forestry

JPPSC
STATE FOREST SERVICE
2 O24 - 25
Detailed Linkage of Infused with
Syllabus Based + Concepts with + Infographics &
study material PYQs Maps

Module - 1

◎ General Forestry ◎ Forest Regeneration

◎ Silviculture ◎ Forest Nursery
◎ Locality factors ◎ Vegetative propagation
◎ Tree crop morphology ◎ Plantation & Maintenance works
◎ Forest Succession ◎ Tending operations
◎ Forest types in India & in the Jharkhand ◎ Commercial Forestry
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SILVICULTURE
Paper – 1 | Section – A

EDITION : 2024 – 25
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 FORESTRY
SYLLABUS

Indian Forest General Silvicultural Principles : Ecological and physiological factors influencing
Service (IFoS) vegetation, natural and artificial regeneration of forests; methods of propagation,
[Paper 1 | Section A] grafting techniques; site factors; nursery and planting techniques. Nursery beds,
Jharkhand PSC polybags, and maintenance, water budgeting, grading and hardening of seedlings;
(ACF) Main 2024 special approaches; establishment and tending.

◈ Forests – definitions, role, benefits – direct and indirect. History of Forestry -

definitions, divisions and interrelationships. ◈ Classification of forests – High forests,
coppice forests, virgin forest and second growth forests, pure and mixed forests - even
and uneven aged stands. ◈ Forest types of India – Classification. Agroforestry –
Farm forestry, social forestry, [Covered in later sections – ◈ Joint Forest Management
concepts, programmes and objectives. Important ◈ Acts and Policies related to Indian forests.
◈ Global warming – forestry options for mitigation and adaptation - ◈ Carbon
Sequestration] ◈ Important events/dates related to forests and environment - Themes
and philosophy.

Silviculture General : ◈ General Silvicultural Principles; Ecological and

physiological factors influencing vegetation, ◈ Natural and artificial regeneration of
forests; ◈ Methods of propagation, grafting techniques; ◈ Site factors; ◈ Nursery
and planting techniques – Nursery beds, polybags, root trainers and maintenance,
Jharkhand PSC
grading and hardening of seedlings. ◈ Tending operations special approaches;
State Forest Service establishment and tending.
(RFO) Main Exam
Forest Soil, Soil Conservation : _____ ◈ Bio-fertilizers : Their importance. ◈
2024 Nitrogen fixation : Rhizobium-tree legume symbiosis, Frankia v/s Non-legume
[Paper 1] symbiosis, Asymbiotic and associative N2 fixation. Nitrification and denitrification in
forest ecosystems. ◈ Mycorrhizae : types, biology and importance with specific
relevance to tree crops and mobilization of phosphorus and micro-nutrients.
Rhizosphere and phyllo-sphere concept._____

Tree Improvement & Seed Technology : _____ ◈ Planning seed collection :

Collection of immature fruits – Methods of seed collection. ◈ Fruit and seed handling
: maintaining viability and identity – Special precautions for recalcitrant seeds. ◈ Seed
processing : Operations prior to extraction – Pre-cleaning; methods of extraction –
Operations after extraction – Cleaning, grading and Control of moisture level; Factors
affecting drying of orthodox seeds. ◈ Types of forest nursery, types of nursery beds,
preparation of beds, fumigation. ◈ Methods of seed sowing and mulching, seedling
growth and development, pricking, weeding, hoeing, rotation, organic matter
supplements and cover crops, mycorrhizae, fertilization, shading, pruning, root
culturing techniques, lifting windows, grading, packaging.

Remarks : ACF और RFO दोनों के पाठ् यक्रम एक ही हैं। हालाकां क, ACF पाठ् यक्रम सांकिप्त रूप में Present ककया गया है, जबकक RFO
पाठ् यक्रम किस्तृत Subtopics के साथ किकिन्न Subheadings के अतां गगत सगां कठत ककया गया है। सीधे सीधे बोल जाये तो आपको
पढ़ना एक ही Material है ।

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 FORESTRY

MODULE – 1

SN Chapter Page No
1. Forest, Forestry, and silviculture 1 – 16
2. Locality factors 17 – 23
3. Climatic factors 24 – 39
4. Edaphic factors 40 – 49
5. Physiographic factors 50 – 54
6. Biotic factors 55 – 58
7. Influence of forest on their environment 59 – 65
8. Tree's structure and growth forms 66 – 70
9. Crop morphology 71 – 78
10. Forest succession 79 – 87
11. Forest types in India 88 – 98
12. Natural regeneration 99 – 109
13. Artificial regeneration 110 – 115
14. Choice of species 116 – 122
15. Seed supply 123 – 134
16. Forest Nursery : How to raise and manage 135 – 147
17. Vegetative propagation 148 – 156
18. Sowing and planting 157 – 168
19. Maintenance of plantation 169 – 170
20. Tending operation 171 – 182
21. Plantation Forestry 183 – 188

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 FORESTRY
INDIAN FOREST SERVICE (IFoS) PYQs [2010 to 2024]

• What is Silvics? Explain its practical application. Discuss in brief the objects of study of
silviculture [Paper – 1/Q4 (b) | 15 M].
• What are Ecosystem Services? Differentiate between use values and non-use values. Explain
different methods of valuation of ecosystem services [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q7 (b) | 15 M].
• Differentiate amongst Radiation Frost, Pool Frost and Advective Frost. Give at least two
examples each for frost hardy, moderately hardy and frost tender tree species [Paper – 2/Q6
(c) | 10 M].
• Briefly summarize the characteristic features of cold arid forest vegetation. Discuss their
mechanism of Survival Under Extreme Cold temperatures [Linked Q : Paper – 1/Q1 (b) | 8 M].
2024
• Give four examples of tree species for each of the following methods by which their flowers
are pollinated [Paper – 1/Q1 (c) | 8 M].
(i) Anemophily
(ii) Zoophily
(iii) Entomophily
(iv) Hydrophily
• Enumerate the Standard Tree Classification adopted in Indian Forestry [Paper – 1/Q3 (c) | 10 M].
• "Pruning is an important Tending Operation in plantation forestry for the improvement of the
tree or its timber." Justify [Paper – 1/Q2 (c) | 10 M].

