SIMPLE NOTES & HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND

ANSWERS

PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS DESAMANGALAM

(8196) , THRISSUR (DT) , 9947444175

Name : ………………………………………….........

School : ………………………………………………….

Class : ………………………………………………….

Roll No. : …………………………………………………

 XI CHEMISTRY
CONTENTS

UNIT 1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM

UNIT 3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND

PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

UNIT 4 CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR

STRUCTURE

UNIT 5 THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT 6 EQUILIBRIUM

UNIT 7 REDOX REACTIONS

UNIT 8 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY- SOME BASIC

PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

UNIT 9 HYDROCARBONS

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K ,HSST CHEMISTRY , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196) , THRISSUR (DT)
 UNIT 1 : SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)

======================================================
1. What is Matter? How will you classify it?
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Chemically matter is classified as two. (i) Pure substances and (ii) Mixtures.
Matter

Pure substances Mixtures

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

2. What are Pure substances? How will you classify it? Explain each.
Pure substances contain only one substance. It cannot be physically separated.
Pure substances are classified as (i) Elements and (ii) Compounds.
Elements Compounds
Elements contain only one type of atoms Compounds contain different types of atoms
Examples: Hydrogen , Oxygen , Carbon , Iron , Gold etc Examples: Marble (CaCO3), ice (H2O) etc.
3. What are Mixtures? How will you classify it? Differentiate them.
Mixtures contain more type of substances. It can be physically separated.
These are classified as (i) homogeneous mixture and (ii) heterogeneous mixture.
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
Mixtures having uniform composition through out Mixtures having different composition in different parts
Examples:- Air, Sugar solution, Kerosene, Petrol, Examples:- Iron and Sulphur, Muddy water, Sand,
Alloys (Brass), 916 gold Smoke, Gun powder, Soil
4. Classify the following matter as homogeneous mixture, heterogeneous mixture, element and compounds.
( Silver, Air, Muddy water, Water ) [March 2024]
Ans: Homogeneous mixture: Air , Heterogeneous mixture: Muddy water
Element: Silver Compound: Water
5. What are Significant figures?
Significant figures are the number of digits in a measurement about which we are certain plus one
additional digit which is uncertain.
6. Which are the rules for determining the number of significant figures?
(I) All non-zero digits are significant. Example: 285 → 3 significant figures
(II) Trapped zeros are significant. Example: 2.005 → 4 significant figures
(III) Before zeros are never significant. Example: 0.0052 → 2 significant figures
(IV) End zeros are significant if it is after the decimal point. Example: 0.200 g → 3 significant figures
(V) End zeros are non significant if there is no decimal point. Example: 100→ 1 significant figure
(VI) In scientific notation, powers of ten are non- significant. Example: 6.022 X 10 23→4 significant figures
(VII) Counting numbers have infinite number of significant figures.
Example: 20 eggs → Infinite significant figures
7. Which are Laws of chemical combination?
(I) Law of conservation of mass
(II) Law of definite proportion
(III) Law of multiple proportion
(IV) Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volume
(V) Avogadro law
8. State and explain Law of conservation of mass [December 2020] [March 2020]
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. OR
In a chemical reaction, total mass of reactants is equal to total mass of products.
This law is proposed by Lavoisier.
Example: C + O2 → CO2
12g 32 g 44 g
Total mass of reactants = 12+32=44 g Total mass of products =44 g
9. State and explain Law of definite proportion [March 2023]
A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.
This law is proposed by Joseph Proust.
Example:- Carbon dioxide can be obtained by many methods.
Its formula → CO2 Mass ratio→ 12:32 Simple ratio →3:8
10. State and explain Law of multiple proportion [August 2018] [SAY 2021] [March 2021] [March 2024]
If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
This law is proposed by John Dalton.
Example:- Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form two compounds, water and hydrogen peroxide.
𝟏
𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 , 𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐
𝟐
2g 16 g 18 g 2g 32 g 34 g
Here hydrogen has fixed mass ( 2 g) . Oxygen has different masses ( 16 and 32)
Its ratio → 16:32 = 1:2
It is simple whole number ratio
More examples:- (i) CO , CO2 (ii) NO , NO2
11. State and explain Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volume
When gaseous reactants combine to form gaseous products, there exist a simple whole number ratio
between their volumes. This law is proposed by Gay Lussac
Example :- H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
Volume ratio of reactants and products → 1: 1: 2
12. State and explain Avogadro law
Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of
molecules. This law is proposed by Avogadro.
For example, if we take hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen in different flasks of same capacity, we will find that
all flasks contain the same number of molecules.
13. Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two different compounds, namely water (H 2O) and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). Which law is obeyed by this combination? [March 2024] [March 2020]
Ans : Law of multiple proportions
14. NO and NO2 are two oxides of nitrogen. Which law of chemical combination is illustrated by these
compounds? [July 2017] [SAY 2023]
 Ans: Law of multiple proportions
15. Two elements, carbon and hydrogen combine to form C 2H6, C2H4 and C2H2. Identify the law [March 2017]
Ans : Law of multiple proportions
16. When nitrogen and hydrogen combines to form ammonia, the ratio between the volumes of gaseous
reactants and products is 1: 3: 2. Name the law of chemical combination illustrated here. [March 2016]
Ans: Gay – Lussac’s law of Gaseous volumes
17. What is atom?
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not have free existence.
Atoms of Helium and Neon can exist freely. Atoms of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc. cannot exist freely
18. What are the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory?
(I) Matter is made up of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.
(II) Atoms of the same element are identical.
(III) Atoms of different elements are different.
(IV) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio
(V) Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
19. Define atomic mass .
The atomic mass of an element means how many times an atom of an element is heavier than one-twelfth
of a carbon-12 atom.
Relative atomic mass of Hydrogen , H =1
Relative atomic mass of Carbon , C = 12
Relative atomic mass of Oxygen , O = 16
Relative atomic mass of Chlorine , Cl = 35.5
20. Define Atomic mass unit (amu) or unified mass (u). What is its value? [March 2013].
One atomic mass unit is equal to one-twelfth ( 1/12 ) the mass of an atom of carbon-12 .
1 amu (u) = 1.66056 x 10 -24 g
21. Define molecule
Molecule is the simplest particle of an element or a compound which has free existence.
22. Define molecular mass
The molecular mass of a substance (element or compound) means how many times the mass of a molecule
is heavier than one-twelfth ( 1/12) of a carbon-12 atom.
It is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them
together.
Molecular mass of water ( H2O) = (1 X 2 ) + (16 X 1) = 2 + 16 = 18

23. Define Mole . [March 2013]

Mole is the amount of a substance which contain 6.022 x 10 23 particles (Avogadro’s number)
1 mol of hydrogen atoms = 6.022 x 10 23 atoms
1 mol of water molecules = 6.022 x 10 23 molecules
24. Define Molar mass?
The mass of one mole substance is called molar mass.

25. Give the equation of percentage composition (mass percentage)? [March 2010]
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

26. What are empirical formula and molecular formula? [SAY 2012]
Molecular formula is the actual formula of a compound.
Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound.
27. Write the Molecular formula and Empirical formula of the following species.
Species Molecular formula Empirical formula
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Ethane C2H6 CH3
Benzene C6H6 CH
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO
Butene C4H8 CH2
Carbon dioxide CO2 CO2
Acetic acid CH3COOH ( C2H4O2) CH2O
Benzene hexachloride C6H6Cl6 CHCl
Water H2O H2O
28. Write the relation between empirical formula and molecular formula. [September 2016] [March 2023]
Ans : Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula , Where n = 1,2,3,………
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒏=
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
29. What are stoichiometric calculations?
Calculations of masses or volumes of reactants and products in a chemical reaction are called stoichiometric
calculations.
Consider a reaction, CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
1 mol CH4 + 2 mol O2 → 1 mol CO2 + 2 mol H2O
16 g of CH4 + 2 X 32 g of O2 → 44 g of CO2 + 2 X 18 g of H2O
6.022 X 1023 molecules of CH4 + 2 X 6.022 X 1023 molecules of O2 → 6.022 X 1023 molecules of CO2 +
2 X 6.022 X 10 23 molecules of H2O
22.7 L of CH4 + 2 X 22.7 L of O2 → 22.7 L of CO2 + 2 X 22.7 L of H2O

30. What is Limiting reagent (limiting reactant) ? [SAY 2023] [SAY 2022] [March 2024]
The reactant that is consumed completely in a reaction is called Limiting reagent (limiting reactant ).
Example:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
In this reaction , 2 mole hydrogen react with 1 mole oxygen to produce 2 mole water.
If this reaction is carried out using 2mol H2 and 2mol O2 , 2mol H2 is used up completely and so H2 is the
limiting reagent . Here O2 is excess reagent
31. What is a solution?
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Solutions having only two components are called binary solutions. Example: Salt water
The component which is in larger amount is called solvent.
The component which is in smaller amount is called solute.
Solute + Solvent → Solution
Salt + Water → Salt water
32. What is concentration of a solution?
The amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution is called concentration.
33. Which are the ways of expressing concentration of a solution?
(I) Mass percent (II) Mole fraction (III) Molarity (IV) Molality
34. Give equation for mass percentage of solute .
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
35. Define mole fraction. [SAY 2016]
Mole fraction is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of
the solution.
 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐧𝐁
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐀 + 𝐧𝐁

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐧𝐀

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 = =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐀 𝐧𝐁
36. Define molarity [MARCH 2023]
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute in one litre of the solution.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴) =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆
Molarity depends on temperature because it is related to volume, which changes with
temperature.
37. Define molality
Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute present in one kilogram of solvent.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎) =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
Molality does not depend on temperature
38. The number of moles of solute in one litre of the solution is ……………………. [March 2024]
Ans: Molarity
SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Which among the following measurements contains the highest number of significant figures? [SAY 2018]
a) 1.123 x 10-3 kg b) 1.2 x 10-3 kg c) 0.123 x 103 kg d) 2 x 105 kg
Ans: a) 1.123 x 10-3 kg
2. Round off 0.0525 to a number with two significant figures. [March 2019]
Ans: 0.052
3. What is the number of hydrogen atoms in 1 mole of methane (CH 4)?
Ans: 4 x 6.022 x 1023 atoms (Hint : CH4 contains 4 hydrogen atoms)
4. The number of moles of CO2 present in 220g of CO2is…………… [March 2023]
Ans : 5 mol ( Hint : 220/44 = 5 )
5. The number of oxygen atoms present in 5 moles of glucose (C 6H12O6) is .............. [March 2018]
Ans: 30 x 6.022 x 1023 atoms (Hint : Glucose contains 6 oxygen atoms)
6. The mass of 2 moles of ammonia gas is ......... [October 2015]
Ans : 34g (Hint : 2 X 17= 34)
7. Calculate the mass of a magnesium atom in grams. [July 2017]
Mass of 1 mol Magnesium = 24 g
Mass of 6.02 x 10 23 Magnesium atoms = 24 g
𝟐𝟒
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 = = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟑
𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
8. Determine the number of moles present in 0.55 mg of electrons.1 mole ii) 2 moles iii) 1.5 moles iv) 0.5 mole
[March 2017]
Ans: 1 mol
9. Give the empirical formula of the following. C 6H12O6, C6H6, CH3COOH, C6H6Cl6 [March 2017]
Ans : Empirical formulae are: CH2O, CH, CH2O, CHCl.
10. Benzene has empirical formula CH. Its molecular mass is 78. What is its molecular formula [March2018 ]
Ans : Empirical formula mass= 12 + 1 = 13
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟕𝟖
𝒏= = =𝟔
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟑
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula =6 (CH) = C 6H6
11. Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron which has 69.9% iron (Fe) and 30.1% oxygen (O) by
mass. [Hint: Atomic mass of Fe = 56]. ([December 2020]

Elements Atomic Percentage (%) 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = Simple ratio Whole
mass 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
number ratio
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

Fe 56 69.9 69.9 /56 =1.25 1.25/1.25 =1 2

O 16 30.1 30.1/16 = 1.88 1.88/1.25 =1.5 3
Empirical formula = Fe2O3
12. An organic compound has the following percentage composition C = 12.36%, H = 2.13%, Br = 85%. Its vapour
density is 94. Find its molecular formula. (Hint: Molecular mass = 2 x vapour density) [September 2016]

Elements Atomic Percentage 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 Simple ratio Whole number
mass (%) 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 ratio
=
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

Hydrogen 1 2.13% 2.13/1 = 2.13 2.13/1.03 =2.06 2

Carbon 12 12.36% 12.36/12 =1.03 1.03/1.03 =1 1

Bromine 80 85%. 85/80 = 1.06 1.06/1.03 = 1.02 1

Empirical formula = CH2Br

Empirical formula mass = (12 x1) + (1 x 2) + (80 x 1) = = 12 + 2 + 80 = 94
Molecular mass = 2 x vapour density = 2 X 94 = 188
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟖𝟖
𝒏= = =𝟐
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟗𝟒
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula =2 (CH2Br) = C2H4Br2
13. An organic compound on analysis gave the following composition. Carbon = 40%, Hydrogen = 6.66% and
oxygen = 53.34%. Calculate its molecular formula if its molecular mass is 90. [MARCH 2022]

Elements Atomic Percentage 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 Simple ratio Whole

mass (%) 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 number
=
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ratio
Hydrogen 1 6.66 % 6.66 /1 = 6.66 6.66/3.33 = 2 2
Carbon 12 40 % 40 /12 = 3.33 3.33/3.33 = 1 1
Oxygen 16 53.34 % 53.34 /16=3.33 3.33/3.33 = 1 1
Empirical formula = CH2O
Empirical formula mass =( 12 x1) + (1 x 2) + (16 x 1 ) = 12 + 2 + 16 = 30
Molecular mass = 90
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟗𝟎
𝒏= = =𝟑
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟑𝟎
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula =3(CH2O) = C3H6O3
14. A compound contain A 70% , B 30 %. The relative number of moles of A ad B in the compound are 1.25 and
1.88 respectively. Its molecular mass is 160. What are its EF and MF? [March 2016]
Solution:
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝟕𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 = = = 𝟓𝟔
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩 = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝟑𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩 = = = 𝟏𝟔
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖

𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝐒𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 𝐨𝐟 𝐀 = =𝟏
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝟏. 𝟖𝟖
𝐒𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 𝐨𝐟 𝐁 = = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
Whole number ratio of A = 1 x 2 = 2
Whole number ratio of B = 1.5 x 2 = 3
Empirical formula = A2B3
Empirical formula mass = (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) = 112 + 48 = 160
Molecular mass = 160
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝒏= = =𝟏
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟔𝟎
Molecular formula = 1 ( A2B3 ) = A2B3
15. Calculate the amount of oxygen required for the complete combustion of 48 g of methane [March 2023]
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
16g 64g
16g CH4 require 64 g oxygen
48 g (3X16 ) CH4 require 192 g ( 3X 64 ) oxygen
16. The balanced chemical equation for combustion of CH4 is CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
Calculate the amount of water formed by the combustion of 32g of CH4. [March 2020]
Ans:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

16g 64g 44g 36g

16g CH4 produces 36g water.
So the amount of water formed by the combustion of 32g CH 4 = 72 g.

17. Calculate the mass of SO3 produced, if 500 g SO2 reacts with 200 g of O2 according to the equation
2 SO2 + O2→2 SO3 , identify the limiting reactant. [July 2019]
Ans :
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3
2 mol SO2 + 1 mol O2→2 mol SO3
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟐 = = 𝟕. 𝟖 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐒𝐎𝟐
𝟔𝟒
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐎𝟐 = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐎𝟐
𝟑𝟐
According to equation 2 mol SO2 require 1 mol O2
𝟏
𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒𝐎𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
∴ 𝟕. 𝟖 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐒𝐎𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬 𝐗 𝟕. 𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟗 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎𝟐
𝟐
Here SO2 is used up completely and so SO2 is limiting reagent .
2 mol SO2 → 2 mol SO3
Therefore 1 mol SO2 → 1 mol SO3
 Therefore 7.8 mol SO2 → 7.8 mol SO3 = 7.8 ( 32 + 48)
= 7.8 X 80 = 624 g SO3
18. A reaction mixture for the production of NH3 gas contains 250 g of N2 gas and 50 g of H2 gas under suitable
conditions. Identify the limiting reactant if any and calculate the mass of NH 3 gas produced. [March 2019]
Solution:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
1 mol N2 3 mol H2 2 mol NH3
28g N2 6g H2 34 g NH3
𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝟐 = = 𝟖. 𝟗 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐍𝟐
𝟐𝟖
𝟓𝟎
𝟓𝟎 𝐠𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = = 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐇𝟐
𝟐
According to equation 1 mol N2 require 3 mol H2 .
Hence for 8.9 mol nitrogen , the moles of hydrogen required = 8.9X 3 = 26.7 mol H 2
Here only 25 mol hydrogen is present. So hydrogen is limiting reagent.
According to equation 3 mol H2 gives 2 mol NH3
1mol H2 gives 2/3 mol NH3
𝟐
𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐇𝟐 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝟐𝟓 𝐗 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟔 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝐠 𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐚
𝟑
19. Calculate the mass of NaOH required to make 500 ml of 0.5M aqueous solution. (Molar mass of NaOH = 40)
[March 2013]
𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒍) 𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓 =
𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓 𝑿𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝑩 = = 𝟏𝟎 𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
The mass of NaOH required = 10 g
20. Calculate the mass of oxalic acid dihydrate (H2C2O4.2H2O) required to prepare 0.1M, 250 ml of its aqueous
solution. [March 2018].
Molar mass of Oxalic acid dihydrate = 126 ,
Molarity = 0.1M ,
Volume of the solution = 250 mL
𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊)

𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟏 =
𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑿 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑿 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑾𝑩 = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏𝟐 −𝟐𝟒
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝑿 𝟐𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝒈
𝟏𝟐 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎

=============================================================================================
 UNIT 2 : STRUCTURE OF ATOM
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)

=======================================================
1. Electron was discovered by J J Thomson by cathode ray discharge tube experiment.
2. What are the properties of cathode rays? [ SAY 2017]
(I) They start from cathode, more rays are produced from the space between cathode and anode and
move towards anode
(II) They travel in straight lines.
(III) They are deflected by both electric and magnetic field. Deflection in the electric field is towards
positive plate shows that they are negatively charged particles called electrons
(IV) They does not depend on the nature of the gas inside discharge tube
(V) The charge to mass ratio (e/m) is same for all gases
3. What is the mass of electron?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝟗. 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏kg
4. What are the properties of anode rays (Canal rays OR Positive rays)? [MARCH 2020]
(I) They are produced from the space between cathode and anode and move towards cathode
(II) They travel in straight lines.
(III) They are deflected by both electric and magnetic field. Deflection in the electric field is towards
negative plate shows that they are positively charged particles
(IV) They depend on the nature of the gas inside discharge tube
(V) The charge to mass ratio (e/m) is different for different gases
5. What is proton? What is the mass of proton?
The lightest positively charged particles are called protons.
Mass of proton =1.672 x 10-27 kg .
It is equal to the mass of hydrogen atom
6. Who discovered proton?
Ans: Rutherford OR Goldstein
7. How neutron is discovered? What is its mass?
Neutron is discovered by James Chadwick by bombarding beryllium sheet by alpha (α) particles.
They are neutral particles.
Mass of neutron =1.674 x 10-27 kg .
Mass of neutron is slightly greater than proton.
8. Give the equation of Atomic number and Mass number
Atomic number = Number of protons = No. of electrons
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = No. of nucleons
9. How will you find number of neutrons
Number of neutrons= Mass number - Atomic number
10. Define isotopes and isobars. Give examples for each.
(I) Isotopes are atoms of same element having the same atomic number but different mass number.
They contain different number of neutrons.
Example : 126C , 136C , 14
6C
(II) Isobars are atoms of different elements which have the same mass number. Example : 146C , 147N
11. Which are different atom models?
(I) Thomson’s atom model (Watermelon model , Plum-pudding model)
(II) Rutherford’s atom model
(III) Bohr atom model
(IV) Quantum mechanical model
12. Explain Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment. Give its important observations and conclusions.
[MARCH 2023]
Rutherford bombarded thin gold foil by alpha particles (positive charge) and the movements of rays are
detected by circular zinc sulphide screen.

