024 x 106 mm4

IYY = IY1 + IY2 + Iy3 = 1.810 x 106 + 1.526 x 106 + 1.810 x 106 Iyy = 5.147 x 106 mm4

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PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. Locate the centroid of the lamina.

2. Find the moment of inertia of an un-symmetrical I section about its centroidal axis

3. Find the moment of inertia of the section about its centroidal axis

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4. Determine the moment of inertia of the rectangular section in

which a circular hole of 20 mm diameter has been drilled as shown in
the figure.

Method 1:

Centroid :

Since the figure is symmetrical about both the axes,

The centre of gravity lies at the centre.

80 120
𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ = 40 𝑚𝑚 𝑦̅ = 𝑦̅ = 60 𝑚𝑚 Centroid (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = (40,60)
2 2

Moment of Inertia:

S.no Section IXX IYY

Ix = IXX + A (h̅2 ) Iy = IYY + A (h̅2 )

R
𝑏ℎ 3 80∗1203 11520000 ℎ𝑏3 120∗803
E IXX = IYY = 5120000 mm4
12 12 mm4 12 12
C
T A=b*h 120*80 9600 mm2 A=b*h 120*80 9600 mm2
A 120 80
N y1 60 mm x1 40 mm
2 2
G
L ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦1 60 ~ 60 0 ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥1 40 ~ 40 0
E
11.52 x 106 5.12 x 106
Ix1 = 11520000+ (9600*02) mm4
IY1 = 1331000+(1320*19.062)
mm4
𝜋𝑑4 𝜋 ∗204 𝜋𝑑4 𝜋 ∗204
IXX = 7850 mm4 IYY = 7850 mm4
64 64 64 64

𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 202 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 202

A= 314 mm2 A= 314 mm2
C 4 4 4 4
I 20 20
R y2 50 + 60 mm x2 30 + 40 mm
2 2
C
L ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦2 60 ~ 60 0 ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥2 40 ~ 40 0
E
7850
Ix2 = 7850 + (314*0) Iy2 = 7850 + (314*02) 7850 mm4
mm4

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Moment of inertia, Ixx = Ix1 – Ix2 = 11.52 x 106 – 7850 Ixx = 11.44 x 106 mm4

Iyy = Iy1 – Iy2 = 5.12 x 106 – 7850 Iyy = 5.11 x 106 mm4

Method 2 :

Centroid:

Since the figure is symmetrical about both the axes,

The centre of gravity lies at the centre.

80 120
𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ = 40 𝑚𝑚 𝑦̅ = 𝑦̅ = 60 𝑚𝑚 Centroid (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = (40,60)
2 2

Moment of Inertia :

Since the centroidal axis passes through centroid of individual sections, Moment of inertia can also be
determined as,
𝑏ℎ 3 80∗1203
Moment of Inertia of Rectangle, IXX1 = = 12
= 11520000 mm4
12

ℎ𝑏3 120∗803
IYY1 = = 12
= 5120000 mm4
12

𝜋𝑑4 𝜋 ∗204
Moment of Inertia of Circle, IXX2 = = 64
= 7850 mm4
64

𝜋𝑑4 𝜋 ∗204
IYY2 = = 64
= 7850 mm4
64

Moment of inertia, Ixx = Ixx1 – Ixx2 = 11520000 – 7850 Ixx = 11.44 x 106 mm4

Iyy = Iyy1 – Iyy2 = 5120000 – 7850 Iyy = 5.11 x 106 mm4

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

4. Find the moment of inertia of the section shown about its centroidal axis.
All the dimensions are in cm.

Solution:

Centroid :

S.No SECTION AREA (a) [cm2] x [cm] y [cm]

1 20 6
1 * 20 * 6 60 10 18 + 20
2 2 3

20 18
2 18 * 20 360 10 9
2 2

𝜋 ∗ 102 10 4∗5
3 39.27 10 + 15 2.122
8 2 3∗𝜋

𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒚𝟑
𝐱̅ = 𝐲̅ =
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟑

(60 ∗ 10) + (360 ∗ 10) + (39.27 ∗ 15) (60 ∗ 20) + (360 ∗ 9) + (39.27 ∗ 2.122)
60 + 360 − 39.27 60 + 360 − 39.27

x̅ = 9.484 𝑐𝑚 y̅ = 11.443 𝑐𝑚

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Moment of Inertia:

Section IXX IYY

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 ) Iy1 = IYY + A (h̅2 )

T
𝑏ℎ 3 20∗63 ℎ𝑏3 6∗203
R IXX = 120 cm4 IYY = 1000 cm4
36 36 48 48
I
A 1 1 1 1
A= bh * 20 * 6 60 cm2 A= bh * 20 * 6 60 cm2
N 2 2 2 2
G
L ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦1 11.443 ~ 20 8.557 cm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥1 9.484 ~ 10 0.516 cm
E 4516.42
Ix1 = 120 + (60*8.5572) cm4
IY1 = 1000+(60*0.5162) 1016.22 cm4

R 𝑏ℎ 3 20∗183 ℎ𝑏3 18∗203

IXX = 9720 cm4 IYY = 12000 cm4
E 12 12 12 12
C
T A=b*h 18*20 360 cm2 A=b*h 18*20 360 cm2
A
N
ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦2 11.443 ~ 9 2.443 cm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥2 9.484 ~ 9 0.516 cm
G
L 11868.57
E Ix2 = 9720 + (360*2.4432) cm4
Iy2 = 12000 + (360*0.5162) 12095.85 cm4

S 𝜋𝑑4 𝜋∗104
IXX = 0.0068𝑑4 0.0068 ∗ 104 68 cm4 IYY = 245.437 cm4
E 128 128

M
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 102 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 102
I A= 39.27 cm2 A= 39.27 cm2
8 8 8 8
C
I
ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅~ 𝑦3 11.443 ~ 2.122 9.321 cm ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ ~ 𝑥3 9.484 ~ 15 5.516 cm
R
C
L 3479.82
Ix3 = 68 + (39.27*9.3212) Iy3 = 245.437+(39.27*5.5162) 1440.28 cm4
E cm4

RESULT:

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 - Ix3 = 4516.42 + 11868.57 – 3479.82 Ixx = 12905.17 cm4

IYY = IY1 + IY2 - Iy3 = 1016.22 + 12095.85 – 1440.28 Iyy = 11671.79 cm4

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5. Find the moment of inertia of the section shown about its centroidal axis.
All the dimensions are in cm.

Solution:

Moment of Inertia:

Section IXX IYY

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 ) Iy1 = IYY + A (h̅2 )

T
𝑏ℎ 3 20∗63 ℎ𝑏3 6∗203
R IXX = 120 cm4 IYY = 1000 cm4
36 36 48 48
I
A 1 1 1 1
A= bh * 20 * 6 60 cm2 A= bh * 20 * 6 60 cm2
N 2 2 2 2
G 6 20
L ℎ̅ 18 + 3 20 cm ℎ̅ 10 cm
2
E
Ix1 = 120 + (60*202) 24120 cm4 IY1 = 1000+(60*102) 7000 cm4

R 𝑏ℎ 3 20∗183 ℎ𝑏3 18∗203

IXX = 9720 cm4 IYY = 12000 cm4
E 12 12 12 12
C
T A=b*h 18*20 360 cm2 A=b*h 18*20 360 cm2
A
N 18 20
ℎ̅ 9 cm ℎ̅ 10 cm
G 2 2
L
E Ix2 = 9720 + (360*102) 38880 cm4 Iy2 = 12000 + (360*92) 48000 cm4

S 𝜋𝑑4 𝜋∗104
IXX = 0.0068𝑑4 0.0068 ∗ 104 68 cm4 IYY = 245.437 cm4
E 128 128

M
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 102 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 102
I A= 39.27 cm2 A= 39.27 cm2
8 8 8 8
C
I 4∗5 10
ℎ̅ 2.122 cm ℎ̅ 10 + 2
15 cm
R 3∗𝜋
C
L Ix3 = 68 + (39.27*2.1222) 244.83 cm4 Iy3 = 245.437+(39.27*152) 9081.187 cm4
E

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 - Ix3 = 24120 + 38880 – 244.83 Ixx = 62755.17 cm4

IYY = IY1 + IY2 - Iy3 = 7000 + 48000 – 9081.187 Iyy = 45918.18 cm4

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6. Find the moment of inertia of the shaded portion about AB

axis as shown in the figure.

Solution:

Section IXX

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 )

T
𝑏ℎ 3 10∗123
R IXX = 480 cm4
36 36
I
A 1 1
N A= bh
2 2
* 10 * 12 60 cm2
G 12
L ℎ̅ 3
4 cm
E
Ix1 = 480 + (60*42) 1440 cm4
S
E IXX = 0.0068𝑑 4 0.0068 ∗ 104 68 cm4
M
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 102
I A= 39.27 cm2
8 8
C
I 4∗5
R ℎ̅ 2.122 cm
3∗𝜋
C
L Ix3 = 68 + (39.27*2.1222) 244.83 cm4
E
𝜋𝑑4 𝜋 ∗44
IXX = 12.57 cm4
64 64
C
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 42
I A= 12.57 cm2
4 4
R
C
ℎ̅ 0 0
L
E
Ix3 = 12.57 + (12.57*02) 12.57 cm4

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 - Ix3 = 1440 + 244.83 – 12.57 Ixx = 1672.26 cm4

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7. Find the moment of inertia of the shaded portion about

AB axis as shown in the figure.