• What is Frost Hole? How does frost affect regeneration? [Paper – 1/Q1 (d) | 8 M].
• What are Biofertilizers? Enlist the factors associated with the Mycorrhizal Development in
trees. Discuss the types of mycorrhizae [15 M] [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q8 (a) | 15 M].
• Explain the following [Paper – 1/Q4 (c) | 15 M].
(i) Lignotuber
(ii) Root sucker
(iii) Vermiculite
(iv) Buttresses
(v) Ortet and Ramet
• The shoot portion of seedlings of some tree species like Sal and Sandal, under Natural
Regeneration, keeps on drying year after year but the roots remain alive. Discuss [Paper – 1/Q1
2023 (a) | 8 M].
• Write the factors which affect the Natural Regeneration of Sal (Shorea robusta). Discuss the
procedure to obtain natural regeneration of Moist Sal Forests [Paper – 1/Q2 (b) | 15 M].
• Discuss the significance of Exotics in tree improvement. Name four exotic tree species [Linked
Q | Paper – 1/Q5 (b) | 8 M].
• Write the botanical names of three tree species each of [Paper – 1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
(i) Non-coppicers,
(ii) Poor coppicers,
(iii) Good (fair) coppicers and
(iv) Strong coppicers.
• Describe the Seed Collection and Storage Methods of the following tree species [Paper – 1/Q2
(a) | 15 M].

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(i) Santalum album
(ii) Chukrasia tabularis
(iii) Cedrus deodara
(iv) Azadirachta indica
(v) Dalbergia latifolia
• Calculate the Quantity of Seeds (kg) required to establish a teak plantation over an area of 10
ha. [Paper – 1/Q1 (b) | 8 M].
• What is Deforestation? Discuss the impact of deforestation on the environment [Linked Q |
Paper – 1/Q6 (c) | 15 M].
• Explain the present status, scope and constraints of Biofuel Production in India. Write the
botanical names of five tree-borne oilseeds [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q8 (b) | 15 M].

• What is the Purpose of Classifying Forests? How are the forests classified for silvicultural
management? [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• How do Sacred Groves help in conservation of biodiversity? [Paper – 1/Q5 (b) | 8 M].
• What is Precision Silviculture? Explain the silvicultural techniques for the following [Paper –
1/Q3 (b) | 15 M].
(a) Dalbergia Sissoo,
(b) Eucalyptus tereticornis
• “Success of commercial forest plantations depends on Site-Specific and Strategic Planning”
Justify the statement [Paper – 2/Q1 (d) | 8 M].
• Describe the Adverse Climatic Factors causing damage to forests [Paper – 2/Q8 (b) | 15 M].
• Explain the Role of Mycorrhizae in plant growth and development of forest trees [10 M]
[Paper – 1/Q7 (b) | 10 M].
• What are Commensalism, Amensalism, Mutualism and Symbiosis? Write the function of an
ecosystem [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q8 (c) | 10 M].
• What are the Biotic and Abiotic Stresses on trees? Explain the responses of trees to these

2022 stresses [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q5 (a) | 8 M].

• Discuss the significance of Bamboo Flowering [Paper – 1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
• How are Nurseries Classified in India? What is a clonal nursery? Explain the nursery
technique for Casuarina equisetifolia [Paper – 1/Q3 (a) | 15 M].
• Explain the techniques for upgradation and Hardening of Nursery Seedlings of Lagerstroemia
lanceolata [Paper – 1/Q1 (d) | 8 M].
• What is Root : Shoot Cutting? Write the names of five tree species which are propagated by
this method [Paper – 1/Q4 (c) | 10 M].
• Explain the following – (iv) Enrichment Planting [Paper – 1/Q2 (c) iv | 2.5 M].
• Is coastal rehabilitation using mangrove species a success? Explain the Plantation Technique
for degraded mangrove forest [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q3 (c) | 10 M].
• Differentiate between Thinning Cycle and Thinning Intensity. Why is thinning essential for
the management of Forest Stand? Describe the merits and demerits of French thinning [15
M] [Paper – 1/Q4 (b) | 15 M].
• Explain the Salvage Operations for plantation trees after natural disasters [Linked Q | Paper –
2/Q6 (c) | 10 M].
• Explain the silvicultural practices that help in the Modification of Site Factors in forestry

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 FORESTRY
[Paper – 1/Q4 (a) | 15 M].

• How are Forest Sites Classified on the basis of vegetation? [Paper – 1/Q4 (c) | 10 M].
• What is Site Quality Index? How does it differ from fractional site quality? Explain any one
method used for developing site quality classes with the help of neat diagram [Paper – 2/Q3 (b)
| 15 M].
• Do the trees of same species have different response to Light Conditions at different ages?
[Paper – 1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
• What is the Role of Forest plantations in carbon sequestration? [Paper – 2/Q7 (c) | 10 M].
• What is meant by Climax in ecological succession? Give an example and describe types of
ecological succession [Paper – 2/Q5 (b) | 8 M].
2021 • What factors are considered important while Choosing a Species under Avenue Plantation?
[8 M] [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q1 (b) | 8 M].
• Are Non-Native Tree species an option or a threat in forest ecosystem / Plantation under
climate change? [Paper – 1/Q1 (d) | 8 M].
• Why is Grading operation of nursery seedlings essential for successful forest plantations? [10
M]. [Paper – 1/Q3 (c) | 10 M].
• What do you mean by Tending Operations? Enumerate various tending operations carried
out in forest crops. Discuss improvement felling [Paper – 1/Q3 (a) | 15 M].
• How does soil organic matter decomposition influence Forest Productivity? [Linked Q | Paper –
1/Q5 (d) | 8 M].