Observations Conclusions
1 Most of the alpha particles passed through the Most of the space in an atom is empty.
gold foil without any deflections.
2 A few alpha particles were deflected through A heavy positive centre is present at the centre
small angles . of the atom called nucleus.
0
3 Very few alpha particles are deflected back (180 ). Nucleus is very small in size.
13. What are the postulates of Rutherford atom model? [SAY 2022] [SAY 2023] [MARCH 2022]
(I) Most of the mass and all positive charge is concentrated at the centre of the atom called nucleus.
(II) Electrons are revolving around the nucleus with very high speeds.
(III) Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
(IV) Electrons and nucleus are held by electrostatic forces of attraction.
14. What are the draw backs (failure) of Rutherford atom model? [MARCH 2024]
(I) Failed to explain the stability of the atom.
(II) Failed to explain hydrogen spectrum.
(III) It does not say anything about the electronic structure of atom.
15. Arrange electromagnetic radiations in order of the wavelength.
Gamma-rays < X-rays <UV rays <visible rays < infra red rays < Micro waves < radio waves
16. Dual nature of electromagnetic radiations
All electromagnetic radiations have particle like properties and wave like properties
Examples for particle nature :- Photoelectric effect , Black body radiation
Examples for wave nature :- Diffraction , Interference
17. Some terms related with wave characteristics
(i) Wavelength (λ ) :- It is the distance between two adjacent crusts or two adjacent troughs of a wave .
Unit → m or cm
(ii) Frequency (𝞄) :- It is the number of waves that pass through a given point in one second.
Unit →Hz or s−1
(iii) Wave number :- It is the number of wavelengths per unit length.
Unit → cm−1
𝟏
𝐖𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 (𝞄 ) =
𝛌
(iv) Velocity (c) :- It is defined as the linear distance travelled by the wave in one second

𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝟑 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦⁄𝐬

18. Higher the wave length , Shorter the frequency

Higher the frequency, Shorter the wave length
19. Give the relation connecting frequency (𝞄) , speed of light (c), and wave length (λ)
𝒄 = 𝞄𝛌
20. Mention two observations which could not be explained by wave nature of electromagnetic radiations.
[MARCH 2019]
Ans: Photoelectric effect , Black body radiation
21. Give the postulates of planks quantum theory of radiation.
(i) Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the form of small
packets of energy called quanta. In the case of light, it is called photon.
(ii) The energy of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency.
Eαν OR E=hν
h= plank’s constant =6.626 x 10-34 Js
22. What is Photoelectric effect? [December 2020] [MARCH 2024] [SAY 2023]
When light falls on certain metals, electrons are emitted is called photoelectric effect.
Example :- Alkali metals (Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium ) show photoelectric effect.
23. What are the characteristics of Photoelectric effect? [ SAY 2018] [SAY 2023
(I) For the ejection of electrons, the incident light must have a minimum frequency called threshold
frequency (ν0). Corresponding minimum energy is called work function (Threshold energy)
(II) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiation.
(III) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
(IV) The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface.
24. Give equation of Photoelectric effect.
h ν = h ν0 + ½ mv2
h ν = Energy of incident light , h ν0 = Threshold energy (work function) , ½ mv2 = Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy , ½ mv2 = h ν - h ν0 = h( ν - ν0 )
25. Name the five series in Hydrogen spectrum. In which region they come in electromagnetic spectrum.
[MARCH 2023] [MARCH 2020]
Series Spectral region
Lyman series Ultraviolet
Balmer series Visible
Paschen series Infrared
Brackett series Infrared
Pfund series Infrared
26. Give Rydberg equation used to find wave number(𝝑) and wavelength (λ) of each line in Hydrogen spectrum.
OR
Write an equation to find the wave number of a line in the hydrogen spectrum.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝑= = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒄𝒎
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

Series n1 n2
Lyman series 1 2,3,4 etc
Balmer series 2 3,4,5 etc
Paschen series 3 4,5,6 etc
Brackett series 4 5,6,7 etc
Pfund series 5 6,7,8 etc
27. What are the postulates of Bohr atom model? [MARCH 2022] [MARCH 2024]
(I) The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits. These orbits have
definite energies called energy shells or energy levels. These are numbered 1,2,3,4,… or designated as
K,L,M,N,….
(II) As long as electrons remain in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy. Therefore these
orbits are called stationary states.
(III) Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of the electron is a whole number
𝐧𝐡
multiple of h/2π . i.e.𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦, 𝐦𝐯𝐫 = 𝐧 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … …
𝟐𝛑
(IV) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron in it moves from one orbit to other.
The difference in energy , ∆E = E2 - E1 = hν
28. What are the merits of Bohr atom model? [MARCH 2022]
(I) Bohr’s model can explain the stability of an atom.
(II) Bohr’s model can explain hydrogen spectrum
29. What are the draw backs (Limitations) of Bohr atom model? [MARCH 2023]
(I) It cannot explain the line spectra of atoms other than hydrogen.
(II) It cannot explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
(III) It cannot explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
𝟐.𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖 𝒁𝟐
30. 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕, 𝑬𝒏 = 𝑱/𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
𝒏𝟐
𝟓𝟐.𝟗 𝒏𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 , 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒑𝒎
𝒁
Z = Atomic number
n = Number of orbits
31. What is Dual nature of matter? Give de Broglie equation.
According to de Broglie, matter (e.g., Electron) has particle character and wave character.
𝐡 𝐡
de Broglie equation , 𝛌 = =
𝐦𝐯 𝐩
Wavelength ( λ) → Wave character.
Momentum (p) → Par cle character.
For electron, wave character is significant. It is against Bohr model.
32. Write the de Broglie equation and explain the terms [MARCH 2023]
𝐡
Ans : 𝛌=
𝐦𝐯
33. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical forms and its significance. [SAY 2022]
[MARCH 2024] [SAY 2023]
It is impossible to determine simultaneously ,the exact position and exact velocity (or momentum) of an
electron.
 𝒉
Mathematical form is ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝛑
∆x = Uncertainty in position
∆p = Uncertainty in momentum,
h= plank’s constant =6.626 x 10-34 Js
Momentum, p = mass x velocity , p =mv ∆p= m∆v
𝐡
∆𝐱. 𝐦∆𝐯 ≥ ∆v = uncertainty in velocity
𝟒𝛑
Significance:-This principle rules out the existence of definite paths of electrons and other similar
particles.
34. The minimum value for the product of uncertainties in position and momentum of a moving microscopic
particle is equal to .......... [MARCH 2019]
𝒉
Ans :
𝟒𝛑
35. Write a short note on Quantum mechanical model of atom.
It is developed based on de Broglie concept of Dual nature of matter and Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
Its basic equation is Schrodinger equation , 𝑯𝛙=𝐄𝛙
𝑯 = 𝐇𝐚𝐦 𝐥𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫) , Ψ = wave function , E = energy.
The wave function ψ has no physical significance. It represents the amplitude of the electron wave.
However ψ2 represent the probability density of electron cloud (Orbital).
36. What are orbitals?
An orbital is the region in space around the nucleus where there is maximum probability of finding an
electron having a specific energy.
Different orbitals have different shape.
An orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
37. Which are four Quantum numbers? Explain each. [MARCH 2024]
(I) Principal quantum number (n) Number of shells in an atom.
Distance of electrons from the nucleus.
(II) Azimuthal or Angular momentum Number of subshells in a shell .
quantum number (l) Shape of orbitals
(III) Magnetic quantum number (m) Different orientation (orbitals) of a subshell
(IV) Spin quantum number(s) Spinning of electron either clockwise or anti clockwise
(I) Principal quantum number (n)
It represents the main energy level or shell in which the electron is located.
It also determines the average distance of the orbital or electron from the nucleus.
n= 1, 2, 3, 4, ……….
n=1 first energy level, n=2 second energy level
(II) Azimuthal or Angular momentum quantum number (l)
It determines the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of an electron.
It denotes the sub shell in which electron is located in a shell.
Its value determines the shape of the orbital.
For a given value of n, l = 0 to n-1
l 0 1 2 3
Subshell s p d f
Shape of the orbital Spherical Dumb-bell Double dumb-bell complex

For 1st shell (n =1) l =0 one value one sub shell 1s

For 2nd shell (n=2) l =0,1 two values two sub shells 2s , 2p
 For 3rd shell (n =3) l =0,1,2 three values three sub shells 3s,3p,3d
For 4th shell (n =4) l =0,1,2,3 four values four sub shells 4s,4p,4d,4f
(III) Magnetic quantum number (m)
It describes the behavior of the electrons in an external magnetic field.
It refers to the different orientations (orbitals) in a sub shell.
For a given value of l , m= -l …..0……..+l

For s Sub shell( l=0) m =0 one value One s orbital

For p Sub shell( l=1) m = -1,0,+1 Three values Three p orbitals
For d Sub shell( l=2) m =-2,-1,0,+1,+2 Five values Five d orbitals
For f Sub shell( l=3) m = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 Seven values Seven f orbitals
(IV) Spin quantum number(s)
It describes the spin orientation of electrons.
Spin orientation in two ways – clockwise (+1/2) or anti clockwise (-1/2)

38. The quantum number which gives the energy of an electron in an atom is ....... [December 2020]
Ans: Principal quantum number
39. Name the quantum number which gives the spatial orientation of an orbital with respect to standard set of
co-ordinate axes. [SAY 2018]
Ans: Magnetic quantum number(m)
40. Subshell notations (Represent orbitals )
n l Subshell notations n l Subshell notations
1 0 1s 3 2 3d
2 0 2s 4 0 4s
2 1 2p 4 1 4p
3 0 3s 4 2 4d
3 1 3p 4 3 4f
41. Write the n and l values of a 4d electron. [March 2020]
Ans: For 4d electron, n =4 and l = 2
42. Write the n and l values of a 3s electron [MARCH 2023]
Ans : n=3 , l=0
43. Draw the plots of probability density (ψ 2 ) against distance from the nucleus for 1s and 2s orbitals [2018]

1s 2s
44. Draw the shapes of 1s and 2s orbitals [IMP 2017]

.
S orbital→ Spherical shape
45. Draw the shapes of p- orbitals [IMP 2017]
Three p orbitals :- Px , Py, Pz , Shape: Dumb bell shape

2Px 2Py 2Pz

46. Draw the shapes of d- orbitals.
2 2
Five d orbitals :- dxy
, dxz , dyz , dx -y , dz 2
Double dumb bell shape (Exception : dz2, It has a dumbbell and a circular collar in xy plane.)

dxy dxz dyz dx2-y2 dz2

47. EQUATIONS

Number of radial nodes = n-l-1

Number of angular nodes = l
Total number of nodes =n-1
Number of subshell in a principal shell =n
Number of orbitals in a shell = n2
Maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2 n2
Number of orbitals in a subshell = 2 l +1
48. How many angular nodes are present in a 5f-orbital? [IMP 2017]
Ans: 3 ( due to f subshell)
49. The number of radial nodes of 4p orbital is ............... [IMP 2019] Ans: 2
50. Energy of orbitals :- (n+l) rule
(I) Orbitals are filled in the order of increasing value of (n+l) . e.g., 3s < 3p
For 3s , n+l = 3+0 = 3 For 3p , n+l = 3+1 = 4
(II) If the two orbitals have same (n+l) value, the one with lower ‘n’ will be filled first.
For For 3d , n+l = 3+2 = 5 For 4p , n+l = 4+1 = 5 so 4p > 3d
51. Which is higher in energy 3d or 4s? Why?
For 3d , n+l = 3 + 2 = 5
For 4s , n+l = 4 + 0 = 4
3d has higher (n+ l) value and so it has higher energy.
52. Which is higher in energy 4p or 5s? Why?
For 4p , n+l = 4 + 1 = 5
For 5s , n+l = 5 + 0 = 5
Both 4p and 5s orbitals have same (n+l) value, the one with higher ‘n’ has higher energy.
53.Subshells and Maximum number of electrons
s-subshell 2
p-subshell 6
d-subshell 10
f-subshell 14
54. Find the number of electrons in the subshell with azimuthal quantum number l =2.
Ans: l =2 , d subshell , Maximum electrons 10
55.ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Element Electronic configuration Element Electronic configuration
1H 1s1 16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

2He 1s2 17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

3Li 1s2 2s1 18Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

4Be 1s2 2s2 19K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

5B 1s2 2s2 2p1 20Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

6C 1s2 2s2 2p2 21Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
7N 1s2 2s2 2p3 22Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
8O 1s2 2s2 2p4 23V 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
9F 1s2 2s2 2p5 24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d54s1
10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 25Mn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
2 2 6 1
11Na 1s 2s 2p 3s 26Fe
12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 27Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2
2 2 6 2 1
13Al 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 28Ni
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
2 2 6 2 2
14Si 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 29Cu
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
2 2 6 2 3
15P 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 30Zn
56. Which are rules for writing electronic configuration?
(I) Aufbau principle
(II) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(III) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
57. State Aufbau principle . Arrange orbitals in the increasing order of energies [MARCH 2023]
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d <5p <6s < 4f < 5d < 6 p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
58. State and explain Pauli’s exclusion principle [SAY 2022] [SAY 2020] [MARCH 2024]
It states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
For the two electrons in the first shell
For 1st electron n=1 , l =0 , m =0 , s =+1/2
For 2nd electron n=1 , l =0 , m =0 , s =-1/2
Here spin quantum number is different.
If third electron is present in first shell, there will be same set of quantum numbers.
It is against Pauli’s exclusion principle
59. Give the importance of quantum numbers in Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. [SAY 2020] OR
What is the Consequence of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.
Ans : An orbital cannot accommodate more than two electrons.
An orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
60. State and explain Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity. [SAY 2022] [MARCH 2020]
This rule states that electron pairing in orbitals of same sub shell will not takes place until each
available orbital of that sub shell is singly occupied (with parallel spin).
N → 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

61. Write the exceptional configuration of chromium and copper and give its reason [SAY2016] [SAY2021]
2 2 6 2 6 5 1
Chromium : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

Copper : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Half filled and completely filled orbitals have more stability.

It is due to symmetrical arrangement and greater exchange energy.
62. Write the values of all quantum numbers for the last electron in sodium atom. [SAY2020]
Ans: The electronic configuration of sodium is 11Na – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Here the last electron is at 3s subshell.
The values of different quantum numbers for 3s subshell are n = 3, l = 0, m = 0 and s = + ½ or – ½.

SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. The number of protons, electrons and neutrons in a species are equal to 17, 18 and 18 respectively.
Give the correct symbol. [MARCH 2015]
𝟑𝟓
Answer : 𝟏𝟕 𝑪𝒍
2. The threshold frequency, ν0 for a metal is 7.0 x 1014 s-1. Calculate the K.E of an ejected electron when
the radiation of frequency, ν = 1.0 x 1015 s-1 strikes the metal. [MARCH 2011]
2
Solution: h ν = h ν0 + ½ mv
Kinetic energy , ½ mv2 = h ν −h ν0 = h( ν − ν0 ) = 6.626 ×10–34 (1.0 x 1015 −7.0 x 1014)
= 6.626 ×10 (10 x 10 −7.0 x 10 ) = 6.626 ×10–34 x 1014 (10 −7.0 ) = 1.988 x 10−19 J
–34 14 14

3. Calculate the wave number of the second line in the Balmer series.( From 4th orbit to 2nd orbit)
[MARCH 2010] [SAY 2013]
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐
− 𝒄𝒎
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
𝝑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐
− 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 − = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟔𝟒 𝒄𝒎
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟏𝟔
4. A photon has a wavelength of 3.6 A0. Calculate its mass. [MARCH 2015]
Planck's constant, h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js.
Velocity of light = 3 x108 m/s
𝐡
𝛌=
𝐦𝐯
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒
∴ 𝐦= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟐 𝒈
𝛌𝐯 𝟑. 𝟔 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝐗 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
5. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron with velocity 1.6X 10 6 m/s
[MARCH 2024]
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 = 𝟗. 𝟏 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏
-34
Planck's constant, h = 6.626 x 10 Js.
Velocity = 1.6x106 m/s
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒
𝛌= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝒎
𝐦𝐯 𝟗. 𝟏 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏 𝐗 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟔

6. A microscope with suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom within a distance of
0.1 A0. What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity? [SAY 2014]
𝐡
∆𝐱. 𝐦∆𝐯 =
𝟒𝛑
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒
∆𝐯 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟗 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝟒𝛑 . ∆𝐱. 𝐦 𝟒 𝐗 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝐗 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝐗 𝟗. 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏

7. An electron is moving with a velocity of 2.5X 106 m/s. If the uncertainty in its velocity is 0.1%
Calculate the uncertainty in the position. [IMP 2015]
Solution : Mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-31 kg
Velocity = 2.5X 106 m/s
The uncertainty in the Velocity is 0.1%
i.e., 2.5X 106 X 0.1/100 = 2.5 X 103 m/s
𝐡
∆𝐱. 𝐦∆𝐯 =
𝟒𝛑

𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝟔
∆𝐱. = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝐦
𝟒𝛑𝐦∆𝐯 𝟒 𝐗 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝐗 𝟗. 𝟏 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏 𝐗 𝟐. 𝟓 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟑
8. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are NOT possible?
1) n = 2, l = 2, ml = 0, ms = + ½ 2) n=1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = - ½ 3) n = 3, l = 2, ml = -3, ms = + ½
4) n = 2, l = 1, ml = 1, ms = + ½ ) [MARCH 2015] Justify your answer.
Ans: 1) For n= 2 l = 0,1 3) l = 2 , m= -2 ,-1. 0 , +1 ,+2
9. Which among the following is the correct electronic configuration of nitrogen (Z=7). Name the rule that
forms the basis of your answer (a) 1s2 2s2 2px22py12pz0 (b) 1s2 2s2 2px12py12pz1 [MARCH 2023]
Ans: 1s2 2s2 2px12py12pz1
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
10. The number of unpaired electrons present in Ni is ………. i) 2 ii) 0 iii) 1 iv) 3 (1)
Ans : 2
 UNIT 3 : CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)

=======================================================
1. Why do we need to classify elements?
It is very difficult to study chemistry of elements and their compounds individually. To avoid this, periodic
table is developed.
2. Law of triads →Proposed by Dobereiner
The middle element of each triad had an atomic weight about half way between the atomic weights of
other two.
Example for triads : Li, Na, K
3. Law of octaves → Proposed by Newlands.
Newland arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic weights and noted that every eighth
element had properties similar to the first element.
4. State Mendeleev’s periodic law .
The properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights.
Mendeleev introduced the periodic law of elements for the first time.
Based on Mendeleev’s periodic law ,Mendeleev’s periodic table is formed.
5. What are the merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table?
(I) He predicted the properties of some undiscovered elements and left vacant places in his periodic
table. Examples : Eka aluminium (Gallium) and Eka silicon(Germanium).
(II) He placed elements with similar properties together by ignoring their atomic weights.
6. State Modern periodic law [MARCH 2023]
The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Modern periodic law is proposed by Henry Moseley.
7. Long form of periodic table (Modern periodic table)
It is based on modern periodic law.
The elements are arranged in horizontal rows are called periods and vertical columns are called groups.
There are seven periods and 18 groups in the periodic table.
Each group constitutes a family of elements with similar properties.
In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of principal quantum number (n).
There are 4 blocks in the periodic table -s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block.
8. Periods of modern periodic table
Periods Length of periods No. of elements Electron filling sub shells
1 Very short period 2 1s
2 Short period 8 2s, 2p
3 Short period 8 3s, 3p
4 Long period 18 4s, 3d, 4p
5 Long period 18 5s, 4d, 5p
6 Monster period 32 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p
7 Incomplete period Maximum 32 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
9. In the modern periodic table elements in a given group have similar chemical properties. Give reason.
Ans: Elements in a given group have same no. of valence electrons. So they have similar chemical properties.
10. Blocks of periodic table [SAY 2016]

Blocks Groups General electronic Main properties

configuration
s-block 1&2 ns1-2 They are all reactive soft metals with low ionization
energies. They form mainly ionic compounds
p-block 13 to 18 2 1-6 Includes metals, nonmetal and metalloids.
ns np
They form ionic and covalent compounds.
d-block 3 to 12 1-10 1-2 All are hard metals.
(n-1)d ns
They form coloured compounds.
They show variable oxidation states.
They show catalytic properties and paramagnetism.
f-block 1-14 0-1 2
Lanthanoids (n-2)f (n-1)d ns Within each series properties are similar.
& Actinoids Most of the actinoids are radioactive and man made
11. s and p block elements (except noble gases ) are called representative elements.
12. Why is potassium considered as an s-block element? [March 2015]
1
19K – [Ar] 4s .
Its last electron enters in the valence s-subshell. So it is considered as an s-block element.
13. d-block elements are called transition elements. Why?
Since d-block elements show transition (change) from highly electropositive s-block elements to highly
electronegative p-block elements.
14. Transition elements are d-block elements. Why? [SAY 2017]
Ans: In transition elements, the last electron enters in the penultimate d-subshell.
15. f-block elements are called inner transition elements.
16. How will you predict the position of elements in periodic table?
(I) Write electronic configuration
(II) The principal quantum number of valence shell = period of the element.
(III) The sub shell in which the last electron is filled = block of the element
(IV) Group of the element :
(a) For s -block; group number = number of ‘s’ electrons
(b) For p -block; group number = 12 + number of ‘p’ electrons
(c) For d -block; group number =2 + number of ‘d’ electrons
(d) For f- block; group number = 3

17. Which are periodic properties?

(i)Atomic radius (ii) Ionization energy (iii) Electron gain enthalpy (iv) Electronegativity (v) Valency
18. What is Atomic radius?
Atomic radius is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the atom to the outer most shell
of electrons.
19. Explain the variation of Atomic radii along a period and in a group. [MARCH 2023] [SAY 2022]
In a period, from left to right, atomic radii decrease.
From left to right atomic number increases, nuclear charge increases. But the electrons are added in the
same shell. As a result electrons are attracted closer to the nucleus by increased effective nuclear charge.
This leads to decrease of atomic size.
In a group, from top to bottom, atomic radii increase due to increase in number of shells.
20. Atomic radii of noble gases are higher than that of halogens. Why?
This is because noble gases are mono atomic. So Vander Waal’s radius is used to express the atomic radius
which is greater than metallic radius or covalent radius.
21. Why cation is smaller than parent atom? [SAY 2023]
Cation is formed by the loss of electrons. Nuclear charge remains same. So effective nuclear charge
increases, attraction increases and size decreases.
22. Why anion is larger than parent atom?
Anion is formed by the gain of electrons. Nuclear charge remains same. So effective nuclear charge
decreases, attraction decreases and size increases.
23. What are isoelectronic species? Give examples. [SAY 2011]
Atoms and ions which contain same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species.
N3- ,O2- , F- , Na+ , Mg2+ , Al3+
These have different nuclear charge , But contain 10 electrons each
24. Arrange the following isoelectronic species in the decreasing order of size.
N3- > O2- > F- >Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
Among the isoelectronic species, greater the nuclear charge , smaller the size.
25. What is Ionization energy (ionization enthalpy).? [SAY 2023]
The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom
is called ionization energy (ionization enthalpy).
26. Explain the variation of Ionization energy along a period and in a group. [March 2020]

In a period, from left to right ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in nuclear charge and so valence
electrons are more tightly held by the nucleus.
But some irregularities are observed.
Beryllium has higher ionization energy than Boron due to stable electronic configuration ( 1s 22s2) .
Nitrogen has higher ionization energy than oxygen due to half filled stable electronic configuration
( 1s22s22p3)
In a group, Ionization enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
27. Beryllium has higher ionization energy than Boron. Give reason. [SAY 2023]
2 2
Beryllium has stable electronic configuration( 1s 2s ) .
28. Account for the following: First ionisation enthalpy of Boron is less than that of carbon. [SAY 2016]
2 2 1
5B – 1s 2s 2p . After the removal of one electron, B gets the stable fully filled electronic configuration. So
its first ionisation enthalpy is low.
29. Nitrogen has higher ionization energy than oxygen. Why? [MARCH 2023]
 Nitrogen has half filled stable electronic configuration ( 1s 22s22p3).
30. Give reasons for the following : 'O' has lower ionization enthalpy than N [SAY 2018]
2 2 4
Ans: The electronic configuration of O is 1s 2s 2p . After the removal of one electron, oxygen gets the
stable half filled electronic configuration. So it has lower ionisation enthalpy.
31. What are the factors affecting ionization energy?
(i) Atomic size (ii) Nuclear charge (iii) Shielding effect or Screening effect of inner electrons
(iv) Electronic configuration.
32. First ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower than that of magnesium but its second ionization energy is
higher than that of magnesium. Explain.
For sodium (1S22S22P63S1) , first electron is removed from 3s orbital , that is easy , because removal of
electron can form stable electronic configuration. So first ionization energy is low (Na +→1S22S22P6 )
For Magnesium (1S22S22P63S2) , first electron is removed from completely filled 3s orbital , that is difficult ,
because removal of electron is from stable electronic configuration. So first ionization energy is high.
But for Na+, its second ionization energy is high because of stable electronic configuration.
33. What is electron gain enthalpy? [SAY 2023]
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to isolated gaseous atom is called electron gain
enthalpy.
X (g) +e− → X(g) − ∆H = ∆egH
34. Explain the variation of electron gain enthalpy along a period and in a group.
In a period, from left to right electron gain enthalpy becomes more and more negative.
It is due to increase in nuclear charge.
In a group, Electron gain enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
35. Electron gain enthalpies of noble gases (Example: Neon) are zero or positive .Why? [MARCH 2018]
2 6
Due to completely filled electronic configuration ( ns np ).
36. Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less than that of chlorine .Why? [SAY 2023] [MARCH 2023]
This is due to the very small size of fluorine atom. As a result, inter electronic repulsion in the 2p sub shell
of F is more than that in the relatively larger 3p sub shell in chlorine atom.
37. 'Chlorine has the most negative electron gain enthalpy'. Justify the statement. [MARCH 2024]
Ans: For Cl, the incoming electron goes to the larger 3rd shell. So the electronic repulsion is low and hence
Cl adds electron more easily than F.
38. What are Factors affecting electron gain enthalpy ? [MARCH 2017]
(i)Atomic size (ii) Nuclear charge, (iii) electronic configuration
39. What is Electronegativity? [MARCH 2024]
Electro negativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards it.
Halogens have highest electro negativity in their periods.
Fluorine is the most electro negative element.
40. Name electronegativity scales [MARCH 2022]
Ans: Pauling scale , Mulliken-Jaffe scale
41. Explain the variation of Electronegativity along a period and in a group.
Electro negativity increases from left to right in a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
Electro negativity decreases from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic size.
42. What are Anomalous properties?
The first element of each group in s and p blocks differs from the rest of the elements in many properties
are called anomalous properties.
43. Aluminium forms [AlF6] 3- whereas boron cannot form [BF6] 3- but forms [BF4] - even though both belong to
the same group. Explain. [IMP 2015]
Ans: Due to the presence of vacant d orbitals in Al, Al can extend its covalency beyond 4. So it can form
[AlF6] 3-
But in B, there is no vacant d-orbitals. So its maximum covalency is 4.
44. What are the reasons for Anomalous properties? [MARCH 2016]
(i) Small size (ii)High charge/radius ratio.(iii)High electro negativity (iv) Non availability of d orbitals.
45. What is Diagonal relationship?
First element in any group shows similarities with second element in ne next
xt group. This is called diagonal
relationship.
Examples: (i) Lithium resembles Magnesium due to diagonal relationship
(ii) Beryllium resembles aluminium due to diagonal relationship.