Solution:

Section IXX

Ix1 = IXX + A (h̅2 )

T
𝑏ℎ 3 10∗123
R IXX = 480 cm4
36 36
I
A 1 1
N A= bh
2 2
* 10 * 12 60 cm2
G 12
L ℎ̅ 5+
3
9 cm
E
Ix1 = 480 + (60*92) 5340 cm4
S
E IXX = 0.0068𝑑 4 0.0068 ∗ 104 68 cm4
M
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 102
I A= 39.27 cm2
8 8
C
I 4∗5
R ℎ̅ 5-
3∗𝜋
2.878 cm
C
L Ix3 = 68 + (39.27*2.8782) 393.27 cm4
E
𝜋𝑑4 𝜋 ∗44
IXX = 12.57 cm4
64 64
C
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 ∗ 42
I A= 12.57 cm2
4 4
R
C
ℎ̅ 5 5 cm
L
E
Ix3 = 12.57 + (12.57*52) 326.82 cm4

Ixx = Ix1 + Ix2 - Ix3 = 5340 + 393.27 + 326.82 Ixx = 5406.45 cm4

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

1. Find the moment of inertia of the shaded portion about AB and CD axis as shown in the
figure.

2. Find the moment of inertia of the composite plane figure as shown in the figure about its
bottom edge AB. All dimensions are in mm.

3. Find the moment of inertia of the section about its centroidal axis. All dimensions are in
cm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

3.4 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA (I)

The area moment of inertia (i.e., M.I of plane figures) for an area relative to an axis perpendicular to
the plane of the area is called the polar moment of inertia. It is denoted by Ip

IP = IXX + IYY
In general, the polar moment of inertia is equal to the sum of area moments of inertia about any two
mutually perpendicular axes in its plane and intersecting on the polar axis.

1. Determine the polar moment of inertia of a hollow circular section as shown in the figure.

Solution:
𝝅
Moment of Inertia about XX axis, Ixx = (𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )
𝟔𝟒

𝜋
Ixx = (604 − 504 )
64

Ixx = 329376.35 mm4

𝝅
Moment of Inertia about YY axis, Iyy = (𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )
𝟔𝟒

𝜋
Iyy = (604 − 504 )
64

Iyy = 329376.35 mm4

Polar Moment of Inertia of the section, IP = IXX + IYY

IP = 329376.35 + 329376.35

IP = 658752.7 mm4

Result:

Polar Moment of Inertia of the section, IP = 658752.7 mm4

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3.5 SECTION MODULUS

Section modulus is the ratio of moment of inertia (I) of a section about neutral axis upon the farthest
point of section from neutral axis. It is denoted as Z.

𝑰
Z=𝒀

𝑰
NAME SHAPE I y Z=𝒀

𝑎4 𝑎 𝑎3
Square
12 2 6

Hollow (𝐴4 − 𝑎4 ) 𝐴 1
(𝐴4 − 𝑎4 )
Square 12 2 6𝐴

𝑏𝑑 3 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 2
Rectangle
12 2 6

Hollow (𝐵𝐷 3 − 𝑏𝑑 3 ) 𝐷 1
(𝐵𝐷 3 − 𝑏𝑑 3 )
Rectangle 12 2 6𝐷

𝜋𝑑 4 𝑑 𝜋𝑑 3
Circle
64 2 32

Hollow 𝜋 𝐷 𝜋
(𝐷 4 − 𝑑 4 ) (𝐷 4 − 𝑑 4 )
Circle 64 2 32𝐷

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3.6 RADIUS OF GYRATION

Radius of gyration about an axis is defined as the distance from that axis at which all the elemental
parts of the lamina would have to be placed, such that the moment of inertia about the axis is same. It
is also called as Radius of rotation

Moment of Inertia = Area x Distance 2

I = Ar2
𝐼
r2 =
𝐴

𝑰
r =√
𝑨

𝑰𝒙𝒙
Radius of gyration about xx axis, rxx = √
𝑨

𝑰𝒚𝒚
Radius of gyration about xx axis, ryy = √
𝑨

Note : The radius of gyration of a composite plane area about an axis is not equal to the sum of the
radii of gyration of the individual components about the same axis

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NAME SHAPE I A Radius of Gyration

𝑎4 𝑰𝒙𝒙 𝑎
IXX 𝑎2 rxx = √
12 𝑨 √12

Square

𝑎4 𝑰𝒚𝒚 𝑎
IYY 𝑎2 ryy = √
12 𝑨 √12

𝑏ℎ3 𝑰𝒙𝒙 ℎ
IXX bh rxx = √
12 𝑨 √12

Rectangle

ℎ𝑏3 𝑰𝒚𝒚 𝑏
IYY bh ryy = √
12 𝑨 √12

𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ 𝑰𝒙𝒙 ℎ
IXX rxx = √
36 2 𝑨 √18
Triangle
ℎ𝑏3 𝑏ℎ 𝑰𝒚𝒚 𝑏
IYY ryy = √
48 2 𝑨 √24

𝜋𝑑 4
64 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑰𝒙𝒙 𝑑
IXX rxx = √
4 𝑨 4
Circle
𝜋𝑑 4
64 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑰𝒚𝒚 𝑑
IYY ryy = √
4 𝑨 4

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UNIT 4
ELASTIC PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformations. Due to
cohesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by which material of
the body opposes the deformation is known as Strength of Materials. Within a certain limit the
resistance offered by the material is proportional to the deformation brought out on the material by
the external force. Also, within this limit the resistance is equal to the external force. But beyond this
elastic stage, the resistance offered by the material is less than applied load. In such cases, the
deformation continues, until failure takes place.

4.2 STRESS

• The internal resistance which the body offers to meet with the load is called Stress
• The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as stress.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝝈=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨

𝜎 = Stress

P = External Force or Load

A = Cross-Sectional Area

• Unit : N/mm2 (or) N/m2 1 N/m2 = Pascal

4.2.1 TYPES OF STRESS

• Tensile Stress
• Compressive Stress
• Shear Stress

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4.2.1.1 TENSILE STRESS

• Stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pull, which results in
increase in length is called tensile stress
𝑷𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑷
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝝈=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨

4.2.1.2 COMPRESSIVE STRESS

• Stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes, which results in
decrease in length is called compressive stress.
𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝑷
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝝈=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨

4.2.1.3 SHEAR STRESS

• Stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across resisting section, results in the body tends to shear off across the section is
called Shear stress.
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑽
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝝉=
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨

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4.3 STRAIN

• Strain is defined as deformation produced by the stress.

• When a body is subjected to external force, there is some change in dimension of the body to
the original dimension is called strain
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑫𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 (𝒆) =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

• Unit : No unit

4.3.1 TYPES OF STRAIN

• Tensile Strain
• Compressive Strain
• Shear Strain
• Volumetric Strain

4.3.1.1 TENSILE STRAIN

• When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pull, results in increase in length.
• The ratio of increase in length to the original length is called tensile strain
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜹𝒍
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒆=
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒍

4.3.1.2 COMPRESSIVE STRAIN

• When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes, results in decrease in length.
• The ratio of decrease in length to the original length is called compressive strain
𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜹𝒍
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒆=
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒍
4.3.1.3 SHEAR STRAIN

• Strain corresponding to respective shear stress is called Shear Strain.

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝜹𝑳
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = ∅=
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝑪 𝒉

4.3.1.3 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

• The ratio of change in volume to original volume of the body is called Volumetric Strain.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝜹𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗 =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽

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4.4 ELASTICITY

4.4.1 ELASTIC BODY

When an external force acts on a body tends to undergo some deformation. If the external force is
removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size, the body is known as Elastic body.
4.4.2 ELASTICITY
The property by virtue of which certain materials return back to their original position after the
removal of the external force, is called Elasticity.
4.4.3 ELASTIC LIMIT
There is always a limiting value of load up to which strain totally disappears on the removal of the
load. the stress corresponding to this load is called Elastic Limit.
4.4.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Hooke’s law states that “When a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain”
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝜶 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Stress = (Constant) Strain
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
4.4.5 YOUNG’S MODULUS OR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
It is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain or compressive stress to compressive strain.
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈
𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔, 𝑬 = 𝑬= Unit : N/mm2
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆

4.4.6 SHEAR MODULUS OR MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

The ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the elastic limit is called Shear modulus.
𝝉
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔, (𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑮 𝒐𝒓 𝑵) = Unit : N/mm2
𝒆𝒔

4.4.7 BULK MODULUS OR VOLUME MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain within the elastic limit is called Bulk modulus.
𝝈𝒏
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔, 𝑲 = Unit : N/mm2
𝒆𝒗

4.4.8 FACTOR OF SAFETY

The ratio of ultimate tensile stress to working stress is called Factor of safety.
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚, 𝑭𝑶𝑺 =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

1. A rod 150 cm long and of diameter 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. If the Young’s
modulus of the material is 2 x 105 N/mm2. Find (i) Stress (ii) Strain (iii) Elongation of the rod.
Given
Length of the rod L = 150 cm = 1500 mm
Diameter of the rod D = 2 cm = 20 mm
Axial Pull P = 20 kN = 20,000 N
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐
Area of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋
= (20)2
4
A = 314.16 mm2
Stress
𝑷
Stress in the rod 𝝈 =
𝑨
20000
=
314.16
𝝈 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟔 N/mm2
Strain
𝝈
Strain in the rod e =
𝑬
63.66
=
200000
e = 0.000318
Elongation of the rod
𝜹𝑳
e =
𝑳
δL
0.00318 =
150
δL = 0.000318 * 1500
𝛅𝐋 = 0.477 mm
Result
Stress in the rod 𝝈 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟔 N/mm2
Strain in the rod e = 0.000318
Elongation of the rod 𝛅𝐋 = 0.477 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