• Define Silviculture. Relate the applications of silvicultural to different branches of forestry

[Paper – 1/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Frost Resistance in trees depends on the internal and external factors. Explain [Paper – 1/Q1 (b) |
8 M].
• Write the adaptive characteristics of plant species of Cold Desert [Paper – 1/Q1 (d) | 8 M].
• How does Slope Aspect impact forest stand characteristics and soil properties? [Paper – 2/Q4 (c)
| 10 M].
• Describe the following terms [Paper – 1/Q2 (a) | 10 M].
(a) Dominant, (b) Dominated, (c) Crop height, (d) Top height, (e) Hardening
• What are the factors that affect a Stand Structure? Describe in brief the DBH distribution in

2020 even, uneven and multi-aged normal forest stands [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q2 (a) | 15 M].
• What are the structural and functional changes that occur in a forest ecosystem during
Succession? [Paper – 2/Q7 (b) | 15 M].
• Describe the methods of Artificial Regeneration of Tamarindus indica [Paper – 1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
• What are the different factors governing the successful introduction of an exotic tree species?
[Paper – 1/Q6 (c) | 10 M].
• What are Orthodox and Recalcitrant seeds? Give five examples for each of these categories of
seeds. [Paper – 1/Q8 (a) | 10 M].
• Write down the pre-sowing seed treatments for the following tree species [Linked Q | Paper –
1/Q3 (c) | 15 M].
• Define Afforestation. Discuss in brief the afforestation techniques, including the choice of
species, for ravine lands. [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q3 (a) | 10 M].

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(a) Tectona grandis,
(b) Santalum album,
(c) Dalbergia sissoo,
(d) Albizia lebbeck,
(e) Acacia nilotica.
• In India, large tracts of mixed even or uneven aged forests have been degraded due to biotic
interference. Suggest the method and measures to improve their condition and composition.
[Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q4 (a) | 10 M].

• Describe various physiological mechanisms underlying drought resistance, drought tolerance

and drought avoidance in forest species. [Paper – 2/Q6 (b) | 15 M].
• Draw a schematic diagram showing Altitudinal Zonation of forest vegetation [10 M]. [Paper –
1/Q4 (a) | 10 M].
• Write scientific names of four major tree species in each of southern Tropical Semi-evergreen
Forest and Northern Tropical Wet-Evergreen Forest [Paper – 1/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Discuss the factors which influence the choice between natural and artificial regeneration
2019
[Paper – 1/Q1 (d) | 8 M].
• Explain the Modern Nursery Techniques for the production of quality planting stock [Paper –
1/Q1 (c) | 8 M].
• What are the different types of Grafting? Explain 'Cleft Grafting' with neat sketches [Paper –
1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
• Explain different Grades of Thinning. Discuss in brief the thinning practices adopted for teak
plantations [Paper – 1/Q4 (b) | 15 M].

• Justify that the study of Silvics is essential for the successful afforestation program in India
[Paper – 1/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Discuss the physiology of Root Parasitism in Sandal tree [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
• Explain the Eco-Physiological Factors that are more concerned to the silviculturist [Paper –
1/Q2 (a) | 15 M].
• Write in detail about the Influence of Parent Rock in the distribution of tree species [8 M].
[Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q5 (c) | 8 M].
• What is Hydrology? Describe the role of hydrology in the planning and management of
watershed development. Do tree species improve the infiltration rate, soil temperature,
water level, and hydrological cycle? Justify with few examples [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q8 (a) | 10
2018
M].
• What is Succession and climax? Give the causes of forest succession [Paper – 2/Q6 (c) | 10 M].
• Write in brief on the criteria of selection of tree for resistance to adverse environments for
high-quality timber production [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q5 (a) | 8 M].
• Write the problem and prospects of Exotic tree species in India with suitable examples [Paper
– 1/Q3 (c) | 15 M].
• Explain Seed production and certification system in Indian forestry [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q6 (c) |
10 M].
• Enlist different types of Nurseries and write different types of nursery beds used in a nursery
[7.5 M] [Paper – 1/Q4 (c) (i) | 7.5 M].

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 FORESTRY
• Enlist different types of containers used in a forest nursery and explain different methods of
seed sowing followed in a nursery [Paper – 1/Q4 (c) (ii) | 7.5 M].
• What is a mother tree? How is a plant prepared through Vegetative Propagation different
from a plant raised through seed? [Paper – 1/Q3 (a) | 15 M].
• Explain different Kinds of Thinning and its application in the forest [Paper – 1/Q1 (b) | 8 M].

• Why Site-Specific Planning is essential for forest management? Explain different

Components of site-specific management. [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Regulation of Solar Radiation given a powerful tool to the forester justify. [Paper – 1/Q2 (d) |
10 M].
• Discuss in detail the kind of Soil Mycorrhizae and the benefits derived by plant from them.
[Paper – 1/Q5 (b) | 8 M].
• What is Sub-Climax? Explain its importance in the context of Indian forestry. [Paper – 1/Q4 (c)
| 10 M].
• Explain various types of Succession. Describe the major theories explaining succession. [Paper
– 1/Q8 (b) | 10 M].
• Define Succession. Explain different types of succession in details, citing suitable examples.
Discuss various theories of succession [Paper – 2/Q6 (a) | 15 M].
• Enlist four groups of Forest Types under the moist tropical forest as per the Champion and
Seth classification of forest types. [Paper – 1/Q1 (b) | 8 M].
• Explain the classification of forest types in India by Champion and Seth. Enlist major forest

2017 types and their group [Paper – 2/Q7 (c) | 10 M].