46. What are the reasons for Diagonal relationship?

(i) Similar size, (ii)Similar
imilar ionization energy , (iii) Similar electronegativity, (iv)Similar
imilar charge/radius ratio
47. What is Valency?
Valency is the combining capacity of an element. It is determined by valence electrons.
Valency = Numberr of valence electrons
OR 8 − No. of valence electrons
In a group,, valency is same, since valence electrons are same.
In a period , valency increases up to 4 and then decreases with respect to hydrogen and with respect to
oxygen, valency increases up to seven.

48. Explain the behavior of different type Oxides?

The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is the most basic (e.g. Na 2O, CaO).
The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme right is acidic ( e.g. Cl 2O7) .
Oxides of the elements in the centre are amphoteric (e.g. Al 2O3 , As2O3 ) or neutral (e.g. CO, NO, N2O)

49. Show by chemical reaction with water that Na2O is basic and Cl2O7 is acidic.
Na2O with water forms a strong base whereas Cl 2O7 forms a strong acid.
Na2O + H2O → 2 NaOH ,
Cl2O7 + H2O → 2 HClO4

50. Notation for IUPAC nomenclature of elements

digit name abbreviation digit name abbreviation
0 nil n 5 pent p
1 un u 6 hex h
2 bi b 7 sept s
3 tri t 8 oct o
4 quad q 9 enn e
51.
A B
Most electronegative element Fluorine (F)
Most electron gain enthalpy element Chlorine (Cl)
Most electropositive element Francium (Fr)
Most abundant element in the universe Hydrogen
Most abundant element in the earth crust Oxygen
Most abundant element in the atmosphere Nitrogen
 SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Identify the positions of Al (Z=13) and S (Z=16) in the periodic table with the help of their electronic
configurations. Predict the formula of the compound formed between them. [MARCH 2019]
2 1
Ans: 13Al – [Ne] 3s 3p , Period – 3, Group - 13 ,
2 4
16S – [Ne] 3s 3p , Period – 3, Group - 16

Formula : Al2S3.
2. Identify the group and period of an element having atomic number (Z) 25 in the periodic table.
Ans: Electronic configuration : [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Period = 4 , Group = 6
3. The element that has outer electronic configuration 3d5 4s1 belongs to:
(a) s-block (b) p-block (c) d-block (d) f-block [MARCH 2020]
Ans: d-block
4. Predict the formula of the stable binary compound that would be formed by the combination of the
following pairs of elements: (i) Lithium and oxygen (ii) Aluminium and iodine. [MARCH 2020]
Ans: (i) Li2O and (ii) AlI3
5. Account for the following : The ionic radius of fluoride ion (F- ) is 136 pm, while the atomic radius of fluorine
(F) is only 64 pm. [IMP 2019]
Ans: This is due to lesser effective nuclear charge in F – .
6. Among N3-, O2-, F- , Na+ and AI3+, which one has the smallest size? [IMP 2018]
3+
Ans: AI
7. Select isoelectronic species from the following: O – , F– , Na+ , Mg+ [IMP 2017]
– +
Ans: F and Na
8. A group of ions are given below. Find one pair which is not Isoelectronic. Na + , Al3+, Ca2+, Br – ,F – [MARCH 16]
Ans: Ca2+and Br –
9. Justify the following : The size of Al3+ is lower than that of F−. [MARCH 2018]
3+
Ans: Due to greater effective nuclear charge in AI .
10. Write the oxidation state and covalency of Al in [AlF6] 3- [MARCH 2017]
Ans: Oxidation state = +3, Covalency = 6.
11. Account for the following : The second ionization enthalpy of an element is always greater than that of the
first ionization enthalpy.
Ans: This is because it is more difficult to remove an electron from a positively charged ion than from a
neutral atom.
12. Which one of the following has the highest ionisation enthalpy? (a) P (b) S (c) Cl (d) F [IMP 2020]
Ans: F
13. (a) Complete the reactions: (i) Na2O + H2O →............. (ii) Cl2O7 + H2O →............
(b) Identify the nature of the above oxides by examining the products of the above reactions. [Sept 2020]
Ans: (a) (i) NaOH (ii) HClO4
(b) Na2O is basic and Cl2O7 is acidic.
14. Which is the acidic oxide among the following? a) Cl2O7 b) Na2O c) AI2O3 d) CO [MARCH 2018]
Ans: Cl2O7
15. Give the IUPAC name of the element with Atomic number 117. [IMP 2019]
Ans: Ununseptium (Uus)
16. The atomic number of element with IUPAC name ‘Ununbium’ is ……… [MARCH 2015]
Ans: 112
 UNIT 4 :CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
=======================================================
1. What is Chemical bond?
The attractive force between the atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond.
Chemical bonds are
(I) Covalent bond :- Formed byy the sharing of electrons
(II) Ionic bond :- Formed byy the transfer of electrons
2. What is Covalent bond?
The bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons between combining atoms.
(I) Cl2 molecule :- Cl-Cl
Cl SSingle
ingle bond is formed by sharing of one electron each.
each

(II) O2 molecule :- O=O Double bond is formed by sharing of two electrons each.

(III) N2 molecule :- N≡N

≡N Triple bond is formed by the sharing of three electrons each.

3. State Octet rule [IMP 2022]

Atoms of various elements enter into chemical combination to attain eight electrons (octet of electrons) in
their valence shell ( outer most shell).
4. What are the limitations of octet rule
rule? [IMP 2022]
(I) It cannot explain the formation of molecules with incomplete octet (eg: BeF2 , BF3)
(II) It cannot explain the formation of molecules with expanded (super) octet (eg: PCl5, SF6)
(III) It cannot explain the formation of compounds by Xe and Kr( eg : XeF2 , XeF6)
(IV) It cannot explain the formation of odd electron molecules (eg: NO, NO 2)
5. Give two examples of compounds having expanded octet. [March 2020]
Ans: PCl5 and SF6
6. Define ionic bond. How is it formed? Give examples.
 The attractive force between
etween opposite charged ions is called ionic bond.
Ionic bond or electrovalent bond is formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one
atom to another atom.
Positive ion called cation and is formed by the loss of electrons.
Negative ion
on called anion and is formed by the gain of electrons.
Examples: NaCl , CaF2 , CaO
7. What are the factors favouring ionic bond? [MARCH 2016 2016]
(i) Low ionization energy of the electropositive atom (i.e., metal atom)
(ii) High negative electron gain enthalpy of the electronegative atom.
(iii) High lattice enthalpy of the ionic compound formed.
8. What is lattice energy and its importance?
The lattice enthalpy of an ionic solid is defined as the energy required to completely separate one mole of
the ionic compound in to its gaseous
seous ions.
The higher the lattice energy, higher the stability of the ionic compound formed.
9. What is Formal Charge?
The formal charge is the charge assigned to some atoms in the lewis structure of certain compounds.
FC = V-N- B/2
FC = Formal Charge , V= Number of valence electrons in free atom,
N= Number of non bonding electrons , B= Number of bonding electrons
10. What is resonance?
The properties of some compounds cannot be explained by single lewis structure. Such compounds exist as
a combination of two or more structures. This phenomenon is called resonance. Its Characteristics are
(I) Resonance stabilizes the mo
molecule.
(II) Resonance averages the bond characteristics as a whole.
11. Draw the resonance structures of ozone.

12. Polar molecules and non polar molecules

It is a polar molecule
Polar molecules Non polar molecules
Covalent bonded molecules having partial Covalent bonded molecules having nocharge
positive charge and negative charge are called are called nonpolar molecules.
polar molecules.
Hetero nuclear diatomic molecules( HCl, HBr ) Homo nuclear diatomic molecules (O2 ,H2 N2)
Irregular geometry molecules (H2O , NH3) Regular geometry molecules (BeF2, BF3 ,CH4)
13. What is Dipole moment?? Give its unit. [IMP 2023]
Dipole moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of charge and the distance between the centre
of charges. Its unit is Debye (D)..
Dipole moment ( µ) = charge (q) x distance (r)
14. The dipole moment of BeF2 is zero. Why? [March 2019]
 BeF2 is linear molecule. The two equal bond dipoles are in opposite directions and cancel each other. So
the dipole moment of BeF2 is zero.
15. The dipole moment of H2O is not zero. Why? [March 2019]
Water molecule has bent structure.. The bond dipoles of
two O-HH bonds do not cancel each other. So water
molecule has net dipole moment.

16. The dipole moment of BF3 zero. Why? [IMP 2023]

BF3 has trigonal planar structure .
Here the resultant of any two bond dipole is equal and
opposite to third and the dipole moments of these bonds
cancel one another giving net dipole moment equal to zero.

17. Ammonia (NH3) has higher dipole moment than NF3, even though F is more electronegative than
hydrogen. Why? [MARCH 2024]

Both have pyramidal structure. The individual dipole moments do not cancel each other. So they have net
dipole moment.
But ammonia has higher dipole moment . It is due to the orbital dipole due to the lone pair is in the same
direction of three N-H bonds.
But in nitrogen tri fluoride, the resultant dipole of three N N-F bonds is in
n opposite direction to the orbital
dipole of lone pair. So partially cancelled and dipole moment is low.
18. State Fajan’s rule regarding the partial covalent character of an ionic bond. [IMP 2021]
The partial covalent
ovalent character of ionic bond increases with (i) Small size of cation and large size of anion
(ii) Large charge on both the cation and anion.
(1) LiCl > NaCl > KCl (Here LiCl is more covalent. Reason:
Reason:- Lithium is small size cation)
(2) NaF < NaCl < NaBr < NaI (Here NaI is more covalent. Reason:- Iodine odine is large size anion)
19. Among NaCl, BeCl2 and AlCl3, which one is more covalent? Justify the answer. [MARCH 2019]2019
Ans: AlCl3.
According to Fajans rule, smaller the size and greater the charge of the cation, greater the covalent
character. So AlCl3 has the most covalent character. NaCl < MgCl2 < AlCl3
20. What are the main postulates of valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) [IMP 2023]
(I) The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence electron pairs of the central atom.
(II) The electron pairs repel each other
other.. As a result, the electron pairs try to stay as far apart to acquire a
state of minimum energy or maximum stability.
(III) A multiple bond is treated as if it is a ssingle electron pair.
(IV) The repulsive interaction decreases in the order.
Lone pair-Lone
Lone pair > Lone pair
pair-Bond pair > Bond pair-Bond pair
 21. Explain the shape of following molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory.
BeCl2 BF3
Two bond pairs around Beryllium. Three bond pairs around
Linear geometry. Boron.
Bond angle 180 0 Trigonal planar geometry.
Bond angle 120 0

CH4 PCl5

Four bond pairs around Carbon.

Tetrahedral geometry.
Five bond pairs around P.
P
Bond angle 109.5 0
Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
Bond angle 120 0 and 90 0
SF6 NH3

Nitrogen has three bond pairs and one lone pair.

Six bond pairs around Sulphur. Bond pair-lone
lone pair repulsion is greater.
Octahedral geometry. Bond angle is 107 0 .
Bond angle 90 0 Geometry is trigonal pyramidal.
H 2O XeF4

Oxygen has two bond pairs and two lone pairs

around it.
Bond pair-bond
bond pair repulsion < bond pair
pair- lone
pair repulsion < lone pair – lone pair repulsion.
Square planar geometry
Bond angle is 104.5 0. Four bond pairs and two lone pairs
Geometry is bent shape or inverted V shape.
 Type No. of electron pairs Shape of the molecule Examples Bond angle
AB2 2 (bp) Linear BeF2 , BeCl2 180 0
AB3 3(bp) Trigonal planar BF3 120 0
AB4 4(bp) Tetrahedral CH4 109.5 0
AB5 5(bp) Trigonal bi pyramid PCl5 120 0, 90 0
AB6 6(bp) octahedral SF6 90 0
AB3E 3(bp), 1 (lp) Trigonal pyramidal NH3 107 0
AB2 E2 2(bp), 2 (lp) Bent or inverted V shape H2O 104.5 0
AB4E 4(bp), 1 (lp) See- saw SF4
AB3 E2 3(bp), 2 (lp) T shape ClF3
AB2 E3 2 (bp), 3(lp) Linear XeF2
AB5E 5 (bp), 1 (lp) Square Pyramid BrF5
AB4 E2 4(bp), 2 (lp) Square planar XeF4
22. Define Bond angle. [IMP 2020]
Ans: It is defined as the angle between the orbitals containing bonding electron pairs around the
central atom in a molecule.
23. The bond angle in water is lower than the tetrahedral angle. Why? [IMP 2020]
Ans: Because of the presence of lone pairs of electrons in water
24. Draw the potential energy curve for the formation of a hydrogen molecule on the basis of inter nuclear
distance of the hydrogen atoms. [IMP 2021]

25. The orbital overlap concept of covalent bond formation.(VALENCE BOND THEORY)
(I) Covalent bonds are formed by the overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals present in the valence
shell of the combining atoms.
(II) The orbitals undergoing overlapping must have electrons with opposite spins.
(III) The greater the overlapping , the stronger the bond formed.
26. What are the difference between sigma bond and pi bond?
Covalent bond is classified in to two types (i) Sigma bond (σ bond) (ii) Pi bond (π bond)
Sigma bond (σ bond) Pi bond (π bond)
Sigma bond is formed by the end to end (or axial ) Pi bond is formed by the side wise overlap of atomic
overlap of atomic orbitals orbitals
This can be formed by overlap of s-s ,s-p ,p-p orbitals This can be formed mainly by overlap of p-p orbitals
Sigma bond is strong bond Pi bond is weak bond
Pz + Pz → sigma bond (σ) , Px + Px →pi bond (π) , Py + Py →pi bond (π)
27. What is Hybridisation? [MARCH 2015 2015]
Inter mixing of atomic orbitals of same element with slightly different energies and different shape to get
orbitals of same energy and shape is called hybridisation.
28. Write Characteristics of Hybridisation
ation [IMP 2021]
(I) The number of hybridised orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals that get
hybridized.
(II) Hybridized orbitals have same energy and shape and so more effective in forming stable bonds.
(III) The hybrid orbitals are directed in some directions, and give geometry to the molecules.
29. Explain sp3 hybridisation using CH4 as example. [MARCH 2015]

One s orbital + Three p orbitals → Four sp3 hybridized orbitals

Tetrahedral geometry. Bond angle is 109.50.
30. Explain sp2 hybridisation using BF3 as example [IMP 2022]

One s orbital + Two p orbitals → Three sp2 hybridized orbitals

Trigonal planar geometry. Bond angle is 1200
31. Explain sp hybridisation using BeCl2 as example

One s orbital + One p orbital → Two sp hybridized orbitals

Linear geometry. Bond angle is 1800
32. Explain sp3d hybridisation using PCl5 as example. [MARCH 2017]
 One s orbital + Three p orbitals + One d orbital → Five sp 3d hybridized orbitals
Trigonal bipyramid geometry. Bond angle is 120 0 and 90 0
33. Explain the geometry of PCl5 molecule and account for its high reactivity. [MARCH 2020]
Hybridisation is sp3d . Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
There are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds.
The axial bonds are slightly longer than equatorial bonds due to greater repulsion from equatorial bonds.
Due to different bond lengths, it unsymmetric and highly reactive.
34. Explain sp3d2 hybridisation using SF6 as example. [IMP 2016]

One s orbital + Three p orbitals + Two d orbitals → Six sp3d2 hybridized orbitals
Octahedral geometry. Bond angle is 90 0.
35. Hybridisations in hydrocarbons
In alkanes, all carbon atoms are in sp3 hybridisation.
In alkenes , double bonded carbons are in sp2 hybridisation
In alkynes , triple bonded carbons are in sp hybridization
Ethane → sp3 hybridisation →7 sigma bonds

Ethene (Ethylene) → sp2 hybridisation → 5 sigma bonds and 1 pi bond

Ethyne ( Acetylene) → sp hybridisation → 3 sigma bonds and 2 pi bond

36. Hybridization and shape of the molecules

Hybridization No. of electron pairs Shape of the molecule Examples Bond angle
sp 2 (bp) Linear BeF2, BeCl2 180 0
sp 2 3(bp) Trigonal planar BF3 120 0
sp 3 4(bp) Tetrahedral CH4 109.5 0
sp 3d 5(bp) Triogonal bi pyramid PCl5 120 0, 90 0
sp 3d 2 6(bp) octahedral SF6 90 0
sp 3 3(bp), 1 (lp) Trigonal pyramidal NH3 107 0
sp 3 2(bp), 2 (lp) Bent or inverted V shape H2O 104.5 0
 37. By using the concept of hybridization, explain the structure of H 2O molecule. [IMP 2017]
Ans: sp3 hybridisation. Four pair of electrons . Two bond pairs and two lone pairs of electrons
Due to the greater repulsion between lone pairs, the shape is distorted to angular shape or bent structure
or inverted ‘v’ shape and the bond angle becomes 104.5 0 .

38. The hybridization of C in ethene is ............ Ans: sp2 [MARCH 2019]

39. The hybridization of C in ethyne molecule is ............ Ans: sp [MARCH 2024]
40. Give 1 example of a molecule in which the central atom is in sp hybridisation. Predict its geometry.
[IMP 2020]
Ans: BeCl2. Its geometry is linear
41. Predict the hybridisation of phosphorous atom in PCl5 molecule. [March 2020] Ans: sp3d
42. What are the postulates of Molecular orbital theory (MOT)? [MARCH 2024]
(I) In molecules, electrons are present in molecular orbitals.
(II) Molecular orbitals are formed by the combina
combination
tion of atomic orbitals of same energy and proper
geometry.
(III) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals.
(IV) Molecular orbitals are associated with the nuclei of all the bonded atoms in a molecule.
(V) In molecular orbitals
rbitals electrons are filled according to Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and
Hund’s rule.
43. What are the differences between bonding molecular orbital and anti bonding molecular orbital?
BMO ψA + ψ B ABMO ψA - ψ B
BMO is formed by the addition (attraction) of atomic ABMO is formed by the substraction (repulsion) of atomic
orbitals orbitals
It has greater electron density between the nuclei of It has less electron density between the nuclei of bonded
bonded atoms atoms
Its energy is less than the energy of atomic orbitals Its energy is more than the energy of atomic orbitals
44. Define bond order . [MARCH 2024]
Bond order is defined as half of the difference between the number of electron
electronss in the bonding molecular
orbitals and the number of electrons in the anti bonding molecular orbitals .
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ]
If the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
If the bond order is zero, molecule is unstable. Such molecule will not exist.
Bond order = 1 , single bond ,Bond
Bond order = 2 , double bond , Bond order = 3 , triple bond
45. How is bond order related to bond strength?
Bond order is directly proportional to bond strength and bond dissociation energy.
46. How is bond order related to bond length?
Bond order is inversely proportional to bond length.
47. Explain the stability and magnetic property of H 2 molecule (2 electrons)

Molecular orbital electronic configuration of H2 = σ1s2

Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 0 ] = 1
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 1 , single bond,
No unpaired electrons, diamagnetic.
48. Why He2 molecule will not exist? (4 electrons) [MARCH 2021]

Molecular orbital electronic configuration of He2

= σ 1s2 σ*1s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 2 ] = 0

Here the bond order is zero , molecule is unstable. So it will

not exist.

49. Calculate the bond order of Lithium molecule (6 electrons) [IMP 2017]
Molecular orbital electronic configuration of Li 2 = σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [4 - 2] = 1
Stable molecule, Diamagnetic
50. Be2 molecule will not exist. Give reason. ( 8 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration of Be2 = σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [4 - 4 ] = 0
Here the bond order is zero , molecule
ecule is unstable. So it will not exist.
51. Find the bond order of B2 molecule (10 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration of B2 = σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px1 = π2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [6 - 4] = 1
Bond order positive, molecule is Stable
Unpaired electrons present →Paramagnetic
Paramagnetic
52. Find the bond order of C2 molecule (12 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration of C 2 = σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [8 - 4] = 2
Bond order positive, molecule is Stable
Bond order=2 , Double bond
Unpaired electrons present →Paramagnetic
Paramagnetic
53. With the help of molecular orbitals, find bond order of N 2 and explain its stability [MARCH 2022]
 Molecular orbital electronic configuration of N2 = σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2 σ2pz2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 4 ] = 3
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 3 , triple bond.
Here all electrons are paired , the molecule is diamagnetic.
54. Calculate the bond order and predict the magnetic property of O 2 molecule [MARCH 2022] [IMP 2021]
Molecular orbital electronic configuration of O2 =
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 6 ] = 2
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 2 , double bond.
Here unpaired electrons are present in π*2px and π*2py , so oxygen molecule is paramagnetic.