2. Find the maximum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise a load of 4000 N, if the
stress in the rod is not to exceed 95 MN/m2
Given
Load P = 4000 N
Stress in the rod 𝜎 = 95 MN/m2
= 95 x 106 N/m2
Solution
Area of the rod
𝑷
Stress in the rod 𝝈 =
𝑨
4000
95 x 106 =
A
4000
A =
95 x 106
A = 42.10 x 10-6 mm2
Diameter of the rod
𝝅 𝟐
Diameter of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋 2
42.10 x 10-6 = 𝐷
4
4
𝐷2 = 42.10 x 10-6 x
𝜋
2 -5
𝐷 = 5.36 x 10
D = 0.007321 m
D = 7.32 mm
Result
Diameter of the rod 𝑫 = 7.32 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

3. Find the Young’s modulus of a brass road of diameter 25 mm and of length 250 mm which is
subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN when the extension of the rod is equal to 0.3 mm
Given
Diameter of rod D = 25 mm
Length of the rod L = 250 mm
Tensile load P = 50 kN = 50,000 N
Extension of the rod δL = 0.3 mm
Solution
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐
Area of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋
= (25)2
4
A = 490.87 mm2
Stress
𝑷
Stress in the rod 𝝈 =
𝑨
50000
=
490.87
𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 N/mm2
Strain
𝜹𝑳
Strain in the rod e =
𝑳
0.3
=
250
e = 0.0012
Elongation of the rod
𝝈
e =
𝑬
101.86
0.0012 =
𝐸
101.86
E =
0.0012
𝑬 = 84883.33 N/mm2
Result
Young’s Modulus 𝑬 = 84883.33 N/mm2

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

4. The ultimate stress for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 1.9 MN is
480N/mm2. If the external diameter of the column is 200 mm, determine the internal diameter.
Take the factor of safety as 4.

Given
Axial Load P = 1.9 MN = 1.9 x 106 N
Ultimate Stress = 480 N/mm2
External diameter of column D = 200 mm
Factor of safety = 4
Solution
Working Stress
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
Factor of Safety =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
480
4 =
Working Stress
480
Working Stress =
4
Working Stress = 120 N/mm2
Stress
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
Stress in the rod 𝝈 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
1.9 x 106
120 = 𝜋
[ (𝐷 2 − 𝑑 2 )]
4

𝜋 1.9 x 106
[ (𝐷 2 − 𝑑 2 )] =
4 120
𝜋
(2002 − 𝑑 2 ) = 15833.33
4
4
(40000 − 𝑑 2 ) = 15833.33 x
𝜋

(40000 − 𝑑 2 ) = 20159.63

𝑑2 = 40000 – 20159.63
𝑑2 = 19840.37
d = 140.85 mm
Result
Internal diameter of rod 𝑑 = 140.85 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

4.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

Stress 𝝈 = Strain 𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑃 𝛿𝐿
𝜎 = 𝑒 =
𝐴 𝐿
𝝈
Young’s Modulus E =
𝒆
𝑃
( )
𝐴
= 𝛿𝐿
( )
𝐿

𝑃𝐿
E =
𝛿𝐿 𝐴
𝑷𝑳
Change in Length 𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬

5. Determine the elongation of a steel rod 2m long and 40 mm diameter when subjected to an
axial tensile force of 6 kN. The value of E = 200 GN/m2.
Given
Tensile Force P = 6 kN = 6000 N
Length of the rod L = 2 m = 2000 mm
Diameter of the rod D = 40 mm
Young’s Modulus E = 200 GN/m2 = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐
Area of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋
= (40)2
4
A = 1256.63 mm2
Elongation of steel rod
𝑷𝑳
Elongation of steel rod 𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
6000 𝑥 2000
=
1256.63 𝑥 2 𝑥 105
𝜹𝑳 = 0.0477 mm
Result
Elongation of the rod 𝛿𝐿 = 0.0477 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

4.5.1 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS

A bar of different lengths and of different diameters is shown. Let this bar is subjected to an axial
load P.

Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses, strains and change in
length will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by adding the changes in length of
individual section.

Let, P = Axial load acting on the bar

L1, L2, L3 = Length of section 1, 2, 3 respectively

A1, A2, A3 = Cross-sectional area of the section 1, 2, 3 respectively

E = Young’s modulus of the bar

Stress in each Section

Section1 Section 2 Section 3
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 =
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
Then, Strain in each Section
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎3
𝑒1 = 𝑒2 = 𝑒3 =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Substituting the stress in strain formula

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑒1 = 𝑒2 = 𝑒3 =
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐴3 𝐸
Also, Strain in each Section
𝛿𝐿1 𝛿𝐿2 𝛿𝐿3
𝑒1 = 𝑒2 = 𝑒3 =
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Equating the strains

𝛿𝐿1 𝑃 𝛿𝐿2 𝑃 𝛿𝐿3 𝑃

= = =
𝐿1 𝐴1 𝐸 𝐿2 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐿3 𝐴3 𝐸

Then, the total change in length of the bar

𝜹𝑳 = (𝜹𝑳)𝟏 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟐 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟑

𝑷 𝑳𝟏 𝑷 𝑳𝟐 𝑷 𝑳𝟑
𝜹𝑳 = + +
𝑨𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬𝟑
This equation is used when the young’s modulus of different sections is different.
When the young’s modulus of different sections is same, then
𝑃𝐿1 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿3
𝛿𝐿 = + +
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐴3 𝐸
𝑷 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝜹𝑳 = [ + + ]
𝑬 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟑

6. An Axial pull of 35 kN is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown in the figure. If
the young’s modulus = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, determine:

a) Stresses in each section

b) Total extension of the bar

Given
SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3
P1 = 35000 N P2 = 35000 N P3 = 35000 N
L1 = 200 mm L2 = 250 mm L3 = 220 mm
D1 = 20 mm D2 = 30 mm D3 = 50 mm
E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Solution
SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3

Area of the rod

𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
A1 = 𝑫 A2 = 𝑫 A3 = 𝑫
𝟒 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟑
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (20)2 = (30)2 = (50)2
4 4 4
A1 = 314.16 mm2 A2 = 706.86 mm2 A3 = 1963.5 mm2
Stress in each Section
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑
𝝈1 = 𝝈2 = 𝝈3 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟑
35000 35000 35000
= = =
314.16 706.86 1963.5
𝝈𝟏 = 111.41 N/mm2 𝝈𝟐 = 49.51 N/mm2 𝝈𝟑 = 17.83 N/mm2
Extension in each section
𝑷𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝑳𝟑
𝜹𝑳1 = 𝜹𝑳2 = 𝜹𝑳3 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬𝟑
35000 𝑥 200 35000 𝑥 250 35000 𝑥 220
= = =
314.16 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105 706.86 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105 1963.5 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105

𝜹𝑳𝟏 = 0.106 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟐 = 0.059 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟑 = 0.019 mm

Total Extension of the bar
𝜹𝑳 = (𝜹𝑳)𝟏 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟐 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟑
= 0.106 + 0.059 + 0.019
𝜹𝑳 = 0.184 mm
Result
Stress in each Section
𝜎1 = 111.41 N/mm2 𝜎2 = 49.51 N/mm2 𝜎3 = 17.83 N/mm2
Total extension of the bar
𝛿𝐿 = 0.184 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

7. A steel bar is 900 mm long; its 2 ends are 40 mm and 300 mm in diameter and the length of
each rod is 200 mm. the middle portion of the bar is 15 mm in diameter and 500 mm long. If the
bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of 15 kN. Find its total extension. E = 200 GN/mm2.

Given

SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3

P1 = 15 kN P2 = 15 kN P3 = 15 kN
L1 = 200 mm L2 = 500 mm L3 = 200 mm
D1 = 40 mm D2 = 15 mm D3 = 30 mm
E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2
Solution
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
A1 = 𝑫 A2 = 𝑫 A3 = 𝑫
𝟒 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟑
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (40)2 = (15)2 = (30)2
4 4 4
A1 = 1256.64 mm2 A2 = 176.71 mm2 A3 = 706.86 mm2
Extension in each section
𝑷𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝑳𝟑
𝜹𝑳1 = 𝜹𝑳2 = 𝜹𝑳3 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬𝟑
15000 𝑥 200 15000 𝑥 500 15000 𝑥 200
= = =
1256.64 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105 176.71 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105 706.86 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105

𝜹𝑳𝟏 = 0.0114 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟐 = 0.2021 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟑 = 0.0202 mm

Total Extension of the bar
𝜹𝑳 = (𝜹𝑳)𝟏 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟐 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟑
= 0.0114 + 0.2021 + 0.0202
𝜹𝑳 = 0.2337 mm
Result
Total extension of the bar
𝛿𝐿 = 0.2337 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

8. The bar shown in the figure is subjected to a tensile load of 160 kN. If the stress in the middle
portion is limited to 150 N/mm2, determine the diameter of the middle portion. Find also the
length of the middle portion if the total elongation of the bar is to be 0.2 mm. Young’s modulus
is given as equal to 2.1 x 105 N/mm2

Given
SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3
P1 = 160 kN P2 = 160 kN P3 = 160 kN
L1 = ?? L2 = ?? L3 = ??
D1 = 60 mm D2 = ?? D3 = 60 mm
2.1 X 105
E = E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2
N/mm2
𝜎2 = 150 N/mm2