• Enlist the general rules governing the felling of bamboo in forests. What are the
consequences of Gregarious Flowering of bamboo? What special measures would you take in
the event of gregarious flowering? [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q3 (c) | 15 M].
• Give four examples of uses of Pollarding in Indian forestry. [Paper – 1/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation. What future do you
foresee for it in forestry? [Paper – 1/Q4 (d) | 10 M].
• Calculate the number of Seeds Required to raise a 20-hectare plantation with 4 m x 4 m spacing
and an extra plant in the centre of each square. Plant percent of the species is 75% [8 M]. [Paper
– 1/Q1 (e) | 8 M].
• Name the method of Thinning that best promotes genetic improvement of the regular stand
besides controlling density. Give reasons in support of your answer. [Paper – 1/Q1 (c) | 8 M].
• Describe the Effect of Thinning on volume increment [Paper – 2/Q2 (c) | 10 M].
• Some rural communities are opposed to Chir-pine and advocate removal of Chir-pine and its
replacement with broadleaved multipurpose trees. What is your reaction to this matter? [Paper
– 1/Q2 (c) | 10 M].

• How are the forests classified in India? Discuss its significance in forest management [Linked Q
| Paper – 2/Q1 (a) | 10 M].
• Comment on 'Forest has moderating influences on soil and air temperature' [Paper – 1/Q1 (b) |
2016
8 M].
• Explain the role of forests in environmental conservation. [Paper – 1/Q7 (a) | 10 M].
• Justify the statement “Forest substantially check soil erosion and control run-off”. [Paper –

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1/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Enumerate the classification of tropical dry deciduous forests given by Champion and Seth
(1964). Mention two species for each forest type. [Paper – 2/Q6 (d) | 10 M].
• Discuss the reasons for widespread use of Exotics for plantations and specific advantages of
exotics over native species [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q5 (e) | 8 M].
• Write the importance of soil organic matter in the forest. How is calculation of number of
seedlings carried under Line, square, Triangular, and Quincunx methods of planting? [Paper –
1/Q3 (a) | 20 M].
• Write in detail the term Girdling and Pruning. Write scientific names of five trees/Shrubs
each for the cold desert and mangrove forest. [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q4 (a) | 20 M].
• Describe the important objectives of thinning. Differentiating crown thinning from ordinary
thinning. Write grades of ordinary thinning [8 M]. [Paper – 1/Q1 (c) | 8 M].

• How can a forest with Shade Bearer and Light Demander tree species be managed under
uniform shelterwood system? [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q2 (c) | 10 M].
• Comment upon the adaptive and Survival Strategies of the plant species endemic to the cold
desert area of the Western Himalaya [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q4 (c) | 10 M].
• Explain How the Latitude influences the forest types of the earth [Paper – 1/Q4 (a) | 10 M].
• Can you differentiate between the terms mixed plantations in forestry and mixed cropping in
agriculture? Justify the differences between them. [Linked Q | Paper – 2/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
2015 • Comment upon the Dieback (dying back) phenomenon in Shorea robusta. Is it a problem or
an adaptation? [Paper – 1/Q1 (a) | 8 M].
• Describe the methods of Pre-sowing treatment of seeds for raising Nursery [Paper – 1/Q2 (b) |
10 M].
• Explain the term Hardening off. What are the internal factors affecting forest resistance?
[Paper – 1/Q3 (a) | 10 M].
• Explain the necessity of Grading of seedlings before plantation [Paper – 1/Q4 (d) | 10 M].

• Why does height of a tree consider a better criterion for a Site Selection than its diameter?
Discuss [5 M].
• How is Site Quality important in timber production? Discuss the methods used to measure
the site quality [Paper – 2 | 15 M].
• Explain the importance of soil and air Temperature on the growth of forest trees [10 M].
• Explain the importance of Snow in regeneration of Cedrus deodara [5 M].

• Explain the survival strategies of the following group of plants [20 M] - (a) Halophytes, (b)
2014 Phraetophytes, (c) Xerophytes, (d) Succulent.
• Difference b/w - (1) Ectomycorrhizae and Endomycorrhizae [4 M].
(2) Exogenous dormancy, and endogenous dormancy [4 M].
• Describe the characteristics and structure of an even-aged stand [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Mixed forest stand offers complete utilization of land, Comment [8 M].
• Give a short account on the management of uneven-aged forests [Linked Q | 8 M].
• What is Stand Density? How spacing is used to control stand density? Discuss [Paper – 2 | 15 M].
• Discuss in detail the evolution of the concept of Plant Succession [20 m].

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 FORESTRY
• Discuss the Natural Regeneration in Sal, give steps recommended for ensuring its successful
regeneration [8 M] (A typo : in the actual paper, it is written as "Soil" instead of "Sal" as
required)
• Do you think that the Controlled Fire is beneficial to forest vegetation? Discuss [Linked Q | 10 M].
• Explain why after Gregarious Flowering bamboo always die [8 M]
• Discuss in detail the objective of Artificial Regeneration [10 M].
• Explain the following – (a) Orthodox and Recalcitrant seeds [5 M].
(b) Elite thinning are often difficult to execute [5 M].
• Exotics have potential, do you agree or disagree. Justify your response [5 M].
• Comments on the statement that “Vegetative Propagation is a dead end of breeding” [10 M]
• What do you mean by Plantation Schedule? give in detail the factors which decide the
success of plantation program [10 M]