55. Write the molecular orbital electronic configuration of F2 molecule find bond order [IMP 2023]
Molecular orbital electronic configuration of F2 =
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 8 ] = 1 .
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 1 , single bond , Here all electrons are paired , the molecule is diamagnetic.
56. The diatomic species Ne2, does not exist, but Ne2 – can exist. Explain on the basis of molecular orbital
theory. [IMP 2018]
M.O. configuration of Ne2 is σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2 σ*2pz2
Bond order (B.O) = ½ [Nb – Na]
For Ne2, B.O = ½ [10 – 10] = ½ x 0 = 0
For Ne2 – , σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2 σ*2pz2 σ3s1
B.O = ½ [11 – 10] = ½ x 1 = 0.5
Since B.O of Ne2 is zero, it does not exist. But Ne2 – has a +ve bond order, so it exists.
57. Calculate
ulate bond order . Compare the stability ( Bond dissociation enthalpy ). Arrange in the increasing order
of bond length O2, O2+ and O2- , O222-

O2 (16 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 6 ] = 2

O2+ (16-1 = 15 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py0
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 5 ] = 2.5

O2- (16 + 1 = 17 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 7 ] = 1.5

O22- (16 + 2 = 18 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 8 ] = 1

Bond order order : O22- < O2- < O2 < O2+

Bond strength (Bond stability , Bond dissociation enthalpy ) order : O22- < O2- < O2 < O2+
Bond length order O22- > O2- > O2 > O2+
58. What is hydrogen bond?
Hydrogen bond is defined as the attractive force between hydrogen atom bonded to fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen and an electronegative atom of the same or adjacent molecule.
59. Which are different type hydrogen bonds? Explain each [MARCH 2024]
(I) Inter molecular hydrogen bond ::- Hydrogen bond between different molecules of same type or
different type.
It increasess the boiling point.
Example : H bonding in HF, …….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..
(II) Intra molecular hydrogen bond:
bond:- Hydrogen bond within the same molecule.
It decreases the boiling point.
Example : Hydrogen bonding in Ortho nitro phenol

60. Ortho nitro phenol and para nitro phenol can be separated by steam distillation. Explain
Ortho nitro phenol →Intra molecular hydrogen bond → Boiling
oiling point is low and steam volatile.
Para nitro phenol → Inter
nter molecular hydrogen bonding →Boiling point is high and so it is not steam
volatile.
So these can be separated by steam distillation.
61. H2O is liquid ,H2S is gas at room temperature. Give reason [IMP 2008]

In water → Inter
nter molecular hydrogen bonds → Liquid at room temperature.
In hydrogen sulphide → Noo hydrogen bond → Gas.
62. HF is liquid while HCl is gas at room temperature. Give reason [IMP 2019]
In HF → Inter molecular hydrogen bonds → Liquid
…….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..
In HCl → No hydrogen bond → Gas.

SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Draw the Lewis dot symbols of (i) Cl2 (ii) NF3 [March 2020]

2. Represent the Lewis structure of Ozone (O3) molecule and assign the formal charge on each atom. [MARCH
2019]

FC = V-N- B/2
Formal charge = Total number of valence electrons on the free atom – Total no. of lone pairs of electron
– ½ [Total no. of bonding electrons]
Formal charge on first O atom = 6 – 2 – ½ (6) = +1
Formal charge on second O atom = 6 – 4 – ½ (4) = 0
Formal charge on third O atom = 6 – 6 – ½ (2) = -1
3. A molecule of the type AB4E has 4 bond pairs of electrons and 1 lone pair of electron. Predict the most
stable structure of this compound. [IMP 2021]

Ans: See-saw shape

4. The geometry of SF6 molecule is ……..

Ans : Octahedral
5. Give the shape of the following species. i) NH4+ ii) HgCl2
Ans: i)NH4+ Tetrahedral ii) HgCl2 Linear
6. A molecule of the type AB3E2 has three bond pairs and two lone pairs of electrons. Predict the most stable
arrangement of electron pairs in this molecule. [IMP 2012]

Ans : T-shape
7. Predict the shape of XeF4 molecule, according to VSEPR theory. [IMP 2017]
Ans: XeF4 →Square planar geometry
8. If Z-axis is the internuclear axis, name the type of covalent bond formed by the overlapping of two p y
orbitals. [IMARCH 2018]
Ans: π bond
9. Which one of the following correctly represents the formation of bonding molecular orbital from the atomic
orbitals having wave functions ψA and ψB? i)ψA x ψB ii) ψA / ψB iii) ψA + ψBiv) ψA – ψB
[IMP 2015]
Ans : ψA + ψB
10. Isoelectronic species have the same bond order. Among the following choose the pair having same bond
order. CN –, O2–, NO+, CN+ [MARCH 2017]

Ans: For CN –, number of electrons =6 + 7 +1 = 14

For O2 –, number of electrons = 8 + 2 = 10
For NO+, number of electrons =7 + 8 - 1 = 14
For CN+ , number of electrons =6 + 7 - 1 = 12
Pairs having same bond order → CN – , NO+ ( Reason: No. of electrons are same)

11. Match the molecules given in column A with their hybridization given in column B [March 2023]
A B
BeCl2 sp
PCl5 sp3d
CH4 sp3
BCl3 Sp2

12. Match the molecules in column I with their shapes in column II [March 2024]
A B
PCl5 Trigonal bipyramidal
SF6 Octahedral
CH4 Tetrahedral
NH3 Trigonal pyramidal
 UNIT 5 : THERMODYNAMICS
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
======================================================
1. Define system and surrounding.
System :- The part of universe under study
Surroundings :- The remaining part of the universe that interact with system
Universe = System + Surrounding
2. Explain open system, closed system and isolated system with example.
(I) Open system :- A system which can exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings.
e.g. Hot water in a cup
(II) Closed system :- A system can exchange only energy but not matter with the surroundings.
e.g. Hot water in a closed steel tumbler.
(III) Isolated system :- A system which can neither exchange matter nor energy with the surroundings.
e.g. Hot water in a perfectly insulated thermos flask.
3. Differentiate state functions and path functions. Give examples for each. [MARCH 2023] [IMP 2018]
State functions Path functions
A function or property that depends only on the A function or property that depends on the initial
initial state and final state of the system and not on state and final state of the system and on the path
the path followed is called state function followed also is called path function
Examples :- Temperature(T) , Pressure (P), Volume Examples:- Heat(q) , work (w)
(V) , Internal energy (U) , Enthalpy (H) , Entropy (S) ,
Gibbs free energy (G)
4. Differentiate extensive and intensive properties. Give examples for each. [IMP 2019] [IMP 2023]
Extensive properties Intensive properties
These are properties which depend on the amount These are properties which are independent on the
of matter present in the system. amount of matter present in the system.
Examples: - Mass (m) , Volume (V) , Length (l), Examples : - Temperature ,Pressure, Density ,
Internal energy (U) , Enthalpy (H) , Entropy (S) , Refractive index , Viscosity , Surface tension ,
Gibbs free energy (G), Heat capacity etc Specific heat , Molar heat capacity
5. Intensive properties:- An extensive property is......... i) density ii) pressure iii) temperature iv) mass [SAY
2017]
Ans : Mass
6. Some macroscopic properties are given below. Help Reena to classify them into two groups under suitable
titles. [Heat capacity, Entropy, Refractive index, Surface tension] [MARCH 2017]
Ans: Extensive properties: Heat capacity, Entropy
Intensive properties: Refractive index, Surface tension
7. Classify the following into intensive and extensive properties. i) Internal energy ii) Density iii) Heat capacity
iv) Temperature [MARCH 2015]
Ans: Intensive properties: Density, Temperature
Extensive properties: Internal energy, Heat capacity
8. What is isothermal process?
A process which takes place at constant temperature.
∆T= 0
9. What is Adiabatic process?
A process which takes place at constant heat.
d q= 0
10. What are reversible and irreversible processes
Reversible process:- A process is thermodynamically reversible if it can be reversed at any stage by a very
small change in some conditions such as temperature, pressure or concentration. At every stage the
process is in thermodynamic equilibrium .
Irreversible process:- A process which cannot be reversed by a small change in any one of the controlling
properties is called an irreversible process.
An irreversible process proceeds to one direction and it does not remain in equilibrium
11. What is Internal energy (U) ? How internal energy can be changed?
Internal energy is the total energy present within a substance.
Internal energy is the sum of all types of molecular energies like translational energy, rotational energy,
vibrational energy, electronic energy , nuclear energy etc.
It is a state function and extensive property. It can be changed by the following ways:
(i) By allowing heat to flow in to the system or out of the system
(ii) By doing work on the system or by the system.
12. State First law of thermo dynamics and give its mathematical form. [MARCH 2024]
It is law of conservation of energy. It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Mathematical form is ∆U = q + w
∆U = change in internal energy, q = heat, w = work
For expansion work ( w = - P∆V) , ∆U = q − P∆V
Work done on the system, w = +ve, Work done by the system, w = −ve,
Heat absorbed by the system, q = +ve , Heat liberated by the system , q = −ve
13. Write the mathematical expression of First Law of thermodynamics. [March 2020]
Ans: ∆U = q + w
14. Write the expression for
(i) Work done by the gas in irreversible expansion or compression
W = −Pext∆V = −Pext(Vf-Vi)
(ii) Work done in isothermal reversible expansion or compression of an ideal gas.
Wrev = −2.303 nRT log Vf/Vi OR
Wrev = − 2.303 nRT log Pi/Pf
15. What is the significance of ∆U ?
Change in internal energy (∆U) is the heat absorbed or evolved at constant volume.
∆U = qv
16. Define Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy is the heat content of the system.
Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and pressure volume energy .
H = U + PV
It is a state function and extensive property.

17. Give the relation connecting ∆H and ∆U.

∆H = ∆U + P ∆V OR
∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT
Where ∆n= nP − nR
18. What is the significance of ∆H?
Change in enthaly (∆H) is the heat absorbed or evolved at constant pressure.
∆H = qp .
19. Write the relation connecting q p and q v
q p = q v + ∆n RT
q p = Heat absorbed or evolved at constant pressure.
q v = heat absorbed or evolved at constant volume.
20. What are exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give its sign of ∆H.
Exothermic reactions Endothermic reactions
The reactions which takes by the liberation of The reactions which takes by the absorption of
heat is called exothermic reactions heat is called endothermic reactions
Eg. C+O2→CO2 ∆H = −393.5 kJ Eg. N2+O2→ 2 NO ∆H = 180.5 kJ
For exothermic reactions, ∆H = −ve. For endothermic reactions, ∆H = +ve.

21. Define Heat capacity?

Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise its temperature through 1 0C
It is an extensive property.
22. Define Specific heat capacity (specific heat)?
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance through 1 0C .
Specific heat capacity is intensive property.
23. Define Molar heat capacity?
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol substance through 1 0C .
Molar heat capacity is intensive property.
24. Give the relation between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas.
Cp − C v = R
Cp → Molar heat capacity at constant pressure. C v →Molar heat capacity at constant volume.
25. What is Thermo chemical equation?
A chemical equation which indicates the enthalpy change occurring during the reaction is called thermo
chemical equation.
Eg. C(s) +O2(g)→CO2 (g) ∆H = −393.5 kJ
(I) For exothermic reactions, ∆H = −ve, For endothermic reactions, ∆H = +ve.
(II) Physical states of reactants and products should be specified.
(III) When the coefficients in the chemical equations are multiplied or divided, the value of ∆H must
be multiplied or divided.
(IV) When a chemical equation is reversed, the sign of ∆H is reversed. (magnitude remain same)
26. Define Enthalpy of reaction
The enthalpy change during a chemical reaction.
∆rH = Sum of enthalpies of products − Sum of enthalpies of reactants
The enthalpy change during a chemical reaction when all participating substances are in standard state is
called standard enthalpy of reaction. (Standard states: Pure forms, 1 bar pressure, 298 K temperature)
27. Define Standard enthalpy of combustion
It is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is completely burned in the presence of
air or oxygen when all their reactants and products are in their standard state.
Enthalpy combustion is always negative.
28. Define Standard enthalpy of formation [MARCH 2023]
The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their stable states.
The standard enthalpy of formation of all elements in their standard state is taken as zero.
O2→ 0, H2→ 0, N2→ 0, Cgraphite→ 0, Srhombic→ 0
29. What is the importance of standard enthalpy of formation
It is useful for calculating standard enthalpies of a reaction
Standard enthalpy change of a reaction =
Standard enthalpies of formation of products - Standard enthalpies of formation of reactants.
30. Define Enthalpy of solution
The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is dissolved in a specified amount of solvent.
31. Define Standard enthalpy of fusion
The enthalpy change when one mole of a solid is converted to its liquid state at its melting point under
standard pressure 1 bar.
32. Define Standard enthalpy of vapourisation
The enthalpy change when one mole of a liquid is converted to its gaseous state at its boiling point under
standard pressure 1 bar.
33. Define Standard enthalpy of sublimation
The enthalpy change when one mole of a solid is directly converted to its gaseous state at a constant
temperature and 1 bar pressure.
34. State and illustrate Hess’s Law of Constant Heat of Summation. [IMP 2022] [MARCH 2023] [MARCH 2021]
It states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is the same whether the reaction takes place in
one step or several steps.

∆Hr = ∆H1 +∆H2 + ∆H3

35. Give some applications of Hess’s law.

(I) It is used to determine the enthalpies of reaction.
(II) It is used to determine the enthalpy of formation
(III) It is used to determine the enthalpy of transition of allotropic forms.
(IV) It is used to determine the bond enthalpy and lattice enthalpy.
36. Define Bond enthalpy
The amount of heat required to break one mole of covalent bonds to gaseous products is called bond
dissociation enthalpy.
For diatomic molecules, bond dissociation enthalpy and bond enthalpy are same.
In the case of poly atomic molecules, bond dissociation enthalpy is different for different bonds within
the same molecule. In such cases, bond enthalpy is the average of bond dissociation enthalpies of
various similar bonds.
37. How will you calculate enthalpy change of a reaction from bond enthalpies?
∆𝑯𝟎𝒓 = 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 − 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔
38. What is Lattice enthalpy? [MARCH 2024]
The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change when one mole of the ionic compound
dissociates in to its gaseous ions.
We cannot calculate lattice enthalpy directly by experiment. So Born Haber cycle is used to calculate it.
39. Draw Born Haber cycle for the determination of lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride (NaCl). [MARCH 2024]

∆𝑯𝟎𝒇 = ∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 + 𝑰𝑬 + ∆𝑯𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔 + 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑼

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝑼) = ∆𝑯𝟎𝒇 − (∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 + 𝑰𝑬 + ∆𝑯𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔 + 𝑬𝑨)

40. What is spontaneous process and non spontaneous process? [IMP 2023]
Spontaneous process is a process that takes place without the help of any external agency.
e.g. Flow of water from high level to low level, flow of heat from hot body to cold body
Non spontaneous process is a process that takes place with the help of an external agency.
E.g. flow of water from low level to high level.
41. Which are driving forces for spontaneous process?
(a) Decrease in energy (b) increase in disorder or randomness of the system
42. Define Entropy (S) ? [MARCH 2023]
Entropy (S) is a measure of degree of disorder or randomness of the system.
Its unit is J/K/mol
𝐪𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞
𝐓
43. Predict in which of the following entropy increases(∆S = +ve) entropy decreases(∆S = -ve)
(i) Melting of ice → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(ii) 2 N2O5(g) → 4 NO2(g) + O2(g) → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(iii) Condensation of steam in to water→ Entropy decreases (∆S = −ve) [MARCH 2024]
(iv) Freezing of water in to ice→ Entropy decreases (∆S = −ve) [MARCH 2024]
(v) Liquid crystallizes in to solid → Entropy decreases (∆S = −ve) [IMP 2022] [MARCH 2022]
(vi) Evaporation of water → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve) [MARCH 2024]
(vii) H2(g) → 2 H (g) → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(viii) 2 NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g) → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(ix) H2 (273 K)→ H2 (300 K) → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(x) Temperature of a crystalline solid raised from 0K to 115K → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve) [MARCH 2022]
(xi) I 2 (s)→ I 2 (g) → Entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
44. Which of the following is a process taking place with increase in entropy? [SAY 2016]
i) Freezing of water ii) Condensation of steam iii) Cooling of a liquid iv) Dissolution of a solute
Ans: Dissolution of a solute
45. What happens to the entropy during the following changes? a) A gas condenses into liquid.
b) CaCO3(s)→ CaO(s) + CO2 (g) [MARCH 2018]
Ans: a) Entropy decreases , b) Entropy increases.
46. State Second law of thermo dynamics and gives equation [MARCH 2023]
It states that the entropy of the universe increases in the course of every spontaneous (natural) change.
∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding > 0
∆Suniverse > 0
47. State third law of thermo dynamics
The entropy of any pure crystalline substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute
zero. This is called third law of thermodynamics
48. Define Gibb’s free energy (G) [MARCH 2024]
Gibbs energy is defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work.
49. Give the relation connecting Gibb’s free energy (G) , Enthalpy (H) and Entropy (S) [MARCH 2022]

G =H – TS
50. Write Gibb’s equation OR Give the relation connecting ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S . [MARCH 2024] [IMP 2020]

∆G= ∆H −T ∆S.
51. Explain Gibb’s energy and spontaneity. [MARCH 2023]
(i) If ∆G is negative, the process will be spontaneous.
(ii) If ∆G is zero, the process is in equilibrium.
(iii) If ∆G is positive, the process will be non spontaneous.
52. What are the conditions for ∆G to be negative (spontaneous process)
(I) Exothermic process (∆H = −ve) and ∆S = +ve , ∆G will be always negative and the reaction is
spontaneous.
(II) Exothermic process (∆H = −ve) and ∆S = −ve , ∆G will be negative only when
∆H > T ∆S and the reaction is spontaneous only at low temperature.
(III) Endothermic process (∆H = +ve) and ∆S = +ve , ∆G will be negative only when
∆H < T ∆S and the reaction is spontaneous only at high temperature.
 (IV) Endothermic process (∆H = +ve) and ∆S = − ve , ∆G will be always positive and the reaction is always
non spontaneous.
53. Write the condition of temperature for a process to be spontaneous whose ∆H and ∆S values are
positive. [Hint : ∆G = ∆H – T∆S] [March 2020]
Ans: When ∆H and ∆S values are positive, the process will be spontaneous at higher temperatures.
54. Give the criterion of spontaneity in terms of ∆G for a process taking place at constant temperature and
pressure. [MARCH 2019]
Ans: For a spontaneous process ∆G should be –ve. (Or, ∆G < 0)
55. Give the relation connecting standard Gibb’s energy (∆G 0 ) and equilibrium constant(K) .
0
∆G = − 2.303 RT logK
SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. In a process 701 J of heat is absorbed by a system and 394 J of work is done by the system. The change in
internal energy for the process is ……………………. [SAY 2019]
Ans: 307 J
[Here q = 701 J and w = -394 J. ∆U = q + w = 701 + -394 = 307 J]
2. According to the first law of thermodynamics, for an isolated system, ∆U = …………… [MARCH 2019]
Ans: Zero
3. Expansion of a gas in vacuum is called free expansion. Which one of the following represents free
expansion of an ideal gas under adiabatic conditions? i) q = 0, ∆T ≠ 0, w = 0 ii) q ≠ 0, ∆T = 0, w = 0 iii) q = 0,
∆T = 0, w = 0 iv) q = 0, ∆T < 0, w ≠ 0 [SAY 2015]
Ans: iii)q = 0, ∆T = 0, w = 0
[For adiabatic process q = 0. For free expansion no work is done. So w = 0. On applying these values to the
mathematical form 1st law, ΔU = q+w = 0. Also since ΔU = q. ΔT, ΔT = 0]
4. First law of thermodynamics can be stated as ∆U = q + w. How can this equation be expressed for : a) An
isothermal reversible change? b) A process carried out at constant volume? [SAY 2018]
Ans: (a) For an isothermal reversible change, ΔU = 0. So q = -w
(b) For a process taking place at constant volume, ΔV = 0. So ΔU = q v
5. The reaction of cyanamide, NH2CN (s), with dioxygen was carried out in a bomb calorimeter, and ∆U was
found to be –742.7 kJ mol–1 at 298 K. Calculate enthalpy change for the reaction at 298 K.
NH2CN(s) + 3/ 2 O2(g) → N2(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) [MARCH 2018]
Solution : ∆U =–742.7 kJ mol = –742700 J mol , ∆n= nP - nR = 2 –3/2 =1/2 , R = 8.314 J K–1mol–1
–1 –1

∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT = –742700 + ½ X 8.314 X 298 =–741500 J

6. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction 𝑪𝑯𝟒 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
Given that the standard enthalpies of formation of 𝑪𝑯𝟒 (𝒈), 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) are −74.8 k Jmol−1,
−393.5 kJ mol−1 and −285.8 k Jmol−1 respectively. [SAY 2019] [SAY 2016]
Solution: 𝟎(
∆𝑯 𝑶𝟐 ) = 𝟎

Standard enthalpy change of a reaction = Standard enthalpies of formation of products – Standard enthalpies of
reactants

∆𝑯𝟎 = ∆𝑯𝟎 (𝑪𝑶𝟐 ) + 𝟐 ∆𝑯𝟎 (𝑯𝟐 𝑶) − ∆𝑯𝟎 (𝑪𝑯𝟒 ) + 𝟐 ∆𝑯𝟎 ( 𝑶𝟐 )

= [−393.5 + 2 X (−285.8)] – [ −74.8 + (2 X0 ) ]= −965.1 + 74.8 = −890.3 kJ Jmol −1
7. Calculate the enthalpy of formation of methanol (CH3OH) from the following data. [MARCH 2023] [MARCH
2019]
CH3OH + 3/2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O ∆H0 = -726 kJ
C + O2 → CO2 ∆H0 = -393kJ
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O ∆H0 = - 286 kJ
Solution:
C + 2 H2 + ½ O2 → CH3OH , ∆H0 = ?
CH3OH + 3/2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O ∆H0 = -726 kJ ……………….(1)
C + O2 → CO2 ∆H0 = -393kJ ……………… (2)
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O ∆H0 = - 286 kJ …………………..(3)
Equation (2) + 2 X Equation (3) – Equation (1)
C + O2 + 2 (H2 + ½ O2 ) – (CH3OH + 3/2 O2 ) → CO2 + 2 H2O – (CO2 + 2 H2O) ,
∆H0 = -393 + 2 X (- 286) – (−726) = –239 kJ
0
C + 2 H2 + ½ O2 → CH3OH , ∆H = –239 kJ
8. Calculate the enthalpy of formation of ethane from the following data. [OCTOBER 2022]
(a) C + O2 → CO2 ∆H0 = -393.5kJ
(b) H2 + ½ O2 → H2O ∆H0 = - 285.8 kJ
(c) C2H6 + 7/2 O2 →2 CO2 + 3 H2O ∆H0 = -1560 kJ
Solution:
2C + 3 H2 → C2H6 , ∆H0 = ?
2 X Equation (a) + 3 X Equation (b) – Equation (c)
2 (C + O2 ) + 3 (H2 + ½ O2 ) – (C2H6 + 7/2 O2 ) → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O – (2 CO2 + 3 H2O)
∆H0 = 2 ( -393.5) + 3 (- 285.8) – (−1560) = – 84.4 kJ
2C + 3 H2 → C2H6 , ∆H0 = – 84.4 kJ
9. Write the thermochemical equation corresponding to the standard enthalpy of formation of benzene.
[Hint; ∆fH 0 of benzene = + 49.0 kJmol-1) [MARCH 2018]
Ans: 6C (s) + 3 H2 (g) → C6H6 (l); ∆fH = 49.0 kJ mol-1
0