Total Elongation of the bar 𝛿𝐿 = 0.2 mm

Solution
Diameter of the rod (Section 2)
𝑷𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝝈2 = A2 = 𝑫
𝑨𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
160000 𝜋
150 = 1066.67 = (𝐷 )2
𝐴2 4 2
4
𝑨𝟐 = 1066.67 mm2 𝐷2 = 1066.67 x
𝜋
2
𝐷 = 1358.13
D = 36.85 mm
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
A1 = 𝑫 A2 = 𝑫 A3 = 𝑫
𝟒 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟑
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (60)2 = (36.85)2 = (60)2
4 4 4
A1 = 2827.43 mm2 A2 = 1066.67 mm2 A3 = 2827.43 mm2

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Extension in each section

𝜹𝑳 = (𝜹𝑳)𝟏 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟐 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟑

𝑷𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝑳𝟑
= + +
𝑨 𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨 𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑨 𝟑 𝑬𝟑

400−x 400−x
160000 x ( ) 160000∗ X 160000 x ( )
0.2 = 2
+ + 2
2827.43 x 2.1 x 105 1066.67 x 2.1 x 105 2827.43 x 2.1 x 105

400−x 400−x
160000 ( ) x ( )
2 2
0.2 = [ + + ]
2.1 x 105 2827.43 1066.67 2827.43

400−x 400−x
160000 ( )+( ) x
2 2
0.2 = [ + ]
2.1 x 105 2827.43 1066.67

400−x x
0.2 = 0.762 [ + ]
2827.43 1066.67

0.2 400−𝑥 x
= [ + ]
0.762 2827.43 1066.67

1066.67(400 − x) + 2827.43 𝑥
0.2625 = [ ]
2827.43 ∗ 1066.67

426668 + 1760.76 𝑥
0.2625 = [ ]
3015934.76

791682.88 = 426668 + 1760.76 𝑥

1760.76 x = 365014.88

x = 207.3 mm
Result
Diameter of middle portion = 36.85 mm
Length of the Middle portion = 207.3 mm

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

4.5.2 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

• “When a number of loads are acting on a body the resulting strain, according to principle of
superposition, will be the algebraic sum of strain caused by individual loads”.
• When an elastic body is subjected to number of direct forces (Tensile or Compressive) at
different sections along the length of the body, first the free body diagram of individual section
is drawn. Then the deformation of each section is obtained.
• The total deformation of the body will be then equal to the algebraic sum of deformations of
the individual sections.

9. A brass bar, having cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2, is subjected to axial forces as shown in
the figure. Find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 1.05 x 105 N/mm2.

Solution SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3

P1 = 50 kN (Tension) P2 = x P3 = 10 kN (Compression)
80 = 50 – x
x = -30 kN
x = 30 kN (Compression)

P1 = 50 kN (Tension) P2 = 30 kN (Compression) P3 = 10 kN (Compression)

L1 = 600 mm L2 = 1000 mm L3 = 1200 mm
A1 = 1000 mm2 A2 = 1000 mm2 A3 = 1000 mm2
E = 1.05 X 105 N/mm2 E = 1.05 X 105 N/mm2 E = 1.05 X 105 N/mm2

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Extension in each section

𝑷𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝑳𝟑
𝜹𝑳1 = 𝜹𝑳2 = 𝜹𝑳3 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬𝟑
50000 𝑥 600 30000 𝑥 1000 10000 𝑥 1200
= = =
1000 𝑥 1.05 𝑥 105 1000 𝑥 1.05 𝑥 105 1000 𝑥 1.05 𝑥 105

𝜹𝑳𝟏 = 0.2857 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟐 = 0.2857 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟑 = 0.1142 mm

Total Extension of the bar
𝜹𝑳 = (𝜹𝑳)𝟏 − (𝜹𝑳)𝟐 − (𝜹𝑳)𝟑
= 0.2857 – 0.2857 - 0.1142
𝜹𝑳 = - 0.1142 mm
Result
Total elongation of the bar
𝛿𝐿 = 0.1142 mm (Compression) Negative sign indicates there is decrease in length

10. A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P1, P2, P3 and P4 as shown in the figure.
Calculate the force P2 necessary for equilibrium, if P1 = 45 kN, P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN.

Solution:

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Solution
SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3

F1 = 45 kN (Tension) F2 = x F3 = 130 kN (Tension)

- 450 = -130 + x
x = -320 kN
x = 320 kN (Compression)

P2 = 45 + 320
P2 = 365 kN

F1 = 45 kN (Tension) F2 = 320 kN (Compression) F3 = 130 kN (Tension)

L1 = 1200 mm L2 = 600 mm L3 = 900 mm
A1 = 625 mm2 A2 = 2500 mm2 A3 = 1250 mm2
E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2
Extension in each section
𝑭𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑭𝟑 𝑳𝟑
𝜹𝑳1 = 𝜹𝑳2 = 𝜹𝑳3 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬𝟑
45000 𝑥 1200 320000 𝑥 600 130000 𝑥 900
= = =
1200 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105 2500 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105 1250 𝑥 2.1 𝑥 105

𝜹𝑳𝟏 = 0.4114 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟐 = 0.3657 mm 𝜹𝑳𝟑 = 0.4457 mm

Total Extension of the bar
𝜹𝑳 = (𝜹𝑳)𝟏 − (𝜹𝑳)𝟐 + (𝜹𝑳)𝟑
= 0.4114 – 0.3657 + 0.4457
𝜹𝑳 = 0.4914 mm
Result
Total elongation of the bar
𝛿𝐿 = 0.4914 mm (Tension) Positive sign indicates there is increase in length

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4.6 ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING ROD

4.6.1 UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD

A bar uniformly tapering from diameter D1 at one end to

diameter D2 at the other end is shown in the figure.

P = Axial tensile load on the bar

L = Total length of the bar

E = Young’s Modulus

Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end. Let the diameter of
the bar be Dx at a distance of x from the left end.
𝐷1 −𝐷2
Then, Dx = D 1 - ( )x
𝐿

𝐷1 −𝐷2
Dx = D 1 - k x Where, k = ( )
𝐿

Area of cross section of the bar at a distance x from the left end,
𝜋 𝜋
Ax = 𝐷𝑥2 = (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2
4 4

Stress at a distance x from the left end is given by,

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜎𝑥 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑃
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜋
(𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2
4

4𝑃
𝜎𝑥 =
𝜋 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2

Strain in the small element dx is obtained by,

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑒𝑥 =
𝐸

4𝑃
𝜋 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2
𝑒𝑥 =
𝐸

4𝑃
𝑒𝑥 =
𝜋𝐸 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2

4𝑃
Extension of the small elemental length dx = Strain . dx = dx
𝜋𝐸 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2

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Total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between the limits 0 and L
𝐿 4𝑃
Hence, total extension, dL = ∫0 dx
𝜋𝐸 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2

4𝑃 𝐿 1
= ∫0 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)2
dx
𝜋𝐸

4𝑃 𝐿
=
𝜋𝐸
∫0 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)−2 dx

Multiplying numerator and denominator by (-k),

4𝑃 𝐿 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)−2 (−𝑘)
= ∫0 dx
𝜋𝐸 (−𝑘)

4𝑃 𝐿
=
𝜋𝐸 (−𝑘)
∫0 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)−2 (−𝑘) dx

𝐿
4𝑃 (𝐷1 − k 𝑥)−1
= [ ]
𝜋𝐸 (−𝑘) −1 0

4𝑃 1 𝐿
= [(𝐷 ]
𝜋𝐸𝑘 1 − k 𝑥) 0

4𝑃 1 1
= [((𝐷 ) − ((𝐷 )]
𝜋𝐸𝑘 1 − k 𝐿) 1 − k∗0)

4𝑃 1 1
= [(𝐷 − ]
𝜋𝐸𝑘 1 − k 𝐿) 𝐷1

4𝑃 1 1
= 𝐷 −𝐷 [ 𝐷 −𝐷 − ]
𝜋𝐸( 1 2 ) (𝐷1 − ( 1 2 ) 𝐿) 𝐷1
𝐿 𝐿

4 𝑃𝐿 1 1
= [(𝐷 − ]
𝜋𝐸(𝐷1 −𝐷2 ) 1 −(𝐷1 −𝐷2 ) 𝐷1

4 𝑃𝐿 1 1
= [(𝐷 − ]
𝜋𝐸(𝐷1 −𝐷2 ) 1 − 𝐷1 + 𝐷2 ) 𝐷1

4 𝑃𝐿 1 1
= [ − ]
𝜋𝐸(𝐷1 −𝐷2 ) 𝐷2 𝐷1

4 𝑃𝐿 (𝐷1 −𝐷2 )
= [ ]
𝜋𝐸(𝐷1 −𝐷2 ) 𝐷1 𝐷2

𝟒 𝑷𝑳
Total Extension of the bar, dL=
𝝅𝑬 𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐

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11. A rod, which tapers uniformly from 40 mm diameter to 20 mm diameter in a length of

400mm is subjected to an axial load of 5000 N. If E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2. Find the total extension
of the rod.
Given
Axial Force P = 5000 N
Length of the rod L = 400 mm
Diameter of the rod D1 = 40 mm D2 = 20 mm
Young’s Modulus E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
𝟒𝑷𝑳
Elongation of the rod 𝜹𝑳 =
𝝅 𝑬 𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐
4 ∗ 5000 ∗ 400
=
𝜋 ∗ 2.1 𝑥 105 ∗ 40 ∗ 20
𝜹𝑳 = 0.01515 mm
Result
Elongation of the rod 𝛿𝐿 = 0.01515 mm

12. Find the modulus of elasticity of the rod which tapers uniformly from 30 mm to 15 mm,
diameter in a length of 350 mm. The rod is subjected to an axial load of 5.5 kN and extension of
the rod is 0.025 mm.
Given
Axial Force P = 5.5 kN = 5500 N
Length of the rod L = 350 mm
Diameter of the rod D1 = 30 mm D2 = 15 mm
Elongation of the rod 𝛿𝐿 = 0.025
Solution
𝟒𝑷𝑳
Elongation of the rod 𝜹𝑳 =
𝝅 𝑬 𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐
4 ∗ 5500 ∗ 350
0.025 =
𝜋 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 30 ∗ 15
4 ∗ 5500 ∗ 350
E =
𝜋 ∗ 0.025 ∗ 30 ∗ 15
𝑬 = 217865 N/mm2
Result
Young’s Modulus E = 2.17865 x 105 N/mm2

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4.6.2 UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR ROD

A bar of constant thickness and uniformly tapering in width

from one end to other end is shown in the figure.