• Based on objectives, what are the different Classifications of the Forestry? [10 M].
• What are the main contributions of Dr. D. Brandis in Indian forestry? Enumerate the various
stages of working plan. What is the role of silvicultural system in the working plans? [Linked Q
| Paper – 2 | 8 M].
• Write critical notes on any four of the following – (i) Plants of Sacred Groves with two
Examples well-known in the country [Paper – 2 | 2.5 M].
• What are the sources and nature of elements considered as Essential Plant Nutrients? [10 M].
• Discuss the mechanism of Drought Resistance, Drought Tolerance, and Drought Avoidance in
plants [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Write a note on 'role of Micro-Organism and Rhizobium in amelioration of forest soils [10 M].
• Configuration of the Land Surface has an impact on local climatic conditions and wind
movement, which in turn have a bearing on forest." Comment [8 M].
• Willow is the life line in dry temperate region (Lahaul-Spiti) but its large-scale drying is
causing great concern. Give your viewpoints [Paper – 2 | 8 M].
• Explain the evolution of the concept of Plant Succession [8 M].
2013 • Describe the different theories of Climax. Name different types of climax (plant community)
that are observed. [Paper – 2 | 8 M].
• Describe flora and distribution of group: Type 14/C2 East Himalayan sub-alpine birch fir
forests [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Large-scale Mortality has been noticed in Dalbergia sissoo and Acacia nilotica. What could be
the possible reasons for this mortality? [10 M].
• Explain various factors affecting the choice between Artificial and Natural regeneration with
reasoning [10 M].
• Enumerate the factors which decide the Choice of Species for plantation [8 M].
• Write about species diversity and Centre of Origin of Willows (Salix species). Describe its
various uses under short rotation forestry. [Paper – 2 | 8 M].
• Describe the operational use of Vegetative Propagation in tree improvement [10 M].
• Explain the role of Thinning in forestry. What are the different methods of
thinning followed in regular crops? Discuss in detail crown thinning [20 M].
• What are the traditional practices and recent advances in tropical silvicultural research? [10 M].

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 FORESTRY
• Comment critically on the following (Each in about 75 Words) :–
(a) Failure of forest plantations [5 M].
(b) Recycling of nutrients in Natural Forest [5 M].
(c) Successful regeneration in a forest depends upon silvicultural system [Linked Q | 5 M].
(d) Basis of forest classification and why there is a need for such classification [5 M].
(e) How snow affects the forest vegetation? [5 M]
(f) Importance of Plant Succession in Forestry practices [5 M].
(g) Reasons of dying Dalbergia sissoo [5 M].
• Discuss in detail the Protective Role of national forests in India [10 M].
• Describe the altitudinal variations in flora of Eastern and Western Himalayas through a
schematic diagram [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Differentiate between – (1) Growth and development of trees, (2) Ectomycorhizae and
Endomycorrizae [5 × 2 = 10 M].
• Explain with the help of suitable examples the various kinds of Population Interactions during
their growth period and give difference between Commensalism and Amensalism of plant
2012 relationship [Linked Q | Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Discuss the Role of Forest in interception, surface runoff, Infiltration of rainfall, regulation of
stem flow, and maintaining Soil fertility [5 M].
• Do forests influence the rainfall? If so, how? [75 Words | 5 M].
• Briefly discuss the - Canopy Architecture in forestry [5 M].
• List the pioneer’s flora of sand dunes under – (i) on dunes, (ii) Spread out sand, and (iii)
Stabilized dunes [Linked Q | Paper – 2 | 8 M].
• Describe flora and distribution of Group : 16 C1 of Champion & Seth's Forest Type [Paper – 2 | 8M]
• Gregarious Flowering is an indicator of drought in the area.' Do you agree with this
statement? [4 M].
• Differentiate clearly between Natural and Artificial Regeneration of forest. Describe the
manner in which natural regeneration of Teak, Sal and Deodars takes places [4+4+4+4 = 16 M].
• What are the ecological aspects for Selecting the tree species? Discuss [8 M].
• Write Short notes on – Exotics in Indian Forestry [5 M].
• Highlight the salient features of – (1) Aerial Seeding (2) Stump Planting [2 × 3 = 6 M].
• What are the major ecological consideration in Afforestation [[75 Words | 5 M].

• Give Legal Definition of Forests in India. Write about the major groups of forest types of
India. [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Describe the tangible and intangible Benefits of Forests [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Write Short Notes on – (ii) Sacred Groves [2 ¼ M]
• Why are Locality Factors considered important for any silvicultural operation? [10 M].
2011 • Explain “Adiabatic Lapse Rate” [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Define Micro-Climate giving suitable examples [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Differentiate between Ectomycorrhizae and Endomycorrhizae with respect to structure and
function [10 M].
• Compare Nutrient Cycling in a natural forest, an agroforestry system and an agricultural
field. Discuss how it helps to sustain soil fertility. [Linked Q | 10 M].

© Hornbill classes +91 78802 71423 [email protected] xi

 FORESTRY
• Describe the initial causes of Secondary Succession. Write various seral stages of succession
leading to the development of Shorea robusta forests [Paper – 2 | 10 M].
• Define a Forest Type. Discuss the different forest types found along with tidal swamp forests
with their species composition. Give a note on how Rhizophora racemosa is managed in the
mangrove forest of Sundarbans. [Linked Q | 3 + 12 + 5 = 20 M].
• Explain the Role of Fire in the silviculture of Shorea robusta [10 M].
• Differentiate between [5 × 2 = 10 M].
(a) Exogenous Dormancy and endogenous dormancy
(b) Artificial regeneration and Natural Regeneration
• Explain the following points in relation to Nursery Management – (1) Site selection and
layout, (2) Soil working, (3) Methods of raising nursery stock, (4) Plant protection measures,
(5) Nursery Register. [4 × 5 = 20 M].
• How do we calculate the Seed Requirement of a species while raising nursery? Also explain
the method of calculating the number of plants required per hectare for plantation [10 M].