10. Calculate ∆fH 0 when diamond is formed from graphite. [SAY 2017]
C(diamond) + O2→ CO2(g) ; ∆CH 0 = -395 kJ
C(graphite) + O2 →CO2(g) ; ∆CH 0 = -393.5 kJ
Solution:
C(graphite) → C(diamond), ΔH0 = ?
C(diamond) + O2→ CO2(g) ; ∆CH 0 = -395 kJ …………….(1)
C(graphite) + O2 →CO2(g) ; ∆CH 0 = -393.5 kJ ……………..(2)
Equation (2) – Equation (1)
[C(graphite) + O2] –[ C(diamond) + O2] →CO2 – CO2 ΔH0 = –393.5 –(–395) =+1.5 kJ
C(graphite) –S (rhombic) → 0 , ΔH0 = +1.5 kJ
C(graphite) → C(diamond) , ΔH0 = +1.5 kJ
11. Enthalpies of formation of 𝑪𝑶(𝒈), 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) , 𝑵𝟐 𝑶(𝒈) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵𝟐 𝑶𝟒 (𝒈) are −110 k Jmol−1, −393 kJ mol−1 , 81
k Jmol−1 and 9.7 k Jmol−1 respectively. Find the value of ∆rH from the reaction.
N2O4(g) + 3 CO (g) →N2O(g) + 3 CO2(g) [SAY 2018]
Solution: ∆rH = Sum of enthalpies of products - Sum of enthalpies of reactants
∆𝒓 𝑯 = [ ∆𝑯(𝑵𝟐 𝑶) + 𝟑 ∆𝑯 (𝑪𝑶𝟐 )] − [ ∆𝑯 (𝑵𝟐 𝑶𝟒 ) + 𝟑 ∆𝑯 ( 𝑪𝑶)]
[ 𝟖𝟏 + 𝟑 (– 𝟑𝟗𝟑)] − [𝟗. 𝟕 + (−𝟏𝟏𝟎)] = −𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟕 𝒌𝑱
12. Calculate the standard enthalpy of reaction: CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Given ∆fH0 CaCO3 (s) = -1206.92 kJ/mol, ∆fH0 CaO (s) = -635.09 kJ/mol and ∆fH0 CO2 (g) = -393.51 kJ/mol
[December 2020]
Ans: ΔrH0 = ∑ ΔfH0(P) - ∑ ΔfH0(R) = [∆fH0 CaO + ∆fH0 CO2] – [∆fH0 CaCO3]
= [-635.09 + -393.51] – [-1206.92] = 178.32 kJ/mol
13. For the oxidation of iron 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s), entropy change ΔS is -549.4 J/K/mol at 298K. Inspite of
the negative entropy change of this reaction, why is the reaction spontaneous?
(ΔrH0 for the reaction is -1648 x 103 Jmol-1). [SAY 2019] [MARCH 2014]
Solution:
∆H = -1648 x 103 Jmol-1
∆S = -549.4 J/K/mol
T = 298K
∆G= ∆H −T ∆S = -1648 x 103 – ( 298 X -549.4) = - 1484 .279 J/mol
Here ∆G is negative , the reaction is spontaneous
14. For the reaction 2A(g) + B(g)→ 2D(g), ∆U0 = -10.5 kJ/mol, ∆S0 = -44.1 J/K/mol at 298K.
Calculate ∆G0 for the reaction. [MARCH 2017]
Solution:
∆U0 = -10.5 kJ/mol = -10500 J/mol, ∆S0 = -44.1 J/K/mol, R = 8.314 J/K/mol and T = 298K.
∆n = nP(g) – nR(g) = 2 – 3 = -1
We know that ΔH0 = ΔU0 + ΔnRT = -10500 + -1 x 8.314 x 298 = - 12977.6J/mol
Also ∆G0 = ∆H0 - T∆S0 = -12977.6 – 298 x - 44.1 = -26119 J/mol
15. Enthalpy and entropy changes of a reaction are 40.63 kJ/mol and 108.8 J/K/mol. Predict the feasibility of
the reaction at 270C [SAY 2012]
Solution:
∆H = 40.63 kJ/mol = 40630 J/mol , ∆S = 108.8 J/K/mol. , T = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Substituting these values in ∆G= ∆H −T ∆S = 40630 − 300 X 108.8 = 7990 J/mol
Here ∆G is positive , the reaction is not feasible
16. Find the temperature above which the reaction MgO + C → Mg + CO becomes spontaneous.
(∆H 0= 490 kJmol-1 , ∆S 0=198 JK-1mol-1 ) [IMP 2023]
0 0
Solution: ∆H = 490 kJ/mol = 490000 J/mol , ∆S = 198 J/K/mol. , T = ?
∆G0= ∆H0 −T ∆S0
At equilibrium , ∆G 0= 0 , Therefore 0= ∆H0 −T ∆S0 , ∆H0 = T ∆S0
∆𝐇 𝟎 𝟒𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝑻 = 𝟎
= = 𝟐𝟒𝟕𝟒. 𝟕 𝑲
∆𝐒 𝟏𝟗𝟖
i.e., The process is at equilibrium at T = 2474.7 K
Here ∆H0 is positive , the reaction will be spontaneous(∆G0 = − ve) above 2474.7 K
17. Calculate the standard free energy change for the conversion of oxygen to ozone at 298 K, if the equilibrium
constant for the conversion is 2.47 x 10 -29. [MARCH 2015]
Solution :
∆G0 = - 2.303 RT logK = - 2.303 X 8.314 X 298 X log (2.47 x 10 -29) = 163000 J/mol
18. The equilibrium constant for the reaction is 5. What will be the value of ∆G 0
( T = 300 K, R = 8.314 J K-1mol-1) [IMP 2023] [March 2009]
∆G0 = – 2.303 RT logK = –2.303 X 8.314 X 300 X log 5 = −4014.9 J/mol
 UNIT 6 : EQUILIBRIUM
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
=======================================================
1. State Henry’s law and give its one application.
Henry’s law states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given mass of solvent at a particular temperature is
directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solvent.
i.e., 𝒎 ∝ 𝒑 or m=kp
Example: Soda water.
2. What are the general characteristics of physical equilibrium?
(I) Equilibrium can be established only in closed systems.
(II) The measurable properties remain constant.
(III) The equilibrium is always dynamic. This means that two opposite processes occur at the same rate.
3. What are reversible and irreversible reactions ?
Reversible reactions Irreversible reactions
A reaction which takes place both in forward and A reaction in which the products do not react to give
backward directions under the same conditions is back the reactant is called irreversible reactions.
called reversible reactions.
Example: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g) Example: AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3

4. What is the concept of chemical equilibrium.

At equilibrium, rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction

5. Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature. Explain.
At equilibrium, the reaction will be still going on in the forward and backward reaction.
But the rate of forward reaction will become equal to the rate of backward reaction.
To understand dynamic nature of equilibrium, synthesis of ammonia by Haber process is carried out in two
closed systems under identical conditions.
In the first system N2 and H2 are heated and at equilibrium N2 ,H2 and NH3 will be present.
In the second system N2 and D2 are heated and at equilibrium N2 ,D2 and ND3 will be present.
After this , both systems are mixed and analysed.
It contain N2 ,H2,, D2 , NH3 , NH2D, NHD2 and ND3
Here mixing of isotopes takes place. This shows that at equilibrium the reaction is still going on in both
forward and backward directions. But the rate is same.
6. What are the characteristics of chemical equilibrium?
(I) Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature.
(II) The observable properties of the system such as pressure, concentration, colour etc. become
constant at equilibrium and remain unchanged thereafter.
(III) Chemical equilibrium can be attained from either direction. i.e., from the direction of reactants and
from the direction of products.
(IV) Chemical equilibrium can be attained only in closed systems.
7. Write the expression for the equilibrium constant for the general reaction: aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD. [SAY 2020]
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
In the case of gaseous reaction, it can be written in terms partial pressure also.
𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅
𝑫
𝑲𝒑 =
𝒑𝒂
𝑨 𝒑𝑩
𝒃

8. Write the expression for equilibrium constant Kp and Kc for the following equilibrium.
2NOCl(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) + Cl2(g) [SAY 2018]
Ans:
[𝑵𝑶]𝟐 [𝑪𝒍𝟐 ] 𝒑𝟐 (𝑵𝑶)𝒑(𝑪𝒍𝟐 )
𝑲𝒄 = 𝑲𝒑 =
[𝑵𝑶𝑪𝒍]𝟐 𝒑𝟐 (𝑵𝑶𝑪𝒍)
9. Give the relation between Kp and Kc . [MARCH 2024] [SAY 2020]
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
Kp = Equilibrium constant in terms of pressure. Kc = Equilibrium constant in terms of concentration.
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products - No. of mole of gaseous reactants.
If ∆n = 0 , Kp = Kc
If ∆n = 1 , Kp = Kc (RT)
10. Derive the relation between Kp and Kc . [MARCH 2020]
Consider a general reversible reaction,𝒂𝑨 + 𝒃𝑩 ⇌ 𝒄𝑪 + 𝒅𝑫
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅
𝑫
𝑲𝒑 =
𝒑𝒂 𝒃
𝑨 𝒑𝑩
According to ideal gas equation , PV = nRT
𝒏𝑹𝑻
∴𝑷= = 𝑪𝑹𝑻 = [ ]𝑹𝑻
𝑽

PA = [A]RT, PB = [B]RT, PC = [C]RT, PD = [D]RT

𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅𝑫 ([𝐂]𝐑𝐓)𝒄 ([𝐃]𝐑𝐓)𝒅 [𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅

𝑲𝒑 = = = (𝑹𝑻)(𝒄 𝒅) (𝒂 𝒃)
= 𝑲𝒄 (𝑹𝑻)∆𝒏
𝒑𝒂𝑨 𝒑𝒃𝑩 ([𝐀]𝐑𝐓)𝒂 ([𝐁]𝐑𝐓)𝒃 [𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
11. Differentiate homogeneous equilibria and heterogeneous equilibria [SAY 2016]
Homogeneous equilibrium Heterogeneous equilibrium
The equilibria in which all reactants and products The equilibria in which reactants and products are in
are in same phase different phase
Example : N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g) Example : CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
12. Write the expression for equilibrium constant for the following reactions
(I) CuSO4.5H2O(s) ⇌CuSO4.3H2O(s) + 2 H2O(g)
(II) Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ⇌ 2 AgNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(III) CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Solution:
(I) Kc = [H2O]2 , Kp = p2 H2O
[𝑨𝒈𝑵𝑶𝟑 ]𝟐
(II) 𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 ]𝟐

(III) Kc = [CO2] , Kp = p CO2

13. What are the characteristics of equilibrium constant?
(I) The equilibrium constant has a definite value for every reversible reaction at a particular temperature.
However, it varies with change in temperature.
(II) The value of equilibrium constant is independent of initial concentration of reactants.
(III) For a reversible reaction, the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction will be the reciprocal of the
equilibrium constant for the forward reaction.
(IV) The value of equilibrium constant is not affected by the addition of a catalyst to the reaction.
This is because the catalyst increases the speed of both forward reaction and backward reaction to the
same extent.
14. What are the applications of equilibrium constant?
(I) Prediction of extent of reaction:-
Larger the value of equilibrium constant , greater is the extent to which the reactants are converted
into the products.
If Kc > 10 3 , products predominates over the reactants.
If Kc < 10 -3 , reactants predominates over the products.
If Kc is between 10 3 and 10 -3 , appreciable concentration of reactants and products.
(II) Prediction of direction of reaction.
If Qc > Kc , the reaction will proceed in the backward direction .(in the direction of reactants)
If Qc < Kc , the reaction will proceed in the forward direction. .(in the direction of products)
If Qc = Kc , the reaction will be in equilibrium.
(III) Calculation of equilibrium concentration:-
If the equilibrium constant of a reaction is known , equilibrium concentration of a substance in the
equilibrium mixture can be calculated.
15. The value of equilibrium constant is useful to predict the extent of reaction and the direction of the
reaction at a given stage. Explain. [MARCH 2018]
Ans: Refer applications (I) & (II)

16. Write whether the following statement is true or false: "High value of equilibrium constant suggests high
concentration of the reactants in the equilibrium mixture”. [IMP 2015]
Ans: False. Greater the value of equilibrium constant, greater will be the concentration of products.

17. State Le-chatelier principle. [MARCH 2024] [SAY 2015]

If a system in equilibrium is subjected to change in concentration, temperature or pressure, the equilibrium
shifts in the direction that tends to reduce the effect of the change.
18. How do the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure affect of the rate of a chemical reaction?
(I) Effect of change of concentration:-
If the concentration of any one of the reactants is increased, the equilibrium will shift in the forward
direction and more of the products will be formed.
If the concentration of any one of the products is increased, the equilibrium will shift in the backward
direction and more of the reactants will be formed.
Removal of a product equilibrium mixture will shift the equilibrium in the forward direction.
(II) Effect of change of temperature:-
If the forward reaction is exothermic, the backward reaction will be endothermic and vice versa.
Increase of temperature will shift the equilibrium in the direction of endothermic reaction
(in the direction of absorption of heat).
Decrease of temperature will shift the equilibrium in the direction of exothermic reaction
(in the direction of heat is produced).
(III) Effect of change of pressure:-
Pressure has effect only when the change of number of moles of gaseous substances.
Increase of pressure will shift the equilibrium in the direction in which the pressure is reduced.
( decrease in the number of molecules).
Decrease of pressure will shift the equilibrium in the direction in which the pressure is increased
(increase in the number of molecules).
19. What happens when catalyst is added to equilibrium?
The equilibrium is not affected by the addition of a catalyst to the reaction. This is because the catalyst
increases the speed of both forward reaction and backward reaction to the same extent.
But it help to achieve the equilibrium quickly.
20. What happens when inert gas is added to equilibrium?
The equilibrium remains undisturbed by the addition of inert gas.
It is because the addition of an inert gas at constant volume does not the molar concentration or partial
pressure of the substance involved in the reaction.
21. Explain the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure in the following reaction.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g), ∆H = -92.4 kJ. [MARCH 2022]
(I) Effect of concentration:- Increase the concentration of N2 or H2 → Forward direction → More NH3
(II) Effect of pressure:- Here forward reaction is accompanied by the decrease in the number of moles,
so high pressure will favour forward reaction and more NH3 is formed.
(III) Effect of temperature:- Here forward reaction is exothermic and so low temperature will favour
forward reaction. But at very low temperature, N2 and H2 will be less reactive and so optimum
temperature is used (500 0C).
22. Explain the effect of pressure in the following reaction. PCl 5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) [IMP 2014]
Here forward reaction is accompanied by the increase in the number of moles, so low pressure will favour
forward reaction. High pressure will favour backward reaction.
23. Explain the effect of pressure in the following reaction. H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2 HI (g) [MARCH 2021]
Pressure has effect only when the change of number of moles of gaseous substances.
Here no change in number of molecules of reactants and products. So pressure has no effect.

24. Explain the effect of temperature in the following reaction. N 2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 NO(g), ∆H = 180 kJ.
Here forward reaction is endothermic, and hence increase in temperature will favour forward reaction.
25. Explain the effect of pressure in the following equilibrium CO(g) + 3 H 2(g) ⇌CH4(g) + H2O(g) )
[March 2020] [SAY 2015]
Number of moles of gaseous reactants= 1+3 =4
Number of moles of gaseous products = 1+1 =2
When pressure increases , the equilibrium will shift in the direction in which the number of
molecules are decreased. Here forward direction.
26. Explain the effect of pressure in the following equilibrium N 2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g).
Number of moles of gaseous reactants= 1+1 =2
Number of moles of gaseous products =2
Pressure has effect only when the change of number of moles of gaseous substances.
Here no change in number of molecules of reactants and products. So pressure has no effect.
27. Explain the effects of temperature and pressure on the following equilibrium.
2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4 (g); ∆H = -57.2 kJ mol–1 [MARCH 2018]
Ans: Effect of temperature: Here the forward reaction is exothermic. So low temperature will favour
forward reaction.
Effect of pressure: As a result of forward reaction, the no. of moles of gaseous species decreases. So high
pressure will favour forward reaction.
28. Define Ionic equilibrium?
The equilibrium established between ionized molecules and unionized molecules in solution of weak
electrolyte is called ionic equilibrium.
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
29. Explain Arrhenius concept of acids and bases with examples [MARCH 2015]
+
Arrhenius acid → Give hydrogen ion(H ) in aqueous solution. Examples :HCl, CH3COOH etc.
Arrhenius base → Give hydroxyl ion(OH-) in aqueous solution. Examples :NaOH, NH4OH etc.
30. Explain Bronsted Lowry concept of acids and bases with examples. [MARCH 2024]
+
Bronsted acid → Proton(H ) donor.
Bronsted base → Proton(H+) acceptor.
CH3COOH + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
31. What are conjugated acid base pairs with examples
Conjugated acid = Base + H+
Conjugated base = Acid - H+
The pairs of acids and bases which are formed by the loss or gain of proton are called conjugated acid base
pairs.
CH3COOH + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
-
Here CH3COO is a conjugate base of acid CH3COOH
H3O+ is a conjugate acid of base H2O
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
Base Acid Acid Base
-
Here OH is a conjugate base of acid H2O.
NH4+ is a conjugate acid of base NH3
Conjugate base of strong acid is weak and conjugate base of weak acid is strong.
32. Write the conjugated acid base pairs of the following species
Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
H2 O H 3O + OH-
HCO3 – H2CO3 CO3 2–
HSO4 – H2SO4 SO4 2–
NH3 NH4+ NH2 –
33. H2O and HSO4 – can act both as Bronsted acids and bases. For each case give the corresponding conjugate
acid and conjugate base. [SAY 2018]
+
Ans: Conjugated acid = H3O , H2SO4
Conjugate base = OH– , SO4 2–
34. The species that can form both conjugate acid and conjugate base among the following is:
(a) H2O (b) BF3 (c) HCl (d) CO2 [SAY 2020]
Ans: H2O
35. Explain Lewis concept of acids and bases with examples. [SAY 2019]
Lewis acids → Electron pair acceptors.
Lewis acids are electron deficient molecules or cations (Positive ions)
Examples: - BF3 , AlCl3 , Mg2+ , Co3+ , H+
Lewis bases → Electron pair donors.
Lewis bases are neutral molecules having lone pair or anions (Negative ions)
Examples: - NH3 , H2O , OH- , Cl-
36. An example of Lewis acid among the following is: (A) HCl (B) NH 3 (C) H2SO4 (D) BF3 [SAY 2020]
Ans: BF3
37. Classify the following into Lewis acid and Lewis base. i) H 2O ii) NH3 iii) AlCl3 iv) H+ [SAY 2017]
Ans: i) H2O – Lewis base ii) NH3 - Lewis base
ii) AlCl3 – Lewis acid iv) H+ – Lewis acid
38. What are Amphoteric substances?
Substances which can act as both acid and base.
Examples : - H2O , HCO3- , HSO4-
39. Explain ionization constant of weak acid and its importance.
HX + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O+ + X-
[𝑯𝟑 𝑶 ][𝑿 ]
𝑲𝒂 =
[𝑯𝑿]
Ka = ionization constant of acid.
Larger the value of Ka , higher the concentration of H3O+ , and stronger the acid.
𝑲𝒂
Degree of dissociation of weak acid , 𝜶=
𝑪
C = concentration.
40. Explain ionization constant of weak base and its importance.
MOH ⇌ M+ + OH-
[𝑴 ][𝑶𝑯 ]
𝑲𝒃 =
[𝑴𝑶𝑯]
Kb = ionization constant of base.
Larger the value of Kb, higher the concentration of OH- , and stronger the base.
 𝑲𝒃
Degree of dissociation of weak base, 𝜶 =
𝑪
41. Define ionic product of water. What is its value at 298 K? [SAY 2020] [IMP 2023]
Ionic product of water is the product of concentration of hydronium ion and hydroxide ion.
Kw = [H3O+ ] [ OH-]
Its value at 298 K is 1 x 10-14
42. Define PH [MARCH 2024]
PH is defined as negative logarithm of hydronium ion concentration.
PH = −log[H3O+ ]
For acidic solution PH is less than 7.
For basic solution PH is greater than 7
For neutral solution PH is 7
43. Calculate the PH of neutral solution.
For neutral solution, [H3O+ ] =1 x 10-7 , [OH-] =1 x 10-7
PH = - log(1 x 10-7) = 7
44. The relation between PH and POH is PH + POH =14
45. The relation between Ka and Kb is K a x Kb = K w
46. The relation between pKa and pKb is P Ka + P Kb = P Kw =14
47. What is Buffer solution? [MARCH 2024] [MARCH 2018]
Buffer solution is a solution which resists the change in pH value by the addition of small amount of acid or
base.
Blood is an example of natural buffer.
48. Which are two types of Buffer solution? Explain each [MARCH 2023]
(I) Acidic buffer:- Its pH is less than 7. It is mixture of weak acid and its salt with strong base.
eg. , solution of acetic acid and sodium acetate.
(II) Basic buffer:- Its pH is more than 7. It is mixture of weak base and its salt with strong acid.
eg. , solution of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
49. pH of blood remains constant inspite of variety of goods and spices we eat. Give a reason. [MARCH 2017]
Ans: Because blood is a buffer solution
50. Give Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for acidic buffer and basic buffer.
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑶𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒃 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆]
51. Define Common ion effect. Give examples. [MARCH 2024] [MARCH 2023]
Common ion effect is defined as the suppression of dissociation of weak electrolyte by the addition of
strong electrolyte containing common ion.
e.g. The ionisation of ammonium hydroxide is suppressed by adding ammonium chloride.
The ionisation of acetic acid is suppressed by adding sodium acetate.
52. The dissociation of NH4OH is suppressed by the addition of NH4Cl. Name the principle applied here.
[ SAY 2020]
Common ion effect
53. Give an application of common ion effect [IMP 2023]
Purification of sodium chloride.
54. Define Solubility product.
Solubility product is the product of concentration of ions in saturated solution.
For AgCl salt , Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]
For BaSO4 salt , Ksp = [Ba2+][ SO42-]
For PbCl2 salt , Ksp = [Pb2+][ Cl-]2
For Al(OH)3 salt , Ksp = [Al3+][ OH-]3
For Ca3(PO4)2 salt , Ksp = [Ca2+]3[ PO4 3- ]2
55. Give the relations connecting solubility product and solubility.
Solubility product is used to calculate solubility of sparingly soluble salts.
For AB type salt , , Ksp = S2
For AB2 type salt , , Ksp = 4 S3
For AB3 type salt , , Ksp = 27 S4