P = Axial tensile load on the bar

L = Total length of the bar

E = Young’s Modulus

a, b = Width at bigger and smaller end respectively

t = Thickness of the bar

Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end.
𝑎−𝑏
Width of the bar at the section be, = a - ( )x
𝐿
𝑎−𝑏
= a-kx Where, k = ( )
𝐿
Area of cross section of the bar at the section,

Ax = Width * Thickness
= (a – kx) * t
Stress of the bar at the section,
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜎𝑥 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

P
𝜎𝑥 =
(a – kx) ∗ t

Strain in the small element dx is obtained by,

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑒𝑥 =
𝐸

P
(a – kx) ∗ t
𝑒𝑥 =
𝐸

𝑃
𝑒𝑥 =
E (a – kx) ∗ t

𝑃
Extension of the small elemental length dx = Strain . dx = dx
E (a – kx) ∗ t

Total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between the limits 0 and L
𝐿 𝑃
Hence, total extension, dL = ∫0 dx
E (a – kx) ∗ t

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𝑃 𝐿 1
= ∫0 dx
𝐸𝑡 (a – kx)

𝑃 −1
= log 𝑒 [(a – kx)]𝐿0 ( )
𝐸𝑡 𝑘

𝑃 −1
= log 𝑒 [(a – kL) − (𝑎 − 𝑘 ∗ 0)] ( )
𝐸𝑡 𝑘

𝑃 −1
= log 𝑒 [𝑎 − 𝑘𝐿 − 𝑎] ( )
𝐸𝑡 𝑘

𝑃 −1
= log 𝑒 [−𝑘𝐿] ( )
𝐸𝑡 𝑘

𝑃
= log 𝑒 [𝑘𝐿]
𝐸𝑡𝑘

𝑃 𝑎−𝑏
= 𝑎−𝑏 log 𝑒 [( ) 𝐿]
𝐸𝑡 ( ) 𝐿
𝐿

𝑃𝐿
= log 𝑒 [𝑎 − 𝑏]
𝐸𝑡 (𝑎−𝑏)

𝑃𝐿 𝑎
dL = log 𝑒 [ ]
𝐸𝑡 (𝑎−𝑏) 𝑏

𝑷𝑳 𝒂 𝑷𝑳 𝒂
Total Extension of the bar, dL= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 [ ] or dL= 𝐥𝐧 [ ]
𝑬𝒕 (𝒂−𝒃) 𝒃 𝑬𝒕 (𝒂−𝒃) 𝒃

13. A rectangular bar made of steel is 2.8m long and 15 mm thick. The rod is subjected to an
axial tensile load of 40kN. The width of the rod varies from 75 mm at one end to 30 mm at the
other. Find the extension of the rod, if E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.
Given
Axial Force P = 40 kN = 40000 N
Length of the rod L = 2.8 m = 2800 mm
Width of the rod a = 75 mm b = 30 mm
Thickness of the rod t = 15 mm
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
𝑷𝑳 𝒂
Elongation of the rod 𝜹𝑳 = 𝒍𝒏 [ ]
𝑬𝒕 (𝒂 − 𝒃) 𝒃
40000 ∗ 2800 75
= 5
ln [ ]
2 𝑥 10 ∗ 15 (75 − 30) 30
𝜹𝑳 = 0.760 mm
Result
Elongation of the rod 𝛿𝐿 = 0.760 mm

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14. The extension in a rectangular steel bar of length 400 mm and thickness 10 mm, is found to
be 0.21 mm. The bar tapers uniformly in width from 100 mm to 50 mm. If E of the bar is 2 x 105
N/mm2, determine the axial load on the bar.
Given
Elongation of the rod 𝛿𝐿 = 0.21 mm
Length of the rod L = 400 mm
Width of the rod a = 100 mm b = 50 mm
Thickness of the rod t = 10 mm
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
𝑷𝑳 𝒂
Elongation of the rod 𝜹𝑳 = 𝒍𝒏 [ ]
𝑬𝒕 (𝒂 − 𝒃) 𝒃
𝑃 ∗ 400 100
0.21 = 5
ln [ ]
2 𝑥 10 ∗ 10 (100 − 50) 50
0.21 ∗ 2 𝑥 105 ∗ 10 (100 − 50)
P = 100
400 ∗ ln [ ]
50
𝑷 = 75746 N
Result
Axial Load in the rod 𝑃 = 75.746 kN

4.7 ELONGATION OF A BAR DUE TO ITS OWN WEIGHT

A bar AB fixed at end A and hanging freely under its own weight.

Let, L = Length of the bar

A = Area of cross-section

E = Young’s Modulus

W = Weight per unit volume of the bar material

Consider a small strip of thickness dx at a distance x from the lower end.

Weight of the bar for a length of x is given by,

P = Specific weight * Volume of bar up to length x

P=wAx

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This means that on the strip, a weight of w * A * x is acting in the downward direction. Due to this
weight, there will be some increase in the length of element. But length of the element is dx.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤∗𝐴∗𝑥
Stress on the element = = = wx
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴

The above equation shows that stress due to self-weight in a bar is not uniform. It depends on “x”.
The stress increase with the increase of “x”.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑥
Strain in the element = =
𝐸 𝐸

Hence, Elongation of the element = Strain * Length of the element

𝑤𝑥
= * dx
𝐸

Total elongation of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between limits 0 and L.
𝐿 𝑤𝑥
𝛿𝐿 = ∫0 ∗ dx
𝐸

𝑤 𝐿
= ∫ x
𝐸 0
dx

𝐿
𝑤 𝑥2
= [ ]
𝐸 2 0

𝑤 𝐿2
= [ − 0]
𝐸 2

𝑤𝐿2
=
2𝐸

𝑾𝑳
Elongation a bar due to its own weight, 𝜹𝑳 = (W = w*L)
𝟐𝑬

4.8 ELASTIC CONSTANTS

When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of the body. But at
the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to the line of action
of the applied load. Thus the body is having axial deformation and also deformation at right angles to
the line of action of the applied load [i.e., lateral deformation]. This chapter deals with these
deformations, Poisson’s ratio, volumetric strains, bulk modulus, relation between Young’s modulus
and modulus of rigidity and relation between Young’s modulus and bulk modulus.

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4.9 YOUNG’S MODULUS OR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain or compressive stress to compressive strain is called
Young’s modulus.
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈
𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔, 𝑬 = 𝑬=
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆
2
Unit : N/mm

4.9.1 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS : TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

AIM :
To draw stress-strain curve for the given steel specimen by conducting axial tension test and hence to
find the following
1. Yield stress
2. Ultimate stress
3. Nominal breaking stress
4. Actual breaking stress
5. Percentage Elongation in length
6. Percentage Reduction in area
APPARATUS AND SPECIMEN REQUIRED:
1. Universal testing machine (UTM)
2. Mild steel specimen
3. Scale
4. Vernier caliper
PROCEDURE:
• Measure original length and diameter of specimen
• Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach strain-measuring device to it
• Begin the load application and record load versus elongation data
• Take readings more frequently as yield point approached
• Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler
• Continue the test till fracture occurs
• By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final length and
diameter of the specimen

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OBSERVATION:-
• Initial diameter of specimen (D1) =
• Initial gauge length of specimen (L1) =
• Initial cross-section area of specimen (A1) =
• Load of yield point Ft. =
• Ultimate load after specimen breaking (F) =
• Final length after specimen breaking (L2) =
• Dia. Of specimen at breaking place (D2) =
• Cross section area at breaking place (A2) =

STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

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CALCULATION:-

Yield point load

i. Yield stress =
Area

Maximum load
ii. Ultimate stress =
Area

Breaking load
iii. Normal Breaking stress =
Initial Area

Breaking load
iv. Actual Breaking stress =
Neck Area

Stress
v. Modulus of elasticity =
Strain

Final Length−Original Length

vi. Percent elongation in Length = 𝑥 100
Original Length

Original Area −Area at fracture

vii. Percent reduction in Area = 𝑥 100
Original Area

15. A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained from test:
i. Diameter of steel bar = 3cm
ii. Gauge length of the bar = 20 cm
iii. Load at elastic limit = 250 kN
iv. Extension at a load of 150 kN = 0.21 mm
v. Maximum load = 380 kN
vi. Total extension = 60 mm
vii. Diameter of the rod at failure = 2.25 cm
Determine,
a) The young’s modulus
b) Stress at elastic limit
c) Percentage elongation
d) Percentage decrease in area

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Solution
Convert all the values in terms of mm
Diameter of steel bar = 30 mm
Gauge length of the bar = 200 mm
Diameter of rod at failure = 22.5 mm