• Why do forest Plantations Fail? cite relevant examples. [Paper – 1/Q1 (a) | 5 M].
• What are the different Types of Containers used in raising forest nurseries? List their
advantages and disadvantages. [Paper – 1/Q1 (c) | 5 M].
• Explain the role of Growth Regulators in rooting of cuttings. [Paper – 1/Q1 (e) | 5 M].
• Briefly discuss Low-Temperature Injuries in forest trees. [Paper – 1/Q1 (g) | 5 M].
• Briefly describe the merits and demerits of 'High Density Short Rotation' forestry. Enlist
suitable species in this regard along with their productivity potential. [Paper – 1/Q2 (a) | 10 M].
• What do you understand by the term Locality Factors? How these affect the decision of
plantations undertaken by the silviculturist? [Paper – 1/Q2 (b) | 10 M].
• Why is Lai important in deciding the productivity of forest trees? Explain the concept of
optimum LAI and how it varies with the type of forest and climate. [Paper – 1/Q2 (c) | 10 M].
• Differentiate between the – (ii) Photosynthetic efficiency and Nutrient use efficiency (iii) Site
Quality and Site Index, (v) Gregarious Flowering and sporadic flowering in bamboo. [Paper –
1/Q3 (a) | 4× 3 = 12 M].
2010
• Comment on following – (a) Pure stand of forest result incomplete utilization of the site, (b)
Plantation forestry has high production potential but low conservation value [5 × 2 = 10 M].
• Distinguish between "Tending operations" and "Cultural operations" in forestry. [Paper – 1/Q4
(c) | 10 M]
• Write short notes on – (a) Canopy architecture, (b) Radiation absorption and energy balance
in forest, (c) Seed coating and pelleting, (d) Nutrient cycling in natural forest [5 × 4 = 20 M].
• Write on tree species for smoke and dust pollution control. [Linked Q | Paper – 1/Q7 (c) (i) | 5 M].
• Mention 10 species (Scientific name) of trees tolerant to salinity [Linked Q | 10 M].
• What morphological, Anatomical, and physiological features are suited in Xerophytic Plants.
[Paper – 2/Q6 (a) | 10 M].
• What are Live Fences? Name five plant species most commonly used as live fences. How do
these differ from other types of fences? [Paper – 2/Q6 (c) | 10 M].
• How are Ectomycorrhizal fungi beneficial in managing soil borne diseases of forest nurseries
? Give examples. [Paper – 2/Q7 (a) | 10 M].

xii JPSC | 2024-25 +91 72239 70423 Hornbillclasses.com

 CHAPTER FOREST FORESTRY
1 & SILVICULTURE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter Outline
The term Forest has its roots in early medieval European society. The
increasing population and the rise of new kingdoms and serfdoms,
1.1 Forest
based on the heavy exploitation of natural resources, caused a severe
1.2 Forest Classification
loss of natural vegetation (that we called in India - Jungles) to meet
1.3 Forestry
their increasing demands for food, fodder, fuel, and timber. The
1.4 Silviculture
shrinking areas of natural vegetation created a shortage of fuelwood
1.5 Role of Forest
and timber in their ruling regions. As a result, they began designating
1.6 Forestry development
parts of the land, usually unproductive and located at the boundaries of
through ages
village territories, for growing tree crops, which became known as
1.7 Important terminology
Woodlands or Forests, to produce the required resources.
Silvology
 Forest term derived from a latin word foris which means outside Sacred Groves
of village boundary. Precision Silviculture
1.8 Exercise

Figure 1.1 : A medieval European village

► DEFINITION

– Forest is an area set aside for the production of timber

and other forest produce or to get other indirect benefits
from it [Technical definition].
 FORESTRY
– Forest is an uncultivated land occupied by natural vegetation with a closed or partially closed
canopy, which provides shelter to the wildlife [Ecological definition].

– Forest is any land area that has been declared as a 'forest' under any central or state, or local
laws (i.e., by Tribal council) [Legal definition]

1.2 FOREST CLASSIFICATION

Forests are classified into various categories to –

• Provide a standardized system for identifying, describing , and mapping different types of forests based
on their characteristics, such as tree species composition, canopy structure, and ecological function. This
information can be used in decision making process related with conservation, management,
administration, research, land-use planning and
record-keeping. Previous year Questions
• Identifying the areas of high biodiversity or
ecological significance for conservation and IFoS 2022 : What is the purpose of classifying
forests ? How are the forests classified for
sustainable management.
silvicultural management? (8 m)
• Developing sustainable management plans : By
IFoS 2012 : Basis of forest classification and why there
understanding the characteristics of different forest
is need for such classification (5 m).
types, managers can develop plans that are tailored
What are the bases for the classification of
to the specific needs of the forest ecosystem.
forests? Why there is need of their
Forest may be classified on the basis of – classification? Write the type groups of
tropical forests and their distribution and
[A] Age
species of the area [OPSC ACF 2019-20 | 20 m].
[B] Regeneration
What are the objectives of forest
[C] Composition
classification ? Classify forests on the basis of
[D] Ownership
different criteria used with definition of each
[E] Function class [Arunachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017-18 | 20 m].
[F] Legality
Write down the classification of forests on
[G] Growing stock
the basis of age, regeneration, composition and
[H] Density of Forest cover growing stock [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020-21 | 10 m]
[I] Ecological or Ecosystem-based
Discuss classification of forests based on age,

► FOREST TYPES, BASED ON AGE composition, object of management, ownership

and legal status [OPSC Civil (Main) 2016 | 20 m].
• Even Aged or Regular Forest : a forest (stand)
consisting of trees of approximately the same age. For management point of view, differences up to
25 % of the rotation age may be allowed in the case where a stand is not harvested for 100 or
more years. While Nature never produced even-aged forest, but man can through plantation works,
i.e., Nilambur teak plantation (1842). [in short, an actual even-aged forest must be a man-made
forest].

• Un-Even Aged or Irregular Forest : Forest stand consisting of trees of all ages. The range of difference
is usually more than 20 years and, in the case of long rotation crops, more than 25 % of rotation age. A

2 IFoS | 2024 07223970423 [email protected]

 FORESTRY
natural forest shows this composition, i.e., the Satpura forest.