56. What is Salt hydrolysis ? Explain. [MARCH 2019]

Salt on hydrolysis with water give acidic or basic solution is called salt hydrolysis.
(i) Salt of a strong acid and weak base gives acidic solution. It converts blue litmus paper to red.
Examples : NH4Cl , FeCl3 , CuSO4
NH4Cl + H2O ⇌ NH4OH + HCl
HCl is strong acid and ionizes completely give H+ ions and so the solution is acidic.
(ii) Salt of a weak acid and strong base gives basic solution. It converts red litmus paper to blue.
Examples : CH3COONa ,Na2CO3 , KCN
CH3COONa + H2O ⇌ CH3COOH + NaOH
NaOH is strong baseand ionizes completely give OH- ions and so the solution is basic.
(iii) Salt of a weak acid and weak base gives acidic or basic solution depending on the P Ka and P Kb of
the acid or base formed. E.g. Ammonium acetate (CH3COON H4), ammonium carbonate
PH = 7 + ½ ( P Ka - P Kb )
(iv) Salt of a strong acid and strong base gives neutral solution. Examples : NaCl, NaNO 3 , KCl
57. An aqueous solution of CuSO4 is acidic while that of Na2SO4 is neutral. Explain.
CuSO4 +2 H2O →Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4
Here Cu(OH)2 is weak base and H2SO4 is strong acid. H2SO4 ionises completely. More H+ ions are formed
and so acidic solution.
Na2SO4 +2 H2O →2 NaOH+ H2SO4 ( 2 Na+ + 2 OH- + 2 H+ + SO42-)
Here NaOH and H2SO4 are formed. Both are strong and ionizes completely. So H+ and OH− concentrations
are equal and neutral solution.
58. Classify the following solutions into acidic, basic and neutral. NaCl, NH 4NO3, NaCN, NaNO2 ,CH3COONa,
NH4Cl, CH3COONH4
Ans: Acidic: NH4NO3 , NH4Cl ‘
Basic: CH3COONa .
Neutral: NaCl
59. An aqueous solution of NaCl is neutral, while that of CuCl 2 is acidic. Why? [SAY 2019]
Ans: NaCl is a salt of strong acid HCl and strong base NaOH. So it is neutral.
But CuCl2 is a salt of strong acid HCl and weak base Cu(OH) 2. So it is acidic.
60. Classify the following solutions into acidic, basic and neutral. NaCl, NH 4NO3 , NaCN , NaNO2 [MARCH 2017]
Ans: NaCl – Neutral, NH4NO3 – Acidic, NaCN – Basic, NaNO2 – Basic
 SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Examine the chemical equilibrium, 4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) ⇌ 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(l)

Write the expression for equilibrium constant (Kc) for the above equilibrium.
What happens to Kc, if the balanced equation is multiplied throughout by a factor of 2. [MARCH 2019]
[𝑵𝑶]𝟒
Ans: 𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑵𝑯𝟑 ]𝟒 [𝑶𝟐 ]𝟓
If the balanced equation is multiplied throughout by 2, then K c’ = Kc2
2. For the equilibrium, 2 NOCl (g) ⇌ 2 NO (g) + Cl2 (g), the value of equilibrium constant Kp is 1.8 x 10-2 at 500 K.
Calculate Kc for this reaction at the same temperature. [SAY 2019]
-2
Ans: Here Kp= 1.8 x 10 , T = 500K
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products - No. of mole of gaseous reactants = (2+1) –(2) = 1
Kp = Kc (RT)1
1.8 x 10-2 = Kc (0.083 x 500)1
𝟏. 𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐
𝑲𝒄 = = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝟒
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑 𝐱 𝟓𝟎𝟎)
3. Write the relation between Kp and Kc for the reaction : H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2 HI (g), [MARCH 2023
Ans: Kp = Kc ( Hints: Kp = Kc (RT)∆n , ∆n = 2-2 =0 )
4. In which one of the following conditions a chemical reaction Proceeds in the forward direction?
i) QC < KC ii) QC > KC iii) QC = 1/KC IV) QC = - KC [IMP 2015]
Ans: QC < KC
5. Arrange the following in the increasing order of their acidic strength: HBr, HI, HF, HCl [IMP 2020]
Ans : HF < HCl < HBr < HI
6. If the concentration of hydrogen ion in a soft drink is 3 x 10 -3 M, calculate its pH. [SAY 2019]
Ans: Here [H3O+ ] = 3 x 10-3
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(3 x 10-3) = 2.523
7. Calculate the pH of 1 x 10-2 molar aqueous solution of H2SO4. [MARCH 2019]
Ans:
H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO4 2-
1 x 10-2 2 x 10-2
Here [H ] = 2 x 10-2
+

pH = −log[H+ ] = −log (2 x 10-2) = 1.6989

8. The concentration of H+ ion in a soft drink is 2 x 10-13. Calculate its pH. Identify whether the solution is
acidic or basic. [SAY 2017]
+ -13
Ans: pH = -log[H ] = -log (2 x 10 ) = 12.699
Since the pH > 7, the solution is basic.
9. Calculate the pH of 0.1M solution of NaOH [IMP 2023]
[OH-] = 0.1 M
pOH = −log[OH- ] = −log (0.1) = 1
PH + POH =14
PH =14 - POH = 14-1 =13

10. Write the Henderson – Hasselbalch equation for an acidic buffer. Calculate the pH of an acidic buffer
containing 0.1M CH3COOH and 0.5 M CH3COONa. [Ka for CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-6] [MARCH 2016]
 [𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
Ans: 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]
PKa = - log Ka = - log(1.8 x 10-6) = 5.774

𝟎. 𝟓
𝑷𝑯 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝟒 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟗𝟎 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟑
𝟎. 𝟏
-4
11. The ionization constant of nitrous acid is 4.5 x 10 . Calculate the pH of 0.04 M solution of nitrous acid in
water. Hint: HNO2+ H2O⇌ H3O + + NO2 – [MARCH 2018]
Ans: Ka =4.5 x 10-4, C = 0.04M , Ka = Cα2

𝑲𝒂 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒
𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 , 𝜶 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑪 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
[H3O+] = c α = 0.04 X 0.016= 0.00424

PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(0.00424) = 2.373

12. Predict the nature of solution produced by the hydrolysis of sodium acetate. [March 2020]
Ans: Basic
13. The pKa of acetic acid and pKb of ammonium hydroxide are 4.76 and 4.75 respectively. Calculate the pH of
ammonium acetate solution. [MARCH 2024]
H Ka Kb
Solution: P = 7 + ½ ( P - P ) = 7 + ½ [4.76 – 4.75] = 7 + ½ [0.01] = 7 + 0.005 = 7.005
14. The solubility of Mg(OH)2 at 298K is 1.5 x 10-4. Calculate the solubility product. [MARCH 2017]
Solution:
For AB2 type salt , , Ksp = 4 S3 = 4 (1.5 x 10 -4)3 = 1.35 X 10 -11

15. The solubility product of salt is related to its solubility. Give the relation between solubility product and
solubility of BaSO4. [SAY 2016]
2+ 2-
Solution: For BaSO4 salt , Ksp = [Ba ][ SO4 ]
For AB type salt , , Ksp = S2

16. The solubility product of BaSO4 is 1.2 x 10-10 at 298K. Calculate the solubility of BaSO4 at 298K. [SAY 2016]
Solution:
For AB type salt , , Ksp = S2

𝒔= 𝑲𝒔𝒑 = √𝟏. 𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑴

17. The solubility product of Al(OH)3 is 1 x 10-36. Calculate the solubility of Al(OH)3. [MARCH 2016]
Solution:
For AB3 type salt , , Ksp = 27 S4 ,

𝟒 𝑲𝒔𝒑 𝟒 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟔 𝟗
𝑺= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟕 𝟐𝟕
 UNIT 7 : REDOX REACTIONS
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
=====================================================
1. Define Redox reactions
Reactions in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously are called redox reactions.
Reduction + oxidation→ Redox reac on
Examples from our daily life : (I) Rusting of iron (II) Operation of cells and batteries (III) Combustion of
cooking gas , coal , wood etc.
2. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of classical concept

Oxidation Reduction
Addition of oxygen. C + O2 → CO2 Removal of oxygen. ZnO + C → Zn + CO
Removal of hydrogen, 2H2S + O2 → 2S + 2H2O Addition of hydrogen. 2H2S + O2 → 2S + 2H2O
3. What is Oxidant and reductant?
The substance undergoing oxidation is reducing agent (reductant).
The substance undergoing reduction is oxidizing agent (oxidant) .
4. Given the redox reaction: CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g) [MARCH 2015]
i) Identify the species which undergo reduction and which undergo oxidation.
ii) Identify the reductant and oxidant in the above reaction.
Ans:
i) Substance oxidised: H2, Substance reduced: CuO
ii) Reductant: H2, Oxidant: CuO
5. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of electronic concept [SAY 2014]
2+ -
Oxidation: Removal of electrons. Zn→ Zn + 2e
Reduction: Addition of electrons. Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu
6. Find out the oxidiser and reducer in the following reaction on the basis of the electronic concept.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) [SAY 2014]
−
2Na → 2 Na+ +2e ( Na undergo oxidation and so reducing agent )
Cl2 +2e− → 2Cl− (Cl2 undergo reduction and so oxidizing agent )
7. Give an example for redox reactions that takes place in aqueous solution .
When zinc metal is added to blue coloured copper sulphate solution, zinc displaces copper and solution
become colourless.
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Here Zn is oxidized to Zn2+ and Cu2+ is reduced to Cu.
Here Zn is reducing agent (reductant), Cu2+ is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
8. In an experiment a copper rod is dipped in AgNO3 solution.
What happens to the colour of the solution and why?
Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in this reaction. [SAY 2015]
When copper metal is added to silver nitrate solution, copper displaces silver and become blue colour.
Cu + 2 Ag+ → Cu2+ + 2 Ag
Cu is oxidized to Cu2+
Ag+ is reduced to Ag.
Cu is reducing agent (reductant). Ag+ (AgNO3) is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
9. When CuSO4 solution stored in iron vessel, the blue colour changes to pale green. Do you agree with it?
Justify. [SAY 2016]
Yes .
Iron ( Fe ) is more reactive than copper (Cu) and undergo oxidation and displaces Cu from CuSO 4 solution
Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu
10. Define the term Oxidation state (oxidation number)
The charge that an atom would have in a compound or ion.
11. Rules assigning oxidation number.
(I) In free state (O2, Cl2, N2, H2, Cu , Na , Fe , P4 , S8 ) → 0
(II) For mono atomic ion, charge is the oxidation state (Ag + → +1, Cu2+ →+2 , Cl - →-1, O 2- →-2)
(III) Fluorine→ -1 (in compounds)
(IV) Hydrogen → +1 (in compounds)(excep on in metal hydrides like NaH -1)
(V) Oxygen → -2 (in compounds)(exception in peroxides like H 2O2 → -1, in OF2→+2)
(VI) Alkali metals→+1 ,Alkaline earth metals→ +2 in their compounds
(VII) For neutral molecule total charge equal to zero
(VIII) For poly atomic ions, sum is equal to the charge of the ion.
12. The oxidation number of oxygen in super oxides is…………………….. [SAY 2020]
Ans: -1/2
13. The oxidation number of an atom in the elementary form is…………… [SAY 2020]
Ans : Zero
14. Find the oxidation number of chlorine in HClO4 [MARCH 2024]
( Hints: +1 + X + 4(-2) = 0 , X-7 = 0 , X=+7 )
15. Calculate the oxidation number of Cr in K2Cr2O7 and P in H2P2O5. [SAY 2015]
Ans: Oxidation no. of Cr in K2Cr2O7 = +6 ,
Oxidation no. of P in H2P2O5= +4
( Hints : 2(+1) + 2x + 7(-2) = 0 , +2 +2x-14 =0 , 2x-12 =0 , 2x = 12 , x = 12/2 =6
2(+1) + 2x + 5(-2) = 0 , +2 +2x-10 =0 , 2x- 8 =0 , 2x = 8 , x = 8/2 = 4
16. Calculate the oxidation state of chromium in 𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟐𝟒
Oxidation no. of Cr in 𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟐𝟒 = +6
(Hints: X + 4 ( -2) = -2 , X-8 = -2 , X = -2 +8 = +6)
17. Calculate the oxidation states of sulphur in the following species. H 2SO4 Na2S2O3 𝑺𝑶𝟐𝟑
(I) H2SO4 (II) Na2S2O3 (III) 𝑺𝑶𝟐𝟑
2(+1) + X + 4(-2) = 0 2(+1) + 2 X + 3(-2) = 0 X + 3 ( -2) = -2
+2 + X - 8 = 0 +2 + 2X - 6 = 0 X- 6 = -2
X = +6 2X = 4 X = -2 +6 = +4
X = 4/2 = +2
18. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of oxidation number concept [MARCH 2024]
Oxidation: Increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: Decrease in oxidation number.
-2 0 -1 0
H2S + Cl2→ 2HCl + S
Here the oxidation number of sulphur in H2S is -2, it is increased to zero (oxidation ).
Here the oxidation number of chlorine in Cl 2 is 0, it is decreased to -1 (Reduction ).
H2S is reducing agent (reductant), Cl2 is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
19. In the reaction: Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O , identify the following.(i) The substance oxidised
(ii) The substance reduced (iii) The oxidising agent (iv) The reducing agent [SAY 2019]
0 +4 +2
Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Pb undergo oxidation , PbO2 undergo reduction,
PbO2 is oxidizing agent, Pb is reducing agent.
20. Which is the substance undergoing oxidation, reduction, oxidant and reductant in the reactions.
+4 -1 +2 0
MnO2 +4 HCl→MnCl2+Cl2 +2H2O
HCl undergo oxidation , MnO2 undergo reduction, MnO2 is oxidizing agent, HCl is reducing agent.
21. Which is the substance undergoing oxidation, reduction, oxidant and reductant in the reactions.
-2 +5 +4 0
H2S +2 HNO3 → 2NO2+ 2H2O+S
H2S undergo oxidation, HNO3 undergo reduction, HNO3 is oxidizing agent, H2S is reducing agent.
22. Explain the different types of redox reactions with examples. [SAY 2018]
(I) Combination reactions:-
A reaction in which one element combines with another element or compound to form product is
called combination reactions.
2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O ,
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 +2 H2O
(II) Decomposition reactions:-
A reaction in which a compound breaks down to form two or more components in which one of the
product should be in the elemental state.
2KClO3→2KCl+3 O2 ,
2 NaCl → 2 Na + Cl2
(III) Displacement reactions:-
A reaction in which an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by another atom or ion.
CuSO4 + Zn →Cu + ZnsO4 (metal displaces a metal)
2 Na + 2 H2O→ 2 NaOH + H2 (metal displaces a non metal)
(IV) Disproportionation reactions:- [SAY 2019] [MARCH 2024]
A reaction in which the same species undergo simultaneous oxidation and reduction is called
disproportionation reaction.
The element should be in the intermediate oxidation state.
-1 -2 0
2 H2O2→2H2O +O2
23. In disproportionation reaction an element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced.
Identify the element undergoing disproportionation in the following reaction:
P4 + 3 OH- + 3 H2O → PH3 + 3 H2PO2- [SAY 2013]
Ans: Phosphorous (P4)
24. All decomposition reactions are not redox reactions. Give example. [MARCH 2012]
Decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon di oxide is not a redox reaction. In this
reaction, no change in the oxidation number of any elements.
+2 +4 -2 +2 -2 +4 -2

CaCO3→ CaO+ CO2

25. ClO3− undergo disproportionation, but ClO4− does not. Explain.
In ClO4− , the oxidation state of chlorine is +7. This is the highest oxidation state of chlorine.
It can only decrease its oxidation number, but cannot increase it. So ClO 4- does not undergo
disproportionation reaction .
In ClO3- , the oxidation state of chlorine is +5. It can increase or decrease its oxidation number. So it
undergo disproportionation reaction.
+5 -1 +7
4 ClO3- → Cl - + 3 ClO4−
26. Balance the following equation using oxidation number method. Cu +NO 3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
0 +5 +4 +2
Cu +NO3−→ NO2+ Cu2+
(II) Find out increase and decrease of Oxidation Number and equalize Cu +2 NO 3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. Cu +2 NO3− →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding H + ( since it is in acidic medium)
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+ +2 H2O
27. Permanganate ion reacts with bromide ion in basic medium to give manganese dioxide and bromate ion.
Write the balanced equation for the reaction using oxidation number method.
Skeletal equation is: MnO4- + Br- →MnO2 + BrO3- [MARCH 2017]
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
+7 -1 +4 +5
MnO4− + Br →MnO2 + BrO3− ( Oxidation number of Mn decreases by 3 and oxidation
−

number of Br increased by 6)
(II) Equalize increase and decrease in oxidation number. Multiply permanganate ion by 2 .
2MnO4- + Br- →MnO2 + BrO3-
(III) Equalize atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. 2MnO4- + Br- →2 MnO2 + BrO3-
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding OH- ( since it is in basic medium)
2MnO4- + Br- →2 MnO2 + BrO3- + 2 OH-
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
2MnO4- + Br- + H2O →2 MnO2 + BrO3- + 2 OH-
28. Balance the following Redox reaction by ion-electron method or oxidation number method (Acid medium)
Cr2O7 2- (aq) + SO3 2- (aq ) → Cr3+(aq) + SO4 2- (aq) [MARCH 2018] . [SAY 2017]
OR
Write the balanced chemical equation of K2Cr2O7 with Na2SO3 in acidic medium to form chromium (III) ion
and sulphate ion.
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
+6 +4 +3 +6
Cr2O72- +SO32- →Cr3+ + SO42- - ( Oxidation number of Cr decreases by 6 ( 2 x 3 ) and oxidation number
of S increased by 2)
(II) Equalize increase and decrease in oxidation number. Here multiply SO 32- ion by 3 .
Cr2O72- +3 SO32- →Cr3+ + SO42-
(III) Equalize atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. Cr2O72- +3 SO32- → 2Cr3+ + 3 SO42-
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding H + ( since it is in acidic medium)
Cr2O72- +3 SO32- + 8 H+ →2 Cr3+ +3 SO42-
 (V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Cr2O72- +3 SO32- + 8 H+ →2 Cr3+ +3 SO42- + 4 H2O
29. Balance the following reaction by half reaction method 𝑭𝒆𝟐 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝑪𝒓𝟑 (acidic medium)
(I) Split the skeleton in to two half –oxidation half and reduction half
Oxidation half : 𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 → 𝑪𝒓𝟑
(II) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 ,
𝟐 𝟑
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓
(III) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H+
𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 ,
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(IV) Balance the charges by adding electrons
𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝟏 𝒆 ,
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝟔𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(V) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝟔 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝟔 𝒆 ,
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝟔𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(VI) Adding the two half reactions 𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟐 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 → 𝟔 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
30. Permanganate ion oxidizes iodide ion to iodine in basic medium. Balance the equation by half reaction
method. The skeletal equation is 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝑰 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐
(I) Split in to two half
Oxidation half : 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐
Reduction half : 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐
(II) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen.
𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐

𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐

(III) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H+ . Since it is basic medium add OH- on
both side equal to H+ ions. Replace H+ and OH- by H2O. Cancel excess water molecules.
𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
(IV) Balance the charges by adding electrons
𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒆
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟑 𝒆 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
(V) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
𝟑(𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒆 )
𝟐 (𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟑 𝒆 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯 )
𝑶𝑹
𝟔 𝑰 → 𝟑 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟔 𝒆
𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟔 𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟖 𝑶𝑯
(VI) Adding the two half reactions 𝟔 𝑰 + 𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝟑 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟖 𝑶𝑯
31. How stock notations is written
Here oxidation number is written as roman numerals in bracket after the symbol of the metal in molecular
formula. Examples: Cu(II)O
32. Using Stock notation, represent the following compounds: i) HAuCl 4 ii) MnO2 [SAY 2014]
Ans : (i) HAu(III)Cl4 (ii) Mn(IV)O2
33. Using stock notation, represent the following compounds - FeO and MnO 2 [MARCH 2020]
Ans : (i) Fe(II)O (ii) Mn(IV)O2
34. Write the formula of the following compounds.i) Nickel (II) sulphate ii) Tin (IV) oxide [March 2014]
Ans: (i) NiSO4 (ii) SnO2
35. Explain redox reactions as the basis of titrations
(i) Permanganometric titration: KMnO4(Potassium permanganate) solution is titrated against reducing
agents such as Fe2+, oxalic acid etc. Potassium permanganate itself act as indicator. The end point is
the appearance of a pale pink colour.
(ii) Dichrometry: K2Cr2O7 (Potassium dichromate) solution is titrated against reducing agents such as
Fe2+, oxalic acid etc. The indicator in Dichrometry is diphenyl amine. The end point is the
appearance of blue colour.
(iii) Iodometry: The indicator in iodometry is starch. Starch gives blue colour with iodine.
For example, Cu2+ present in CuSO4 solution can be estimated by its reaction with iodide ion (KI)
2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → Cu2I2 + I2
The iodine so produced is titrated against sodium thiosulphate solution.
36. Explain electrochemical cell or galvanic cell as an application of redox reactions
A device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy is called electrochemical cell (galvanic cell).
Example: Daniell cell.