Area of the rod

𝝅 𝟐
Area of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋
= (30)2
4
A = 706.86 mm2
Young’s Modulus
To find the young’s modulus, first calculate the values of stress and strain within elastic
limit. The load at elastic limit is given but the extension corresponding to the load at
elastic limit is not given. But a load of 150 kN and corresponding extension of 0.21 mm
are given. Hence these values are used for stress and strain within elastic limit.
Stress
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
Stress in the rod 𝝈 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
150 x 1000
=
706.86
𝝈 = 𝟐𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 N/mm2

Strain
𝜹𝑳
Strain in the rod e =
𝑳
0.21
=
200
e = 0.00105
Young’s Modulus
𝝈
E =
𝒆
212.21
E =
0.00105
𝑬 = 2.02 x 105 N/mm2

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Stress at Elastic Limit

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕
Stress at Elastic limit 𝝈 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
250 x 1000
=
706.86
𝝈 = 𝟑𝟓𝟑. 𝟔𝟕 N/mm2
Percentage Elongation
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
Percentage Elongation = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
60
= x 100
200

Percentage Elongation = 30 %

Percentage decrease in Area

(𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 − 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆)
Percentage Decrease in Area = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝜋 𝜋
[[ (30)2 ] − [ (22.5)2 ]]
4 4
= x 100
𝜋
[ (30)2 ]
4
Percentage decrease in Area = 43.75 %
Result
Young’s Modulus 𝐸 = 2.02 x 105 N/mm2
Stress at Elastic Limit 𝜎 = 353.67 N/mm2
Percentage Elongation = 30 %
Percentage decrease in Area = 43.75 %

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4.10 LONGITUDINAL STRAIN

When a body is subjected to an axial tensile or compressive load, there is an axial deformation in the
length of the body. The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as
longitudinal (or linear) strain. The longitudinal strain is also defined as the deformation of the body
per unit length in the direction of the applied load.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜹𝑳
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑳

4.11 LATERAL STRAIN

The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a rectangular
bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P as shown in the figure.
The length of the bar will increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.
𝜹𝑳 𝜹𝒃 𝜹𝒅
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒐𝒓
𝑳 𝒃 𝒅

4.12 POISSON’S RATIO

The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, when the
material is stressed within elastic limit. The ratio is called Poisson’s ratio.
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝝁 =
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

As lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal strain, hence algebraically,

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = − 𝝁 ∗ 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

Poisson’s ratio varies from 0.25 to 0.33

For Rubber, Poisson’s ratio = 0.45 to 0.50

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16. Determine the value of Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s ratio of a metallic bar of length
30cm, breadth 4 cm and depth 4cm when a bar is subjected to an axial compressive load of 400
kN. The decrease in length is given as 0.075 cm and an increase in breadth is 0.003 cm.

Given

Length of the bar L = 30 cm = 300 mm

Breadth of the bar b = 4 cm = 40 mm
Thickness of the bar d = 4 cm = 40 mm
Axial Pull P = 400 kN = 4,00,000 N
Decrease in length δL = 0.075 cm = 0.75 mm
Increase in breadth δb = 0.003 cm = 0.03 mm

Solution

Young’s Modulus
𝑷𝑳
𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
400 ∗ 1000 ∗ 300
0.75 =
40 ∗ 40 ∗ 𝐸
400 ∗ 1000 ∗ 300
E =
40 ∗ 40 ∗ 0.75
𝐄 = 1 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio
𝛿𝐿 0.75
Longitudinal Strain = = 0.0025
𝐿 300
𝛿𝑏 0.03
Lateral Strain = = 0.00075
𝑏 40
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Poisson’s Ratio 𝝁 =
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
0.00075
=
0.0025
𝝁 = 0.3
Result
Young’s Modulus E = 1 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio 𝜇 = 0.3

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17. Determine change in length, breadth and thickness of steel bar which is 4m long, 30 mm
wide and 20 mm thick and is subjected to an axial pull of 30 kN in the direction of its length.
Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3
Given
Length of the bar L = 4m = 4000 mm
Breadth of the bar b = 30 mm
Thickness of the bar t = 20 mm
Axial Pull P = 30 kN = 30000 N
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson Ratio 𝜇 = 0.3
Solution
Area of the bar
Area of the bar A = b*t
= 30 * 20
A = 600 mm2
Change in length
𝑷𝑳
𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
30000 ∗ 4000
=
600 ∗ 2 ∗ 105
𝛅𝐋 = 1 mm
Lateral Strain
Lateral Strain = 𝝁 ∗ 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝜹𝑳
𝝁∗
𝑳
1
= 0.3 ∗
4000
Lateral Strain = 0.000075
Change in Breadth
𝜹𝒃
Lateral Strain =
𝒃
𝛿𝑏
0.000075 =
30
𝛿𝑏 = 0.000075 * 30
𝛅𝐛 = 0.00225 mm

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Change in thickness
𝜹𝒕
Lateral Strain =
𝒕
𝛿𝑡
0.000075 =
20
𝛿𝑡 = 0.000075 * 20
𝛅𝐭 = 0.0015 mm
Result
Change in length δL = 1 mm
Change in breadth δb = 0.00225 mm
Change in thickness δt = 0.0015 mm
4.13 BULK MODULUS

When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and equal stresses, the ratio of direct
stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is found to be constant for a given material when the
deformation is within a certain limit. This ratio is called Bulk Modulus.
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝑲 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒗

4.14 RELATION BETWEEN YOUNG’S MODULUS & BULK MODULUS

Cube ABCDEFGH which is subjected to 3 mutually perpendicular tensile stress of equal intensity.
Let L = Length of the cube

dL = change in length of the cube

E = Young’s Modulus

𝜎 = Tensile stress acting on the faces

𝜇 = Poisson’s ratio

Now let us consider the strain of one of the sides of the cube (AB) under the action of the three
mutually perpendicular stresses. This side will suffer the following three strains:
σ
1. Strain of AB due to stresses on the face AEHD and BFGC. This strain is tensile and is
E
2. Strain of AB due to stresses on the face AEFB and DHGC. This is compressive lateral strain
σ
and is equal to − 𝜇
E
3. Strain of AB due to stresses on the face ABCD and EFGH. This is also compressive lateral
σ
strain and is equal to − 𝜇
E

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Hence the total strain of AB is given by,

𝑑𝐿 σ σ σ
= − 𝜇 − 𝜇
𝐿 E E E
𝑑𝐿 σ
= (1 − 2𝜇)
𝐿 E
The original Volume of the cube, V = L3

Differentiating the above, dV = 3L2 dL

𝑑𝑉 3 𝐿2 dL
Volumetric strain, =
𝑉 𝐿3
𝑑𝑉 3dL
=
𝑉 L
𝑑𝐿
Substitute the value of in the above equation,
𝐿

𝑑𝑉
𝑒𝑣 =
𝑉

3σ
𝑒𝑣 =
E
(1 − 2𝜇)

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝑲 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒗
𝜎
K = 3σ
(1−2𝜇)
E

𝑬 𝟑𝑲− 𝑬
K= or E = 𝟑𝑲 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁) or 𝝁=
𝟑 (𝟏−𝟐𝝁) 𝟔𝑲

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𝟏
18. For a material, Young’s modulus is given as 1.2 x 105 N/mm2and Poisson’s ratio . Calculate
𝟒
the Bulk modulus.
Given
Young’s Modulus E = 1.2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio 𝜇 = ¼ = 0.25
Solution
Bulk Modulus
𝑬
Bulk Modulus K =
𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
1.2 𝑥 105
=
3 (1 − 2 ∗ 0.25)
K = 80,000 N/mm2
Result
Bulk Modulus K = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2
19. A bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60 kN. The measured extension on gauge
length of 200 mm is 0.1 mm and change in diameter is 0.004 mm.
Calculate: (i) Young’s Modulus (ii) Poisson’s Ratio (iii) Bulk Modulus
Given
Diameter of the bar d = 30 mm
Axial Pull P = 60 kN = 60,000 N
Length of the bar L = 200 mm
Extension of the bar 𝛿𝐿 = 0.1 mm
Change in diameter 𝛿𝑑 = 0.004 mm
Solution
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐
Area of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋
= (30)2
4
A = 706.86 mm2
Young’s Modulus
𝑷𝑳
Elongation of steel rod 𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
60,000 𝑥 200
0.1 =
706.86 𝑥 𝐸
6000 𝑥 2000
E =
1256.63 𝑥 0.1
Young’s Modulus E = 1.6975 x 105 N/mm2

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Poisson’s ratio
𝛿𝐿 0.1
Longitudinal Strain = = 0.0005
𝐿 200
𝛿𝑑 0.004
Lateral Strain = = 0.000133
𝑑 30
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Poisson’s Ratio 𝝁 =
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
0.000133
=
0.0005
𝝁 = 0.266
Bulk Modulus
𝑬
Bulk Modulus K =
𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
1.6975 𝑥 105
=
3 (1 − 2 ∗ 0.266)
K = 1.209 x 105 N/mm2
Result
Young’s Modulus E = 1.6975 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio 𝜇 = 0.266
Bulk Modulus K = 1.209 x 105 N/mm2

4.15 RELATION BETWEEN YOUNG’S MODULUS & SHEAR MODULUS

When a square block ABCD of unit thickness is subjected to a set of shear stresses of intensity q on
the faces AB, CD and the faces AD and CB, the diagonal BD will experience a tensile stress of
magnitude “q” whereas the diagonal AC will experience a compressive stress of magnitude “q”. Due
to these stresses the diagonal BD will be elongated whereas the diagonal AC will be shorted. Let us
consider the joint effect of these two stresses on the diagonal BD.