► METHOD OF REGENERATION

• High Forest : A forest with a closed or partially closed canopy regenerated by seeds. It is also known as
a “Seedling Forest”
• Coppice Forest : A forest regenerated by some vegetative methods like coppice, root suckers, ratoons,
etc., is called a coppice forest. It is also known as a “Low Forest”

It can also be classified as

Virgin Forest .
• Natural Forest : When regeneration is obtained by natural A natural forest in its natural state
means, i.e., virgin Forest (without any human intervention)

• Man-Made Forest or Plantation : When regeneration

obtains by Artificial means. Differentiate between - High Forest
and Coppice Forest [Himachal PSC
► COMPOSITION OF FOREST VEGETATION (FLORISTIC Civil (Main) 2015 |5 m]
COMPOSITION) Write short notes - (a) High Forest
(b) Low Forest [Uttarakhand PSC
• Pure Forest : A forest composed of almost entirely by one (RFO) 2012 | 20 m].
species, or at least not less than 80 %. It is also called a
Pure crop.
• Mixed Forest : A forest composed of trees of two or more species intermingled in the same canopy.
Mixed forests may be further divided into -

 Principal species – (a) The species first in importance in a mixed stand, either by frequency,
volume, or silvicultural value. (b) The species to which the silviculture of a mixed forest is
primarily directed.
 Accessory species – a useful species of less value than the principal species, which assists in the
growth of later.
 Auxiliary species – A species of inferior quality or size, of relatively little silvicultural value or
importance [syn. Secondary species, Subsidiary species].

► CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OWNERSHIP

• Govt Owned Forest : Forest owned and managed by the state. 96 % forest area of India comes under
this category.
• Communal Forest : A forest owned and managed by a community such as a village, tribal authority, or
local government for their wellbeing [syn. Community forest].
• Private Forest : A forest owned and managed by industry, i.e., BILT paper mill.
• Panchayat Forest : forest whose management is vested in a village panchayat for administration and
management purposes, i.e., Lalwan community reserve, Punjab.

► CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTION OR OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT

• National Forest Policy (1952) : classified forests into four categories based on their purpose of
management, i.e., Protection forest, National forest, Village forest, and Tree land.

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 FORESTRY
• Similarly, National
Commission on Agriculture NCA Report 1976
(1976) : also classified Indian
forests into three groups, i.e., 1 2 3
Protection Forest Production Forest Social Forest
Protection forest, Production
forest, and social forest.
Valuable Forest Inaccessible Forest
► CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
LEGALITY OR STATUTORY : An Mixed quality Forest

area is declared a Forest under

either Indian Forest Act (IFA) 1927 or any other state / local community law. Under the Indian forest act
1927, the forest could be classified as -

• Reserved Forest : An area declared as a reserve forest under "Chapter II" of the Indian forest Act
1927 for providing complete protection.
• Village Forest : A state forest assigned to a village community under "Chapter III" of IFA-1927 to
supply forest products to a village without disintegrating its sustainability.
• Protected Forest : Forest Area subject to a limited degree of protection, exercises control on felling
and transport of timber, and removal of forest produce in whatever form it may be. Declared under
"Chapter IV" of IFA.
• Un-Classes Forest : Forest land owned by Govt.

 Two more categories were created in 2002 through the Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act – 2002, by
adding Section 36A for declaring conservation reserve and Section 36C for community reserve.

Conservation Reserve : Protected areas typically act as buffer zones or migration corridors between
established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and reserved forests. Such areas are designated as
conservation areas if it is uninhabited and entirely owned by the Government but used for subsistence by
communities, i.e., Ropar Wetland Conservation Reserve. If part of such an area is privately owned, then we
call it a community reserve, i.e., Lalwan community reserve in Punjab.

Objective : to extend the protection around the existing or proposed protected areas due to private
ownership of land and land use.

► BASED ON GROWING STOCK (GS), THE FORESTS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO

• Normal or Ideal Forest : a forest which, for a given site and given objects of management, is showing
the trinity of norms - (1) Normal series of age class distribution, (2) Normal growing stock, and (3)
Normal increment, and of which the annual or periodic removal of produces equal to its increment,
so it can be continued without endangering future yield.

• Abnormal Forest : A forest which does not show this trinity of norms.

► FOREST COVER DENSITY

• Very Dense Forest : All lands with tree canopy density of 70% and above.

4 IFoS | 2024 07223970423 [email protected]

 FORESTRY
• Moderately Dense Forest : All lands with
tree canopy density of 40% and more but
less than 70%
• Open Forest : All lands with tree canopy
density of 10% and more but less than 40%.
• Scrub : Degraded forest lands with canopy
density of less than 10%.
• No-forest : Lands not included in any of the
above classes

► GEOGRAPHICAL or CLIMATIC / ECOLOGICAL BASIS : Given by Champion & Seth*** in 1968***. They divide
the Indian forest into five major groups that are further divided into 16 types*** or Groups.

Major Group 1 : TROPICAL forest -

• Group 1 : Tropical wet evergreen forest
• Group 2 : Tropical semi-evergreen forest
• Group 3 : Tropical moist deciduous forest IFoS 2011 : Give the legal definition of
• Group 4 : Tropical littoral and swamp forest forests in India. Write about the major

• Group 5 : Tropical Dry deciduous forest groups of forest types in India (10 m)

• Group 6 : Tropical Thorn forest

What are the important forest types
• Group 7 : Tropical Dry evergreen forest
of India [Arunachal PSC Civil (Mains)
Major Group 2 : Mountain SUBTROPICAL Forests 2017-18 | 4 m].

• Group 8 : Mt. subtropical broad leaves hill forest

• Group 9 : Mt. Subtropical Pine forest Forest v/s Jungle .
• Group 10 : Mt. Subtropical Dry evergreen forest A forest is a man-managed wooded area
while a jungle is a natural woodland without
Major Group 3 : Mountain Temperate Forests :
human intervention.
• Group 11 : Mountain wet temperate forest
• Group 12 : Mountain Moist temperate forest
• Group 13 : Mountain Dry temperate forest

Major Group 4 : SUB-ALPINE forests : Group 14 : Sub-alpine forests

Major Group 5 : ALPINE Forests :

No need to worry, we will discuss all of them one by
• Group 15 : Moist Alpine forest
one in the chapter 11 – Forest types in India.
• Group 16 : Dry Alpine forest

1.3 FORESTRY

Forestry is an applied science, business, art, and practice of purposefully organizing, managing, protecting, and
using forests and their resources for human benefit.