Anode→ Zinc rod dipped in ZnSO4

Cathode→ copper rod dipped in CuSO4
Anode and cathode are connected by wire and volt meter externally and by salt bridge internally.
At anode (oxidation) Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
At cathode (reduction) Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
Overall reaction Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Voltage is 1.1 V
2+
Representation of Daniel cell is Zn | Zn || Cu2+ | Cu
37. Write the redox reaction in Daniel cell. [SAY 2016]
Ans: Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
38. Give some applications of redox reactions.
(I) Electro chemical cell or galvanic cell( e.g., Daniel cell)
(II) The strength of oxidant or reductant can be determined volumetrically ( Permanganometry ,
Dichrometry, Iodometry)

SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Among the following reactions, identify the one which is NOT a redox reaction.
I. 3Mg(s) + N2(g) → Mg3N2(s)
II. Fe(s) + 2 HCl(aq) →FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
III. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
IV. 2 NaH(s) → 2Na(s) + H2(g) [MARCH 2015]
Ans:
+2 +4 -2 +2 -2 +4 -2

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2. Balance the following Redox process by ion-electron method ( Half reaction method )
P4(s) + OH− (aq) → PH3(g) + HPO2 − (aq) Basic medium [MARCH 2019]
Ans:
(I) Write the skeletal equation and find the oxidation number.
0 -3 +2
P4 + OH → PH3 + HPO2 −
−

( Oxidation number of Phosphorus decreased by 3 and increased by 2)

(II) Split the skeleton in to two half –oxidation half and reduction half
Oxidation half : P4 → HPO2 −
Reduction half : P4 → PH3
(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
Oxidation half : P4 → 4 HPO2 −
Reduction half : P4 → 4 PH3
(IV) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H+. Since it is basic medium add OH- on
both sides equal to H+ ions. Replace H+ and OH- by H2O. Cancel excess water molecules.
Oxidation half : P4 + 8 H2O + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 12 H+ + 12 OH−
P4 + 8 H2O + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 12 H2O
P4 + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 4 H2O
Reduction half : P4 + 12 H+ + 12 OH− → 4 PH3 + 12 OH−
P4 + 12 H2O → 4 PH3 + 12 OH−
(V) Balance the charges by adding electrons
P4 + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 4 H2O + 8 e−
P4 + 12 H2O + 12 e− → 4 PH3 + 12 OH−
(VI) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
3 (P4 + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 4 H2O + 8 e− )
3 P4 + 36 OH− → 12 HPO2 − + 12 H2O + 24 e−
2 ( P4 + 12 H2O + 12 e− → 4 PH3 + 12 OH− )
2 P4 + 24 H2O + 24 e− → 8 PH3 + 24 OH−
(VII) Adding the two half reactions
 3 P4 + 36 OH− +2 P4 +24 H2O + 24 e− →12 HPO2 − +12 H2O + 24 e− +8 PH3 + 24 OH−

5P4 + 12 OH− +12 H2O →12 HPO2 − +8 PH3

3. Identify the oxidant and reductant in the following ionic equation and balance it using oxidation number
method.
MnO4- (aq) + Br-(aq) + H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + Br2(l) + H2O(l) [IMP 2015]

(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.

+7 -1 +2 0
MnO4− + Br + H− +
→ Mn 2+
+ Br2 + H2O
Here the oxidation number of Mn and Br are changed.

(II) Find out increase and decrease of Oxidation number and equalize
Here the oxidation number of Mn is decreased by 5 and that of Br is increased by 1. In order to
equate them multiply MnO4– by 2 and Br– by 10 [Since Br is present as Br2 in RHS]
2 MnO4− + 10 Br − + H+ → Mn2+ + Br2 + H2O

(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen.

2 MnO4− + 10 Br − + H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 5 Br2 + H2O

(IV) Equalize the charge on both side

Here the net ionic charge on LHS is -11 and on RHS is +4. To equate them add 15 more H+ on LHS,
since the reaction takes place in acidic medium
2 MnO4− + 10 Br − + H+ + 15 H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 5 Br2 + H2O
2 MnO4− + 10 Br − + 16 H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 5 Br2 + H2O

(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Here add 7 more H2O molecules on RHS.

2 MnO4− + 10 Br − + 16 H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 5 Br2 + H2O + 7 H2O

2 MnO4− + 10 Br − + 16 H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 5 Br2 + 8 H2O

4. Balance the following Redox reaction by oxidation number method or ion-electron method (Acid medium)
Cl2O7(g) + H2O2 (aq) → ClO2 – (aq) +O2(g) + H+ [SAY 2020]
Ans:
Step-1: Assign the oxidation number of each element and find out the substance oxidised and
reduced.
+7 -2 +1 -1 +3 -2 0 +1
Cl2O7 + H2O2 → ClO2 + O2 + H+
–

Here the oxidation number of O is increased and that of Cl is decreased. So O in H 2O2 is oxidised and Cl
in Cl2O7 is reduced.
Step-2: Separate the equation into 2 half reactions -oxidation half reaction and reduction half reaction.
Oxidation half: H2O2 → O2
Reduction half: Cl2O7 → ClO2 –
Step-3: Balance the atoms other than O and H in each half reaction individually.
Oxidation half: H2O2 → O2
Reduction half: Cl2O7 → 2 ClO2 –
Step-4: Now balance O and H atoms. Add H2O to balance O atoms and H+ to balance H atoms since the
reaction occurs in acidic medium.
Oxidation half: H2O2 → O2 + 2 H+
Reduction half: Cl2O7 + 6 H+ → 2 ClO2 – + 3 H2O
Step -5: Now balance the ionic charges. For this add electrons to one side of the half reaction.
Oxidation half: H2O2 → O2 + 2 H+ + 2e−
Reduction half: Cl2O7 + 6 H+ +
+ 8 e−→ 2 ClO2 – + 3 H2O
Step-6: Now add the two half reactions after equating the electrons.
Oxidation half: (H2O2 → O2 + 2 H+ + 2e−) 4
Reduction half: Cl2O7 + 6 H+ +
+ 8 e−→ 2 ClO2 – + 3 H2O
Overall reaction is: 4 H2O2 + Cl2O7 → 4 O2 + 2 H+ + 2 ClO2 – + 3 H2O
Now the equation is balanced

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PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
 UNIT 8 : ORGANIC CHEMISTRY- SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
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1. Organic chemistry is the study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
2. Urea :- First synthesized organic compound in the laboratory by Frederic Wohler.
3. Why organic compounds are larger in number?
(I) Due to tetra valency of carbon (II) Due to the ability to form single bond and multiple bonds
(III) Due to catenation (IV) Due to isomerism.
4. What is Catenation? Which element has highest catenation property?
Self linking property of an element to form long chains and rings is called Catenation
Carbon has highest catenation property.
5. What is Functional group?
Functional group is an atom or group of atoms that determine the properties of an organic compound.
Functional group Name of functional group Name of organic compounds
-OH Hydroxyl group Alcohols
-NH2 Amino group Amines
-COOH Carboxyl group Carboxylic acids
-CO- Carbonyl group Ketones
-CHO Aldehydic group Aldehydes
-X (-F , -Cl , -Br , -I ) Halo group Halo compounds
6. What is homologous series? [SAY 2013]
A series or group of organic compounds in which adjacent members are differed by –CH 2 group is called
homologous series.
They contain same functional groups.
They have similar chemical properties and show gradual change in physical properties.
They can be prepared by some general methods of preparation.
Examples:- Alkanes , Alkenes, Alkynes, Alcohols, Amines, Carboxylic acids etc.
7. Nomenclature of organic compounds
Alkanes → Root word + ane
Alkenes → Root word + ene
Alkynes → Root word + yne
Number of carbon atoms Root word Number of carbon atoms Root word
1 Meth- 6 Hex-
2 Eth- 7 Hept-
3 Prop- 8 Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
5 Pent- 10 Dec-
8. Some alkyl groups
CH3− Methyl , CH3−CH2− Ethyl , CH3−CH2− CH2− Propyl
CH3
CH3─CH─ Isopropyl , CH3−CH2− CH2− CH2− Butyl
9. Structure and nomenclature of some compounds
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH3 2,4,7 – Trimethyloctane
CH3 – CH2 – CH- CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3
CH2-CH3 CH3 3-Ethyl-5-methylheptane
methylheptane
10. Nomenclature of cyclic compounds

1-Methyl
Methyl-3-propylcyclohexane
11. Nomenclature of aromatic compounds

1,2 – Dibromobenzene 1,3 – Dibromobenzene

1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene

2-Chloro-1-methyl-4-nitrobenzene
12. Nomenclature of compounds having functional groups
Decreasing order of priority
−𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 , −𝑪𝑯 = 𝑶 , > 𝐶 = 𝑂 , −𝑶𝑯 , −𝑵𝑯𝟐 , >𝐶=𝐶< , −𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 −

𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 Hexa- 1,3-dien-5-yne

5-oxohexanoic
oxohexanoic acid
13.Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
i) CH3─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH2─CH3
OH CH3
ii) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-COOH COOH
Ans: (i) 6-Methyloctan-3-ol (ii) Hex-3-en-1-oic acid
14. What is isomerism? Which are two types of isomerism?
Compounds having same molecular formula but differen
differentt properties are called isomers and the
phenomenon is called isomerism.
 There are two types (i) Structural
tructural isomerism and (ii) Stereo isomerism

15.Structural isomerism :- [MARCH 2019]

Structural isomers have same molecular formula but different structural formula.
(I) Chain isomerism :
They have same molecular formula but different carbon chains.

They have molecular formula C5H12

(II) Position isomerism :
They have same molecular formula but differ in the position of functional group.
gro

Molecular formula : C3H8O

Propan-1-ol Propan -2-ol
(III) Functional group isomerism : [MARCH2024]
They have same molecular formula but different functional groups.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH CH3 CH2O CH2 CH3
Molecular formula : C4H10O
(IV) Metamerism : [SAY 2018] [MARCH2024]
[MARCH2024
It arises due to different alkyl groups on either side of the same functional group.
CH3 CH2O CH2CH3 , CH3 OCH2CH2 CH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O

16. Write the metamers of C4H10O. [SAY 2018]

Ans: CH3─O─CH2─CH2─CH3 and CH3─CH2─O─CH2─CH3.
17. Write the functional isomers of molecule having molecular formula C 3H6O. [March 2020]

18.Stereo isomerism :-
Stereo isomers have same molecular formula, same structural formula, but difference in spatial
arrangement. This isomerism is stereo is
isomerism.
These are two types (i) Geometrical isomerism and (ii) Optical isomerism
19. Differentiate homolytic fission and heterolytic fission [MARCH2015] [MARCH 2019]
Homolysis or homolytic
molytic cleavage Heterolysis or heterolytic cleavage
Covalent bond breaks in such a way that , each Covalent bond breaks in such a way that the
of the bonded atom gives one electron each. shared pair of electrons remains with one of
the parts.
Free radicals are produced by homolysis Carbo cations (carbonium ions) and
carbanions are produced by heterolysis

20. Name the type of the fission of a covalent bond which gives free radicals. [MARCH2016]
Homolytic fission
21. Which are reaction intermediates? Explain each
(i) Carbo
arbo cations (carbonium ion)
ion): The groups containing positively charged carbon is called carbocation.
Carbocation is trigonal planar and sp2 hybridised.
The stability order is 10 < 20 <30

(ii) Carbanions: The groups containing negatively charged carbon is called carbanion. It is sp3 hybridised.
The stability order is 30 <20 < 10
(CH3)3C- < (CH3)2CH
CH- < CH3CH2- < CH3-
(iii) Free radicals: The groups containing unpaired electron. The stability order is 10 <20 <30

22. What is the type of hybridization of C in CH3+? Also predict its shape. [MARCH2013]
sp2 hybridization , Planar triangular shape
23. What are nucleophiles and electrophiles ? Give examples for each. [MARCH2015] [MARCH2024]
[MARCH2024
Nucleophiles:- Nucleus loving species. A reagent that brings an electron pair is called nucleophile.
Eg: OH- , Cl- , CN- , RCOO- , carbanions (negative ions) , NH 3 , H2O (molecules having lone pair)
Electrophiles:- Electron
lectron loving specie
species.
s. A reagent that takes away an electron pair is called an
+ +
electrophile. Eg:- H , Cl , carbocations (positive ions), BF3, AlCl3 (electron deficient molecules)
24. Which are the different types of electron displacement effects in covalent bonds.
(I) Inductive effect
(II) Electromeric effect
(III) Resonance effect (Mesomeric effect)
(IV) Hyper conjugation:
25. Explain Inductive effect
It is the permanent polarization of a sigma bond due to the presence of polar group.
It is a permanent effect.
Positive inductive effect (+I) :- By electron releasing groups . e.g. alkyl groups

Negative inductive effect (--I) : By electron withdrawing groups e.g. –NO2 , -CN
CN , -COOH , -F, -Cl
26. Explain Electromeric effect [MARCH2018]
It is a temporary effect .It is complete transfer of pi electrons of multiple bond in the presence of
attacking reagent. When attacking reagent is removed, shift back to its original condition.
Positive electromeric effect (+E) ::- pi electron shifting towards attacking reagent

Negative electromeric effect ((-E) : -pi

pi electron shifting away from the attacking reagent

27. Explain Resonance effect (Mesomeric effect) [ IMP2015]

It is the charge produced in the molecule by the interaction of two π- bondss or between a π- bond and lone
pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom.
Positive
sitive mesomeric effect (+M) : EElectron shifting towards conjugated system.
–OH , -OR, –NH2 , halogens

Negative
gative mesomeric effect ((-M) : Electron
lectron shifting away from the conjugated system.
–NO2 , -CN , -COOH
28. Explain Hyper conjugation [IMP 2015]
It is a permanent effect.
Here the sigma electrons of C-H bond of alkyl group enter in to partial conjugation with the unsaturated
system or with the unshared p orbital.
The hyper conjugative structures of propene are

29. Write the hyperconjugative structures of CH3-CH2+ (ethyl cation) [IMP 2013]

30. Which is more stable (CH3)3C + or CH3CH2+? Give a reason. [March 2017]
(CH3)3C + is more stable. This is because the stability of carbocation follows the order 3 0 > 20 > 10 due to
inductive effect and hyper conjugation.
31. CH3CH2– or (CH3)2CH– which is more stable? Explain. [March 2017]
CH3CH2 – is more stable.
This is because the stability of carbanion follows the order 1 0 > 20 > 30 due to inductive effect.
32. Arrange the following carbocation in the increasing order of their stability.
CH3-CH2+, CH3+, (CH3)3C+, (CH3)2CH+ . Justify your answer on the basis of hyper conjugation. [SAY 2019]
Ans:

As the number of hyper conjugative structures increases, the stability of the carbocation also increases.
Here (CH3)3C+ has 9, (CH3)2CH+ has 6, CH3-CH2+ has 3 and CH3+ has zero hyper conjugative structures.
33. Categorise the following groups into those having +R effect and –R effect: -NH 2, -NO2, -COOH, -OH
[MARCH2013]
+ R Effect groups: -NH2, -OH , –R Effect groups: -NO2, -COOH.
34. Write the names of methods for the purification of organic compounds [MARCH2023]
(I) Sublimation , (II) Distillation , (III) Crystallisation, (IV) Differential extraction (V)Chromatography
35. Purification techniques of organic compounds [MARCH2015] [MARCH2018]
Purification techniques When it is used Examples
Sublimation It is used to separate sublimable Naphthalene
compounds from non sublimable impurities
Crystallisation It is based on the difference in the A mixture of benzoic acid (hot
solubilities of the compound and the water soluble) and naphthalene
impurities in a suitable solvent.
Distillation To separate (1) volatile liquids from non Chloroform (bp. 334K) and
volatile impurities (2)the liquids having Aniline(bp. 457 K)
sufficient difference in their boiling points
Fractional distillation To separate liquids having close boiling Crude oil in petroleum industry
points
Distillation under reduced To purify liquids which decompose at or Glycerol can be separated from
pressure below its boiling points spent lye in soap industry
Steam distillation To separate substances which are steam Aniline is separated from aniline
volatile and are immiscible with water water mixture
Differential extraction When an organic compound is present in
aqueous solution, it is separated by shaking Benzoic acid from water is
it with an organic solvent in which it is extracted by using benzene
more soluble than in water
Chromatography This method is used to separate mixtures
into their components, purify components
and also to test the purity of compounds.

36. Suggest a suitable method for the separation of a mixture of aniline and water. [March 2012] [IMP2023]
Ans: Steam distillation
37. The purification technique used for the separation of chloroform and aniline is ...........[ SAY 2020]
Ans: Distillation
38. Liquids having large difference in boiling points are separated by [MARCH2020]
Ans: Distillation
39. Which type of liquids can be purified using distillation under reduced pressure? Suggest an example.
[MARCH2013]
Ans: To purify liquids which decompose at or below its boiling points . Eg. Glycerol
40. Which purification technique is used for the separation of glycerol from spent lye [MARCH2023]
Ans: Distillation under reduced pressure
41. Which are different types of chromatography?
(I) Adsorption chromatography
(II) Partition chromatography( Paper chromatography).
42. Name two types of chromatographic techniques based on adsorption. ( Adsorption chromatography)
[MARCH2013]
(I) Column chromatography
(II) Thin layer chromatography
43. Explain column chromatography and Thin layer chromatography. .[SAY 2017]
(I) Column chromatography :-The compound to be separated is converted in to movable phase and
passed through a column of adsorbent packed in a glass tube ( Stationary phase). Silica gel or
alumina gel is used as adsorbent. The components are adsorbed at different places depending
on their degree of adsorption. The most readily adsorbed component is retained near the top
and other come down to various distances in the column.
(II) Thin layer chromatography :-Thin layer of adsorbent is coated on a glass plate is called
chromatography plate. The mixture is to be separated is spotted 2 cm above the plate. It is
placed in jar containing eluant. As the eluant rises up the plate, the components are separated.
The relative adsorption of components are expressed in terms of retardation factor (R f factor)
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝑹𝒇 =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
Colorless spots are converted to coloured spots by putting the plate in ultraviolet light or placing in
iodine jar.
44. Explain partition chromatography (e.g. paper chromatography). [March 2018]
It is based on differential partitioning of components of a mixture between stationary phase and mobile
phase.
Chromatographic paper trapped water is stationary phase.
Mixture is spotted at the base of the paper.
The paper is suspended in solvent.
As the solvent rises up , the components are partitioned.
45. Detection of carbon and hydrogen
Organic compound is heated with cupric oxide.
Carbon is converted to carbon dioxide which turns lime water milky.
Hydrogen is converted to water which turns anhydrous copper sulphate to blue.
46. Write the name of the test used to detect nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorous present in an
organic compound.
Lassaigne’ s test
47. Detection of nitrogen, sulphur and halogen: Lassaigne’ s test [SAY 2018]
It is done using sodium fusion extract (Lassaigne’ s extract).
It is prepared by heating organic compound with sodium in a fusion tube. When red hot, it is plunged in
to water taken in a china dish. The solution is boiled and filtered. Filtrate is called sodium fusion extract
(Lassaigne’ s extract) .
It is prepared to convert covalent bonded organic compounds into water soluble ionic compounds.
No. Experiment Observation Inference
1 Extract + Ferrous sulphate + Prussian blue colour Presence of nitrogen
Concentrated sulphuric acid
2 Extract + Sodium nitro prusside Violet colour Presence of sulphur
3 Extract + Acetic acid + Lead acetate Black precipitate (PbS) Presence of sulphur
4 Extract + Nitric acid + Silver nitrate White precipitate (AgCl) Presence of chlorine
Pale yellow (AgBr) precipitate Presence of bromine
Yellow precipitate(AgI) Presence of iodine
48. Ferriferrocyanide, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3:- The blue coloured compound in the Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen.
[MARCH2012] [IMP 2023]
49. In the Lassaigne’s test for halogen, they are precipitated as silver halide( AgX ) [MARCH2023]
50. Explain the detection of phosphorous in an organic compound.
Organic compound (Phosphorous present) + Nitric acid + Ammonium molybdate → Yellow precipitate
(Ammonium phosphomolybdate)
51. Explain Leibig’s method for the estimation of carbon and hydrogen.
Organic compound is heated with copper (II) oxide, carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and hydrogen
to water.
From the weight of carbon dioxide, percentage of carbon is calculated. .
From the weight of water, the percentage of hydrogen can be calculated.
𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 =
𝟒𝟒 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
52. Name any one method used for the estimation of nitrogen present in an organic compound [SAY 2019]
An: Dumas method OR Kjeldahl’s method
53. In what form is nitrogen estimated in the Dumas method? [MARCH 2013]
Dinitrogen (N2)
54. Explain different methods for the estimation nitrogen in an organic compound.
(i) Dumas method : [SAY 2016]
Nitrogen containing organic compound is heated with copper oxide, Molecular nitrogen (N2) is
formed . From the volume of nitrogen gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.
𝟐𝟖 𝑿 𝑽 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑿 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝑻𝑷 =
𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝑿 𝑻𝟏
P1 = atmospheric pressure – Aqueous tension.
(ii) Kjeldahl’s method : Organic compound containing nitrogen is heated with sulphuric acid. Ammonium
sulphate is formed. It is heated with sodium hydroxide . Ammonia gas is formed. The volume of
ammonia is determined by titrating with standard acid.
From the volume of ammonia gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.
𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

55. Kjeldahl’s method is not applicable to nitro and azo groups and nitrogen present in rings (e.g pyridine).
Why?
Nitrogen of these compounds does not change to ammonium sulphate
56. Name the method for estimation of Halogen [SAY 2012]
Carius method
57. Estimation of halogen : Carius method:-
Organic compound ( Halogen) + Nitric acid + Silver nitrate→ Silver halide (AgX).
From the weight of silver halide, we can determine the percentage of halogen.
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

Atomic masses ( Cl= 35.5 , Br = 80 , Ag = 108)

58. Estimation of sulphur :Carius method:
Organic compound (Sulphur present) + Barium chloride → Barium sulphate (BaSO 4)
From the weight of BaSO4, we can determine the percentage of sulphur .
𝟑𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓 =
𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
59. Estimation of Phosphorus:
Organic compound (Phosphorous present) + Nitric acid + Ammonium molybdate → Yellow precipitate
(Ammonium phosphomolybdate)
From the weight of ammonium phospho molybdate, we can determine the percentage of phosphorus.
𝟑𝟏 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒔 =
𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟕 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
60. Estimation of oxygen:
Percentage of oxygen = 100- (Sum of percentage of all other elements)

SOME HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How many ‘σ’ and ‘π’ bonds are present in the following compounds? CH 2 = C = CH - CH3
Ans: σ bonds - 9 , π bonds – 2
2. How many ‘σ’ and ‘π’ bonds are present in the following compounds?
Ans: i) CH3─CH2─CH3 No. of σ bonds – 10, No of π bonds – 0
ii) CH3C≡CH No. of σ bonds – 6, No of π bonds – 2
3. Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds : [SAY 2019]
CH3
(i) CH3 – CH2 – CH─CH
─CH – CH2 – CH3
CH2-CH
CH3

Ans: i) 3-Ethyl-4-methylhexane
methylhexane ii) 5-Oxoheptanoic acid
4. Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds. [MARCH 2019]

Ans: (a) 3-Ethyl-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane

dimethylcyclohexane (b) 3-Bromo-3-chloroheptane
5. Give the structural formula of the following compounds: i) 2,4,7 – Trimethyloctane
ii) 2-Chloro-4-methylpentane
CH3 CH3 CH3
(i) CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH3
(ii) CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH3
Cl CH3
6. Bond line notations of some organic
rganic compounds are given
given.. Write the condensed formula and IUPAC names.
[IMP 2016]

Ans:
(i) CH3─CH2─CH=CH2 (But-1-ene)
(ii) CH3─CO─CH2─CH3 (Butan-2-one or 2-Butanone)
Butanone)

7. Give the IUPAC names of the following: [March 2017]

4-Ethyl
Ethyl-2-methylaniline

8. Write the structural formula of the following compounds: i) Pent-4-en-2-ol ii) 6-Hydroxyheptanal
Hydroxyheptanal
OH
(i) CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH
CH– CH3
(ii) CH3─CH─CH2─CH2─CH2─CH2─CHO
OH
9. The bond-line
line formula of a compound is given below.