Due to the tensile stress “q” along diagonal BD, there will be a tensile strain in the diagonal BD. Due
to the compressive stress “q” along the diagonal AC, there will be a tensile strain in the diagonal BD
due to lateral strain.
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
Now tensile strain in diagonal BD due to tensile stress 𝜏 along BD = =
E E

𝜏
Tensile strain in diagonal BD due to compressive stress 𝜏 along AC = 𝜇
E

𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
Total tensile strain along diagonal BD = + 𝜇 = (1 + 𝜇) (Equation A)
E E E

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Similarly it can be proved that the total strain in the diagonal AC will be compressive and will be
𝜏
given by, total compressive strain in diagonal AC = = (1 + 𝜇)
E
Total strain in the diagonal BD is equal to half the shear strain.
Hence, Total strain in diagonal BD 1
= 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2
We already know , Rigidity modulus 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
C =
Shear Strain
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Shear Strain =
C
1 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Total Strain in diagonal BD =
2 C
𝜏 (Equation B)
Total Strain in diagonal BD =
2C
Equating equations A and B,
𝜏 𝜏
(1 + 𝜇) =
E 2C
(1 + 𝜇) 1
=
E 2C
E
C =
2 (1 + μ)
𝑬 𝑬
C= or E = 𝟐𝑪 (𝟏 + 𝝁) or 𝝁= −𝟏
𝟐 (𝟏+𝝁) 𝟐𝑪

4.16 RELATION BETWEEN YOUNG’S MODULUS, BULK MODULUS & SHEAR MODULUS
3𝐾− 𝐸 𝐸− 2𝐶
We already know that, 𝜇= and 𝜇 =
6𝐾 2𝐶

Equating equations of poisson’s ratio,

3𝐾 − 𝐸 𝐸 − 2𝐶
=
6𝐾 2𝐶
6KC – 2CE = 6KE – 12KC
6KE – 12 KC + 2CE – 6KC = 0
6KE -18 KC + 2CE = 0
3KE – 9 KC + CE = 0

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3KE + CE = 9 KC
E (3K+C) = 9KC

𝟗𝑲𝑪
E =
𝟑𝑲 + 𝑪

20. Determine the Poisson’s ratio and Bulk modulus of a material, for which Young’s modulus
is 1.2 x 105 N/mm2 and modulus of rigidity is 4.8 x 104 N/mm2.

Given
Young’s Modulus E = 1.2 x 105 N/mm2
Modulus of Rigidity C = 4.8 x 104 N/mm2
Solution
Poisson’s ratio
𝑬
Poisson’s ratio 𝝁 = −𝟏
𝟐𝑪
(1.2 ∗ 105 )
= −1
(2 ∗ 4.8 ∗ 104 )
= 1.25 - 1
𝝁 = 0.25
Bulk Modulus
𝑬
Bulk Modulus K =
𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
1.2 𝑥 105
=
3 (1 − 2 ∗ 0.25)
K = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2
Result
Poisson’s Ratio 𝜇 = 0.25
Bulk Modulus K = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2

21. Calculate the modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus of a cylindrical bar of diameter 30 mm
and of length 1.5 m if the longitudinal strain in a bar during a tensile stress is 4 times the lateral
strain. Find the change in volume, when the bar is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 100
N/mm2. Take E = 1 x 105 N/mm2.
Given
Diameter of the bar d = 30 mm
Length of the bar L = 1.5 m = 1500 mm
Longitudinal Strain = 4 * Lateral strain
Hydrostatic pressure 𝜎 = 100 N/mm2
Young’s Modulus E = 1 x 105 N/mm2

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Solution

Poisson’s ratio
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Poisson’s ratio 𝝁 =
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
=
4 ∗ 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
1
=
4
𝝁 = 0.25
Bulk Modulus
𝑬
Bulk Modulus K =
𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
1 𝑥 105
=
3 (1 − 2 ∗ 0.25)
K = 0.667 x 105 N/mm2
Rigidity Modulus
𝑬
Rigidity Modulus C =
𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝝁)
1 𝑥 105
=
2 (1 + 0.25)
C = 0.4 x 105 N/mm2
Change in Volume
𝝈 𝝈
Bulk Modulus K = = 𝜹𝑽
𝒆𝒗 ( )
𝑽

𝝈𝑽
𝜹𝑽 =
𝑲
𝝅
Original Volume of the bar V = 𝑫𝟐 * L
𝟒

𝜋
= 302 * 1500
4

V = 10,60,287.52 mm3

𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎, 𝟔𝟎, 𝟐𝟖𝟕. 𝟓𝟐

𝜹𝑽 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟓

𝜹𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟗. 𝟔𝟒 mm3

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Result
Bulk Modulus K = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2
Rigidity Modulus C = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2
Change in Volume 𝛿𝑉 = 1589.64 mm3

4.17 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

When a body is subjected to a single force or a system of forces, the ratio of change in volume to the
original volume of the body is called volumetric strain.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝜹𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗 =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽

4.17.1 Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular bar subjected to an Axial Load in the direction of its
Length

Consider a rectangular bar of length L, Width b and Depth D which is subjected to an axial load P in
the direction of its length as shown.

Let 𝛿𝐿 = Change in length

𝛿𝑏 = Change in width

𝛿𝑑 = Change in depth

Final Length of the bar = L + 𝛿𝐿

Final width of the bar = b + 𝛿𝑏

Final depth of the bar = d + 𝛿𝑑

Original volume of the bar, = L*b*d

Final Volume of the bar, = (L+ 𝛿𝐿)*(b+ 𝛿𝑏)*(d+ 𝛿𝑑)

= (Lb + L𝛿𝑏 + b𝛿𝐿 + 𝛿𝐿𝛿𝑏)*(d+𝛿𝑑)

= (Lbd + L𝑑𝛿𝑏 + b𝑑𝛿𝐿 + 𝑑𝛿𝐿𝛿𝑏 + Lb 𝛿𝑑 + L𝛿𝑏𝛿𝑑 + b𝛿𝐿𝛿𝑑 + 𝛿𝐿𝛿𝑏𝛿𝑑 )

Since 𝛿𝐿, 𝛿𝑏, 𝛿𝑑 are smaller quantities, Product of these values will also be very smaller

Final Volume of the bar, = (Lbd + L𝑑𝛿𝑏 + b𝑑𝛿𝐿 + Lb 𝛿𝑑)

Change in volume, 𝛿𝑉 = Final Volume – Original Volume

= Lbd + L𝑑𝛿𝑏 + b𝑑𝛿𝐿 + Lb 𝛿𝑑 – Lbd

Change in volume, 𝛿𝑉 = L𝑑𝛿𝑏 + b𝑑𝛿𝐿 + Lb 𝛿𝑑

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Change in volume L𝑑𝛿𝑏 + b𝑑𝛿𝐿 + Lb 𝛿𝑑

Volumetric strain = ev =
Original Volume Lbd

L𝑑𝛿𝑏 b𝑑𝛿𝐿 Lb 𝛿𝑑
ev = + +
Lbd Lbd Lbd

𝜹𝒃 𝜹𝑳 𝜹𝒅
𝐞𝐯 = + +
𝐛 𝐋 𝐝

𝛿𝐿 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑
Since load is applied along the length, = Longitudinal Strain and & = Lateral Strain
L b d

ev = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 2 ∗ 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = −𝛍 ∗ 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

ev = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 2𝜇 ∗ 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

ev = (1 − 2𝜇) ∗ 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝜹𝑳
Volumetric Strain, 𝐞𝐯 = (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
𝐋

22. A steel bar 300 mm long, 50 mm wide and 40 mm thick is subjected to a pull of 300 kN in
the direction of its length. Determine the change in volume. Take E = 2 x 10 5 N/mm2 and
Poisson ratio = 0.25.
Given
Tensile Force P = 300 kN = 300000 N
Length of the bar L = 300 mm
Width of the bar b = 50 mm
Thickness of the bar t = 40 mm
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio 𝜇 = 0.25
Solution
Area of the bar A = b*t
= 50 * 40
A = 2000 mm2

𝑷𝑳
Elongation of the rod 𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
300000 ∗ 300
=
2000 ∗ 2 ∗ 105
𝛿𝐿 = 0.225 mm

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Original Volume, V = Lbd

= 300 * 50 * 40
V = 6,00,000 mm3

𝜹𝑳
Volumetric Strain, 𝒆𝒗 = (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
𝐋
𝛿𝑉 0.225
= (1 − 2 ∗ 0.25)
V 300
𝛿𝑉 = 0.000375 * V
= 0.000375 * 600000
𝜹𝑽 = 225 mm3

Result
Change in Volume 𝛿𝑉 = 225 mm3

23. A steel bar 4m long, 30 mm wide and 20 mm thick and is subjected to an axial pull of 30 kN
in the direction of its length. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and Poisson ratio = 0.3. Determine the
volumetric strain and Final Volume.
Given
Tensile Force P = 30 kN = 30000 N
Length of the bar L = 4 m = 4000 mm
Width of the bar b = 30 mm
Thickness of the bar t = 20 mm
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio 𝜇 = 0.3
Solution
Area of the bar A = b*t
= 30 * 20
A = 600 mm2
𝑷𝑳
Elongation of the rod 𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
30000 ∗ 4000
=
600 ∗ 2 ∗ 105
𝛿𝐿 = 1 mm

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𝜹𝑳
Volumetric Strain, 𝒆𝒗 = (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
𝐋
1
= (1 − 2 ∗ 0.3)
4000
𝒆𝒗 = 0.0001

Original Volume, V = Lbd

= 4000 * 30 * 20
V = 2400000 mm3

𝜹𝑽
𝒆𝒗 = = 0.0001
𝐕
𝛿𝑉 = 0.0001 * V
= 0.0001 * 2400000
𝜹𝑽 = 240 mm3

Change in volume = Original Volume – Final Volume

240 = 2400000 – Final Volume
Final Volume = 2400000 + 240
Final Volume = 2400240 mm3

Result
Volumetric Strain 𝑒𝑣 = 0.0001
Final Volume = 2400240 mm3

4.17.2 Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular bar subjected to three forces which are mutually
perpendicular

Consider a rectangular block of dimensions x, y and z

subjected to three direct tensile stresses along three
mutually perpendicular axis.

Volume of the block, V=xyz

Taking logarithm to both the sides, we have

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log V = log (x y z)

log V = log x + log y + log z

Differentiating the above equation, we get

1 1 1 1
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
V x y z

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= + +
V x y z

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝜹𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 (𝒆𝒗 ) = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽
𝒅𝒙
Strain in x-direction = 𝒆𝒙 =
𝒙

𝒅𝒚
Strain in y-direction = 𝒆𝒚 =
𝒚

𝒅𝒛
Strain in z-direction = 𝒆𝒛 =
𝒛

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= + +
V x y z
𝑑𝑉
= ex + e y + e z
V
𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧
Considering force in x-direction, 𝑒𝑥 = , 𝑒𝑦 = − , 𝑒𝑧 = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑧
Considering force in y-direction, 𝑒𝑦 = , 𝑒𝑥 = − , 𝑒𝑧 = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥
Considering force in z-direction, 𝑒𝑧 = , 𝑒𝑦 = − , 𝑒𝑥 = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝑑𝑉 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥

= + + − − − − − −
V 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝑑𝑉 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜇𝜎𝑥 2𝜇𝜎𝑦 2𝜇𝜎𝑧

= ( + + ) + (− − − )
V 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝑑𝑉 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
= ( + + ) − 2𝜇 ( + + )
V 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝑑𝑉 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
= ( + + ) (1 − −2𝜇 )
V 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝑑𝑉 𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 +𝜎𝑧
= ( ) (1 − −2𝜇 )
V 𝐸

𝜹𝑽 𝝈𝒙 +𝝈𝒚 +𝝈𝒛
Volumetric Strain, 𝐞𝐯 = = ( ) (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
𝐕 𝑬

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24. A metallic bar 300 mm x 100 mm x 40 mm is subjected to a force of 5kN (tensile), 6kN
(tensile) and 4kN (tensile) along x, y and z directions respectively. Determine the change in the
volume of the block. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and Poisson ratio = 0.25.
Given
Dimension of the bar x = 300 mm
y = 100 mm
z = 40 mm
Force in the bar x = 5 kN = 5000 N
y = 6 kN = 6000 N
z = 4 kN = 4000 N
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio 𝜇 = 0.25
Solution
Stress in the block
𝑷𝒙 𝑷𝒚 𝑷𝒛
𝝈𝑥 = 𝝈𝑦 = 𝝈𝑧 =
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
Ax = y*z Ay = x*z Az = x*y
5000 6000 4000
= = =
100 ∗ 40 300 ∗ 40 300 ∗ 100
𝝈𝒙 = 1.25 N/mm2 𝝈𝒚 = 0.5 N/mm2 𝝈𝒛 = 0.133 N/mm2
Volume of the block
Volume of the block V = x*y*z
= 300 * 100 * 40
V = 12,00,000 mm3
Change in volume
𝜹𝑽 𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛
Change in the volume = ( ) (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
𝐕 𝑬
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 +𝜎𝑧
𝛿𝑉 = ( ) (1 − 2𝜇) * V
𝐸

1.25+0.5+0.133
= ( ) (1 − 2 ∗ 0.25) * 12,00,000
2∗105

𝜹𝑽 = 5.649 mm3

Result
Change in volume 𝛿𝑉 = 5.649 mm3

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25. A metallic bar 250mm x 100 mm x 50 mm is subjected to a force of 400kN (tensile), 2MN
(tensile) and 4MN (Compressive) along x, y and z directions respectively. Determine the change
in the volume of the block. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and Poisson ratio = 0.25.
Given
Dimension of the bar x = 250 mm
y = 100 mm
z = 50 mm
Force in the bar x = 400 kN = 400000 N
y = 2 MN = 2000000 N
z = 4 MN = 4000000 N
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio 𝜇 = 0.25
Solution
Stress in the block
𝑷𝒙 𝑷𝒚 𝑷𝒛
𝝈𝑥 = 𝝈𝑦 = 𝝈𝑧 =
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
Ax = y*z Ay = x*z Az = x*y
400000 2000000 4000000
= = =
100 ∗ 50 250 ∗ 50 250 ∗ 100
𝝈𝒙 = 80 N/mm2 (T) 𝝈𝒚 = 160 N/mm2 (T) 𝝈𝒛 = 160 N/mm2 (C)
Volume of the block
Volume of the block V = x*y*z
= 250 * 100 * 50
V = 12,50,000 mm3
Change in volume
𝜹𝑽 𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 − 𝝈𝒛
Change in the volume = ( ) (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)
𝐕 𝑬
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 +𝜎𝑧
𝛿𝑉 = ( ) (1 − 2𝜇) * V
𝐸

80+160−160
= ( ) (1 − 2 ∗ 0.25) * 12,50,000
2∗105

𝜹𝑽 = 250 mm3

Result
Change in volume 𝛿𝑉 = 250 mm3

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4.17.3 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF A CYLINDRICAL ROD

Consider a cylindrical rod which is subjected to an

axial tensile load P.

Let d = Diameter of the rod

L = length of the rod

Due to tensile load P, there will be an increase in the

length of the rod, but the diameter of the rod will
decrease as shown in the figure.

Final length = L + 𝛿𝐿 and Final Diameter = d - 𝛿𝑑

𝜋
Now the original volume of the rod, V = 𝑑2 ∗ 𝐿
4

𝜋
Final volume of the rod, = (d − 𝛿𝑑)2 ∗ (L + 𝛿𝐿)
4

𝜋
= (𝑑 2 + 𝛿𝑑 2 − 2𝑑𝛿𝑑 ) ∗ (L + 𝛿𝐿)
4

𝜋
= (𝑑 2 𝐿 + 𝑑 2 𝛿𝐿 + 𝐿𝛿𝑑2 + 𝛿𝑑 2 𝛿𝐿 − 2𝑑𝐿𝛿𝑑 − 2𝑑𝛿𝑑𝛿𝐿)
4

Since 𝛿𝑑, 𝛿𝐿 are smaller quantities, Product of these will also be very smaller
𝜋
Final volume of the rod, = (𝑑 2 𝐿 + 𝑑 2 𝛿𝐿 − 2𝑑𝐿𝛿𝑑 )
4

Hence, Change in Volume, 𝛿𝑉 = Final Volume – Original Volume

𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑑 2 𝐿 + 𝑑 2 𝛿𝐿 − 2𝑑𝐿𝛿𝑑 ) - 𝑑2 𝐿
4 4

𝜋
= (𝑑 2 𝐿 + 𝑑 2 𝛿𝐿 − 2𝑑𝐿𝛿𝑑 − 𝑑 2 𝐿)
4

𝜋
𝛿𝑉 = (𝑑 2 𝛿𝐿 − 2𝑑𝐿𝛿𝑑 )
4

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝜹𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 (𝒆𝒗 ) = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽

π
(d2 δL−2dLδd) d2 δL−2dLδd d2 δL 2dLδd
4
𝑒𝑣 = 𝜋 2 = = −
𝑑 𝐿 𝑑2𝐿 𝑑2𝐿 𝑑2𝐿
4

𝛅𝐋 𝟐𝛅𝐝
𝒆𝒗 = −
𝑳 𝒅

Volumetric Strain, 𝐞𝐯 = 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 − 𝟐 ∗ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

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26. A steel rod 5m long and 30 mm in diameter is subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN.
Determine the change in length, diameter and volume of the rod. Take E = 2 x 10 5 N/mm2 and
Poisson ratio = 0.25.
Given
Length of the rod L = 5 m = 5000 m
Diameter of the rod d = 30 mm
Load in the bar P = 50 kN = 50,000N
Young’s Modulus E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio 𝜇 = 0.25
Solution
Area of the rod
𝝅 𝟐
Area of the rod A = 𝑫
𝟒
𝜋
= (30)2
4
A = 706.85 mm2
Change in Length
𝑷𝑳
Change in Length 𝜹𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
50,000 ∗ 5000
=
706.85 ∗ 2 ∗ 105
𝜹𝑳 = 1.768 mm
Change in Diameter
Lateral Strain = 𝝁 ∗ 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝛅𝐝 𝛅𝐋
= 𝝁∗
𝒅 𝑳
δd 1.768
= 0.25 ∗
𝑑 5000
δd = 0.0000884 * d
= 0.0000884 * 30
𝛅𝐝 = 0.002652 mm
Volume of the rod
V = A*L
= 706.85 * 5000
V = 35,34,250 mm3

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Change in Volume
𝜹𝑽 𝛅𝐋 𝟐𝛅𝐝
Volumetric Strain = −
𝐕 𝑳 𝒅
1.768 2 ∗ 0.002652
= −
5000 30
𝛿𝑉
= 0.0001768
V
Change in Volume 𝜹𝑽 = 0.0001768 * V
= 0.0001768 * 3534250
𝜹𝑽 = 624.85 mm3
Result
Change in Length 𝛿𝐿 = 1.768 mm
Change in diameter 𝛿𝑑 = 0.002652 mm
Change in volume 𝛿𝑉 = 250 mm3

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