Write its condensed formula and give the IUPAC name.

Ans: HO─CH2─CH2─CH2-CH(CH
CH(CH3)─CH(CH3)─CH3
IUPAC Name: 4,5-Dimethylhexan
Dimethylhexan-1-ol
10. Write the complete, condensed and bond line structural formulae of 22-bromobutane.
bromobutane.

11. Write the structures of the following organic compounds. a) 2,5,6 – Trimethyloctane
b) Hexane-2,4-dione c) 5-oxohexanoic
oxohexanoic acid [IMP 2013]
Ans:
CH3 CH3 CH3
(a) CH3─CH─CH2─ CH2─CH─ CH─CH2─ CH3
(b) CH3─CO─CH2─ CO─ CH2─CH3
(c) CH3─CO─CH2─ CH2─CH2 ─CO
─COOH
12.Give the IUPAC name of [IMP 2012]
CH3 – CH2 – CH- CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3
CH2-CH3 CH3
Ans: 3-Ethyl-5-methylheptane
13. Represent 1-Methyl-3-propylcyclohexane
propylcyclohexane using bond line notation.

14. Give the complete and bond line structure of pent

pent-4-en-2-ol. [March 2020]

15. Write the IUPAC name of the following: [March 2020]

 Ans: (i) 3-Chlorobutanoic acid (ii) Hex-4-en-3-ol
16. Give the IUPAC names of the following:

Ans: i) 3-chloropropanal ii) 3-methylpentanenitrile

17.Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds: [IMP 2023]
i) CH3─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH2─CH3
OH CH3
ii) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-COOH COOH
Ans: (i) 6-Methyloctan-3-ol (ii) Hex-3-en-1-oic acid
18. Draw the structures of the following compounds.
i) 2,3-Dibromo-1-phenylpentane ii) 4-Ethyl-1-fluoro-2-nitrobenzene

19. Write all the possible chain isomers of tthe compound with molecular formula C5H12

20. On complete combustion, 0.246g of an organic compound gave 0.198g of CO 2 and 0.1014g of H2O.
Determine the percentage composition of carbon and hydrogen in the compound. [IMP 2013]
Solution:
𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝑿𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝐗𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 = = = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟗𝟓%
𝟒𝟒 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟒𝟒 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟔

𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎

% 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟖%
𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟔
21. In the Carius method of estimation of halogen, 0.15g of an organic compound gave 0.12g of AgBr.
AgBr Find the
percentage of Br in the compound [March 2014]

𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎

% 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝟖𝟎 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟎𝟒 %
𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
 UNIT 9 : HYDROCARBONS
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GVHSS DESAMANGALAM (08196), THRISSUR (DT)
================================================================
1. Classification of hydrocarbons

2. How will you prepare alkanes?

(i) By the hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes in the presence of Ni or Pd or Pt catalyst.
𝑵𝒊 / 𝑷𝒅 / 𝑷𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
/ /
𝐶
𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 2 𝐻 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻
(ii) Alkyl halide on reduction with Zn and HCl, alkane is formed.
𝒁𝒏/𝑯
CH3 CH2Cl + H2 ⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH3 + HCl
(iii) By Wurtz reatction : -Alkyl
Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes with even
number of carbon atoms. This reaction is known as wurtz reaction.
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑿 − 𝑹 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹 − 𝑹 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑿
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓
Bromo methane Ethane
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯 𝑪 𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓
Bromo ethane n-Butane
(iv) By decarboxylation of sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime, one carbon less alkane is formed.
Soda lime is a mixture of caustic soda (NaOH)and quick lime(CaO).
𝑪𝒂𝑶 , 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑹𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
When sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate) is heated with soda lime, methane is formed.
𝑪𝒂𝑶 , 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
When
hen sodium butanoate is heated with soda lime, propane is formed.
𝑪𝒂𝑶 ,∆
CH3 CH2 CH2COONa + NaOH ⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH2 CH3 + Na2CO3
(v) By the Kolbe’s electrolysis of aqueous solution sodium salt of carboxylic acid, alkane with even number
of carbon atom is formed.
e.g. sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate) on Kolbe’s electrolysis ethane is formed.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔
𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 + 𝟐𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐
3. What is Wurtz reaction? Give an example. [SAY 2020] [MARCH 2018]
4. How is alkane prepared by Kolbe’s electrolytic method? [SAY 2014]
5. Explain the variation of boiling point among hydro carbons.
(I) As length of hydrocarbon increases, boiling point increases due to increase in Vander waals force
of attraction. E.g. methane < ethane<propane< butane<pentane
(II) As branch of hydrocarbon increases, boiling point decreases due to decrease in vanderwaals force
of attraction. e.g. n-pentane> isopentane> neopentane
6. What are Substitution reactions? Give example [SAY 2017]
One atom or group of atoms is replaced by the other atoms or group of atom is called substitution reaction.
Eg. Halogenation of methane in the presence of light or at high temperature.
𝒉𝒗
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆
7. Explain Combustion reaction of alkanes
Alkanes on combustion with air or oxygen produce carbon dioxide and water.
It is an exothermic reaction.
𝟏
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟖𝟗𝟎𝑲𝑱𝒎𝒐𝒍
8. By the controlled oxidation of hydrocarbons, useful products are obtained. Give examples.
𝑪𝒖/𝟓𝟐𝟑𝑲/𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯
Methanol
𝑴𝒐𝟐 𝑶𝟑 ,∆
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Methanal
9. What is isomerisation? Give example [MARCH 2023]
Normal alkanes on heating with anhydrous aluminium chloride and HCl, branched chain alkanes are formed
is called isomerisation.
𝑨𝒏𝒉𝒚.𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍𝟑 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
CH3 (CH2)4CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 – CH - CH2 - CH2 -CH3 + CH3 - CH2 – CH - CH2 -CH3
CH3 CH3
n- Hexane 2- methyl pentane 3- methyl pentane
10. Explain aromatization or reforming with example. [MARCH 2023]

Normal alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on

heating at high temperature and pressure in the
presence of catalyst like chromium oxide, benzene and
its homologues are formed.

11. Explain pyrolysis or cracking with example [MARCH 2023]

The decomposition of bigger hydrocarbons in to simple hydrocarbons by heating at high temperature is
called cracking or pyrolysis.
𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟒 𝑯𝟖 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔
𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟑 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑪𝟑 𝑯𝟖
12. What are conformations? [SAY 2015]
The different spatial arrangements of atoms arising due to free rotation around a carbon-carbon
single bond are called conformations.
13. Draw the Newman Projections of the eclipsed and staggered conformations of ethane molecule and explain
their stability [MARCH 2020] [MARCH 2019]

Ethane has staggered ,eclipsed and skew conformations.

Staggered conformation is more stable. This is because hydrogen atoms of two carbon atoms are at
maximum distance and repulsion is minimum and stability is maximum.
Eclipsed conformation has hydrogen atoms closed together , repulsion maximum, stability minimum.
The intermediate conformations are called skew conformationsDraw Newman projections of ethane
14. Draw Sawhorse projections of ethane .[SAY 2018][SAY 2014]

15. Free rotation is possible with respect to a C – C bond in the case of alkanes. The repulsive interaction
between the adjacent bonds in a conformation is called .......... [MARCH 2013]
Ans : Torsional strain
16. Name the type of isomerism exhibited by 2-Butene. [MARCH2016]
Geometrical isomerism
17. What is meant by geometrical isomerism?
The isomerism arises due to restricted rotation about carbon- carbon double bond is called
geometrical isomerism.
For geometrical isomerism, the groups attached to each carbon must be different.
If the same group same side is called cis isomer.
If the same group opposite side is called trans isomer.
Cis isomer is more polar. Trans isomer is more stable
18. Draw the structure of geometrical isomers of 2-butene and select the one which is more polar
[MARCH2016]

Cis isomer is polar

19. What is Lindlar’s catalyst? Give its use.
Partially deactivated palladised charcoal is called Lindlar’s catalyst.
Alkynes on reduction with Lindlar’s catalyst,we get cis alkene.

20. Alkynes can be converted selectively in to cis alkenes and trans alkenes . Explain with suitable examples.
[MARCH 2019]
Hydrogenation of alkyne with Lindlar catalyst gives cis alkene.
Hydrogenation of alkyne with sodium in liquid ammonia gives trans alkene.

21. How will you prepare alkenes?

(i) By hydrogenation of alkynes:
𝑵𝒊
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
(ii) By dehydrohalgenation(Removal of hydrogen halide) of alkyl halide using alcoholic potash, alkene is
formed. Alcoholic potassium hydroxide is a dehydrohalogenating agent.
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑿 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
(iii) By the dehalogenation (Removal of halogen) of vicinal dihalides (halogens on adjacent carbons), alkene
is formed.
𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑩𝒓 + 𝒁𝒏 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝒁𝒏𝑩𝒓𝟐
(iv) By the dehydration (Removal of water) of alcohols , aklkene is formed.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄.𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent.
22. Give an example for addition reaction of alkene [SAY 2017]
𝑪𝑪𝒍𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑩𝒓 ⎯ 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓 (1,2 –dibromo ethane )
Reddish brown colour of bromine water is discharged when it is added to unsaturated system ( alkenes and
alkynes). It is a test for unsaturation
23. State and explain Markownikkoff’s rule
It states that “ when unsymmetrical reagent is added to unsymmetric alkene, the negative part of the
addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
When HBr is added to 1-propene, the major product is 2-bromopropane
Br
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1- propene 2- bromopropane (Major) 1-bromopropane (Minor)
24. What is peroxide effect or kharasch effect or anti markownikkoff’s rule? Give an example.
In the presence of organic peroxides, addition of HBr to unsymmetric alkene takes place against
Markwnikkoff’s rule.
Only HBr shows peroxide effect.
𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1- Bromo propane (Major product )
25. From the following, select the one in which Markownikoff’s rule is best applicable.
i) C2H4 + HCl ii) C3H6 + Br2 iii) C3H6 + HBr iv) C3H8 + Cl2 [MARCH2016]
Ans: iii) C3H6 + HBr
26. 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑨 𝑩
(i) Identify A and B (ii) Which is the major product and why? [SAY 2020]
Ans : 2- bromopropane (Major) and 1-bromopropane (Minor)
According to Markownikkoff’s rule “ when unsymmetrical reagent is added to unsymmetric alkene, the
negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing lesser number of
hydrogen atoms.
(𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 𝑪𝑶)𝟐 𝑶𝟐
27. Predict the Products : 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Ans:
𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1-bromopropane (Major product )
28. What is Baeyer’s reagent. Give its oxidation reaction with alkene. [SAY 2016]
Dilute alkaline potassium permanganage is called Baeyer’s reagent. When it is added to unsaturated
compound, its pink colour is discharged. It is also a test for unsaturation.
𝑫𝒊𝒍.𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + [𝑶] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑯𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 Ethane-1,2-diol (glycol)
29. What is the product formed when ethylene is treated with Baeyer’s reagent? [SAY 2016]
𝑫𝒊𝒍.𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + [𝑶] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑯𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 Ethane-1,2-diol (glycol)
30. The cold dilute aqueous solution of potassium permangante (KMnO 4) is generally known as -----------
[SAY 2020]
Ans: Baeyer’s reagent
31. What is Ozonolysis ? [SAY 2014]
Alkenes react with ozone molecule give ozonide which on reduction with zinc dust and water give
aldehydes and ketones .
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶
1-propene Ethanal Methanal
O O
32. An alkene on ozonolysis give two molecule of methanal . Identify the alkene .Give its reaction. [MARCH 14]
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶 ( Methanal )
Ethene
O O
33. But-2-ene + Ozone → 2 Ethanal
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 ( Ethanal )
2-butene
O O
34. An alkene on ozonolysis followed by reduction of ozonide formed with zinc and water give a mixture of 3-
pentanone and ethanal. Identify the alkene .
Ans: 3-ethyl pent-2-ene is the alkene.

35. Give examples for polymerization of alkenes

Polythene and polypropene are plastics.

36. Give the preparation of acetylene (ethyne)
(i) From calcium carbide.:- Calcium carbide on treatment with water gives acetylene(ethyne)
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐
(ii) From 1,2 –dibromoethane : On dehydrohalogenation using alcoholic KOH

𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯 𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯

37. How will you convert acetylene to acetaldehyde?

𝑯𝒈𝟐 /𝑯 /𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯 − 𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯(𝑶𝑯) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝑶
Acetylene (ethyne) is treated with water in the presence of sulphuric acid and mercuric suphate,
acetaldehyde (ethanal ) is formed.
38. How will you convert propyne to propanone(acetone)?
𝑯𝒈𝟐 /𝑯 /𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯 − 𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪(𝑶𝑯) = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶 𝑪𝑯𝟑
Propyne is treated with water in the presence of sulphuric acid and mercuric suphate, propanone
(acetone) is formed.
39. Suggest a method to convert ethyne to benzene. [MARCH 2017]
When acetylene (ethyne) is passed through red hot iron tube, benzene is formed.

40. Acidity order: 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 > 𝐶𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 > 𝐶𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑

𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 > 𝐶𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 > 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑

41. 1-alkynes are acidic. Give reason. [SAY 2017]
In 1-alkynes,triple bonded carbon is ‘sp’ hybridized state.
It is more electronegative due to 50 % s character.
Hence carbon can attract the shared electron pair of C-H bond.
So hydrogen can release as proton. So 1-alkynes are acidic.
42. 1-alkynes are acidic. Give example [MARCH2016]
(i) 1-alkynes react with active metals gives hydrogen gas.
𝟏
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂 → 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟐
(ii) 1-alkynes react with base NaNH2 .
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑵𝑯𝟐 ⎯ 𝑵𝒂 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪 − 𝑵𝒂 + 𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟑
43. Explain the structure of benzene.
(i) The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 .
(ii) Benzene can form a triozonide, indicates that benzene contain three double bonds.
(iii) Benzene can produce only one mono substituted derivative indicates that all carbon and hydrogen
atoms are equal.
(iv) Kekule structure of benzene is

(v) Kekuke structure indicates the possibility of two types of disubstituted derivatives. However benzene
form only one type disubstituted derivative.

(vi) Benzene has resonance structures

(vii) Even though benzene contains three double bonds, benzene is stable.

In benzene, each carbon is in sp2 hybridised state. Each

carbon has one unhybridised p orbital. So continuous overlap
is possible. So pi electrons are delocalized. These delocalized
pi electrons are responsible for the stability of benzene.
44. State huckel’s rule aromaticity. [December 2020]
A cyclic , conjugated , planar system is aromatic if it contains (4n +2) pi electrons in the ring.
Where n = 1,2,3 etc

Benzene is planar molecules, complete delocalization of pi electrons in the ring

is possible, Huckel rule obeys. So benzene is aromatic. 4n +2 = 6 (here n=1)

45. Cycloheptatrienyl cation is given below : Is this ion aromatic or not? Justify the answer. [MARCH 2018]

It is planar molecules, complete delocalization of pi electrons in the ring is possible,

Huckel rule obeys. So these are aromatic. 4n +2 = 6 (here n=1)

46. Cyclopentadienyl anion is aromatic. Why? [SAY 2017]

It is planar molecules, complete delocalization of pi electrons in the ring is possible, Huckel

rule obeys. So these are aromatic. 4n +2 = 6 (here n=1)

47. With the help of huckel’s rule, explain 1,4

1,4- hexadiene and 1,3-butadiene
butadiene are not aromatic.

1,3-butadiene
No. of pi electrons = 4 (2 π bonds x 2 e -1 )

4n +2 = 4 ( n = 0.5) Hence the value of n is 0.5. So it does not obey Huckel rule and is not aromatic.

48. Naphthalene is aromatic. Explain using Huckel rule. [SAY 2012]

Naphthalene is planar, complete delocalization of pi electrons are possible.

No. of pi electrons = 10 (5 π bonds x 2 e -1 ) 4n +2 = 10 ( n = 2)
Hence the value of n is 2. So it obeys Huckel rule and is aromatic.
49. Both anthracene and phenanthrene are aromatic. Explain using Huckel rule.

Both anthracene and phenanthracene are planar,

complete delocalization of pi electrons are possible.
No. of pi electrons = 14 (7 π bonds x 2 e -1 )
4n +2 = 14 ( n = 3) Hence the value of n is 3. So it
obeys Huckel rule and is aromatic.
50. Cyclo octatetraene is not aromatic . Explain

No. of pi electrons = 8 (4 π bonds x 2 e -1 )

4n +2 = 8 ( n = 1.5) Hence the value of n is 1.5.
So it does not obeys Huckel rule and is not aromatic.
51. How will you prepare benzene ?
(I) From acetylene (ethyne) :-
When acetylene (ethyne) is passed through red hot iron tube, benzene is formed.
𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝟑 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟔 ( 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒛𝒆𝒏𝒆)
(II) From sodium benzoate :-
Benzene is formed by the decarboxylation of sodium benzoate with soda lime.

(III) From Phenol :- Phenol + zinc dust → Benzene

52. Electrophilic substitution reactions of Benzene

Positively charged electrophile replaces hydrogen of the benzene ring.
(i) Halogenation:
𝐀𝐧𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐀𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝐂𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐂𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞

(ii) Nitration: Nitrating mixture →Mixture of concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid
𝐍𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐢𝐱𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐍𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞

(iii) Sulphonation :
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝐅𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐩𝐡𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 → 𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝
 (iv) Friedel –Craft alkylation(Benzene to Toluene):-
𝐀𝐧𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐀𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐲𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐲𝐥 𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 ( 𝐓𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐞)

(v) Fridel-Craft acylation (Benzene to Acetophenone)

𝐀𝐧𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐀𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝐀𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐲𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐀𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐞𝐧𝐨𝐧𝐞

53. What happens when excess chlorine is added to benzene in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride?
𝐀𝐧𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐀𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝐄𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐇𝐞𝐱𝐚 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 (𝑪𝟔 𝑪𝒍𝟔 )

54. Addition reactions of Benzene

(i) Addition of Hydrogen :-
𝐍𝐢 𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐬𝐭
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝟑 𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐡𝐞𝐱𝐚𝐧𝐞 (𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 )

(ii) Addition of chlorine :-

𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐫𝐚 𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝟑 𝐂𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐱𝐚 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞 (𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟔 𝐂𝐥𝟔 )

BHC

55. What is Gammexane or BHC ? Give its preparation.

Benzene hexa chloride ( C6 H6Cl6) → Gammexane (BHC) .
It is used as an insecticide.
𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐫𝐚 𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 + 𝟑 𝐂𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐱𝐚 𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞 (𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟔 𝐂𝐥𝟔 )
56. Draw the isomers of dimethyl benzene(Xylene)

Ortho xylene meta xylene para xylene

57. Which are ortho para directing groups?

Groups which direct the incoming electophile to ortho and para positions are called ortho para directing
groups.
Examples :- –OH , -NH2 , –CH3 etc (groups containing lone pair and alkyl groups)
58. Which are meta directing groups?

Groups which direct the incoming electophile to meta positions are called meta diecting groups.
Examples :- –CN , -NO2 , –CHO , -COOH etc ( multiple bonded groups)

HSE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Name the following reactions: [SAY 2012]

𝑨𝒏𝒉𝒚.𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍𝟑 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
I) C6H14 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 – CH - CH2 - CH2 -CH3
CH3
𝑽𝟐 𝑶𝟓 /𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲/𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝒂𝒕𝒎
II) C6H14 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ C6H6

𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲
III) 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟒 𝑯𝟖 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔
I) Isomerisation
II) Aromatization or reforming
III) Pyrolysis or cracking
2. Give the chemical equation for the conversion of hexane to benzene. Write the name of the process.
Ans: Aromatization or reforming

𝑴𝒐𝟐 𝑶𝟑 ,∆
3. Complete the following reaction : 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ … … … … … … . + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 [IMP 2015]

𝑴𝒐𝟐 𝑶𝟑 ,∆
Ans : 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Methanal
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
4. Identify X in the following reaction 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑿

𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
Ans : 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 (Propene)

5. Identify X, Y and Z in the following sequence of reactions : [MARCH 2018]

6. Complete the following reactions. [IMP 2014]

Ans: i) Benzene (C6H6) ii) Ethyne (Acetylene) CH≡CH

7. Identify A and B in the following reaction :

𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆,𝟖𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝟐 ⎯ 𝑨 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑩
𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆,𝟖𝟕𝟑 𝑲
Ans: 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝟐 ⎯ 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟔
A B
A → Ethyne (Acetylene) CH≡CH , B → Benzene (C6H6)
8. Identify A and B in the following reaction :

Ans: A → Benzene B → Toluene ( Methyl benzene)

9. Select the aromatic compounds from the following: [MARCH 2017]
 Ans:

10. Give the products formed when benzene reacts with the following: (I) CH 3Cl/AlCl3 (II) Nitrating mixture (
Con. HNO3 / Con. H2SO4)
Ans: (I) Toluene ( Methyl benzene) (II) Nitrobenzene
11. Name the product A

12. Write the name of the products formed in the following chemical reaction : [IMP 2023]

Ans: (i) Benzene (ii) Benzene hexachloride (iii) Ethane

13. An alkene on ozonolysis gives two molecules of ethanal. (i) Identify the alkene.(ii) Write the chemical
equation of this reaction. (iii) Draw the geometrical isomeric forms of this alkene. [IMP 2023]
(i) 2-Butene ( But-2-ene) is the alkene
(ii) But-2-ene + Ozone → 2 Ethanal
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 ( Ethanal )
2-butene
O O
(iii)
14. Complete the following reactions : [MARCH 2023]

(i) C6H12 (Cyclohexane) (ii) CH3CH2CH2CH3 ( Butane)

15. Complete the following reactions : [IMP 2022]

(a) CH3CH3 (b) CH4

16. (i) What is the major product formed when HBr is added to propene ? [MARCH 2023]
(ii) Name the rule used to choose the major product and state the rule.
Ans: (i) 2- bromopropane is major product
(ii) Markownikkoff’s rule
It states that “ when unsymmetrical reagent is added to unsymmetric alkene, the negative part of the
addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
17. Complete the following reactions : [MARCH 2022]

Ans:

,
18. Phenol exhibit resonance. i) Draw the resonance structures of phenol. ii) Predict the directive influence of
–OH group in benzene ring. [MARCH2016]

– OH group is an ortho-para directing group, since in the resonating structures, the electron density is greater in
these positions.