Definition : The theory and practice of all that constitute the creation, conservation, and scientific
management of forests and utilization of their resources.

© Hornbill classes 07223970423 Hornbillclasses.com 5

 FORESTRY
COLONIAL RULE

1806 : Captain Watson was appointed as the first Conservator of forests by Govt. of Madras. His duties
were to preserve and improve the production of teak and other timber suitable for shipbuilding.
Watson's appointment and his works in this region (Malabar and Travancore) almost monopolized the
production of wood, which enabled the Government to extract cheap timber in large quantities up to
1823, when this conservatorship was abolished after the recommendation of Thomas Munro.

1842 : After receiving directions from the Court of Directors, the Madras Government initiated the Nilambur
Teak plantation work through Conolly, the then Collector of Malabar. Conolly was authorized to
appoint a sub-conservator of the forest to work under his supervision with a salary of ₹150 per month.
This was the first step towards re-establishing the conservatorship, which had been abolished some
years prior. Chathu Menon was appointed as the sub-conservator in 1844 and devised the method of
pre-sowing seed treatments and planting saplings, which is largely followed with slight modifications
even today.
 To pay tribute, the plantation area is known as Connolly's Plot.

1843 : Campbell introduced Eucalyptus pinata at Wellington (Madras). This marked the start of plantation
forestry in India.
1856 : Cleghorn was appointed as the first regular Conservator of Forests. Initiate Udhagamandalam or
Otacamund Eucalyptus plantation.

1855 : Lord Dalhousie's charter on forest issued in 1855 initiated the management of forest by the state on
scientific lines as per sustained yield principle, marking the beginning of forest conservation in India.

Why ? Issues ?

o Private timber trade led to the over-exploitation of certain forest areas in India, causing soil
erosion, climate change, and water shortages.

o Loss of long-term economic benefits : Young trees, only two to four feet in girth, were
harvested in lowlands, disrupting the natural seedling process provided by older trees. This
wasteful practice reduced future yields significantly to gain immediate profit, with no regard for
the forest or future revenue.

1864 : The then governor-general John Lawrence created the Indian Forest Department and appointed
Dietrich Brandis as its Inspector General for Forests (1st IGF). This marks the beginning of scientific
forestry in India [1st April 1864 to 1881]
History of forestry in India from
o German by Birth
1800 to 1864 and role of Dr. D.
o Also known as Father of Tropical forestry and Father Brandis [IGNFA Probation 2012–14]
of Indian Forestry.
o Books : The forest flora of North-west and Central India (1874), Forest Entomology (1882), Indian
trees (1906).
Other Works

– Indian Forest Act 1965, and its updates 1878.

12 IFoS | 2024 07223970423 [email protected]

 LOCALITY FACTORS
CHAPTER

2.1 LOCALITY FACTORS

Chapter Outline
SITE or LOCATION is an area where you want to carry out plantation or
management work.
2.1 Locality Factors
2.2 Why are these factors
important?
2.3 Site Quality
Quality classification
Site quality Index
Site index curve
2.4 Importance of Site
Quality
SITE FACTORS
2.5 PYQs
The sum of all effective climatic, edaphic, topographic, and biotic
conditions of a particular area under which a plant community lives.
This means, Site factors are all biotic and abiotic factors of an area that
interact and influence vegetation occurrence, distribution, and growth.

⩥ Site factors are also known as locality factors or habitat factors.

These factors are –

IFoS 2018 : Explain the Eco-physiological factors
1. Climatic factors : Solar radiation, rainfall, Wind that are more concerned to Silviculturist (15 m).
speed, air temperature, etc. IFoS 2011 : Why are locality factors considered
2. Edaphic factors : Soil organic matter, soil texture, important for any silvicultural operation? (10 m).
soil structure, mycorrhiza, waterlogging, salinity, IFoS 2010 : What do you understand by the term
etc. locality factors ? how these affect the decision of
plantations undertaking by the Silviculturist ? (10 m).
3. Topographic or Physiographic factors : Mountains
arrangement, Altitude, latitude, slope, aspects,
exposure, etc. Define the term locality factors. How do these

4. Biotic factors : insects/pests attacks, invasion of factors affect the decision of plantation
undertaken by a forester [Mizoram PSC Civil
exotics, grazing and browsing by wild and
(mains) 2018 | 10 m]
domestic animals, Human interference.
What are all the biotic and abiotic factors,
responsible for tree/forest growth? Discuss
[Himachal PSC ACF (Main) 2017| 15 m]
 CLIMATIC FACTORS
CHAPTER

Climate is the average weather prevalent in any locality that

influences our forest vegetation, i.e., light, atmospheric Chapter Outline
temperature, pressure & humidity, wind, etc.
3.1 Solar radiation
Importance
Light Increment
Species behaviour toward
light
Humidity + Moisture
Solar Radiation 2 3.2 Temperature
1
Importance of
Temperature
Types of Frost; Frost
resistance & Species
4
Temperature behaviour
3 Snow, its beneficial &
Wind harmful effects
s 3.3 Wind
Figure 3.1 : Climatic factors
Beneficial & harmful

3.1 SOLAR RADIATION effects

3.4 Moisture
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for photosynthesis. Types of precipitation
Factors such as quality, intensity, and duration of light affect the Source of Moisture
vegetation or indirectly the entire forest ecosystem. Importance of water
Water-logging / Flood
IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR RADIATION
Drought
Plants depend upon solar radiation not only to synthesize food but also Water tapper, Saver and

to regulate many other metabolic reactions. Such as – Storer plants

3.5 PYQs/Exercise
▪ Essential for basic metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis,
transpiration, and opening & closing of the photoactive stomata.
▪ Light is essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll molecules. The
absence of light for more prolonged periods results in the
degeneration of Chlorophyll molecules, and leaves become yellow;
this phenomenon is called Etiolation.
▪ Intense light increases the transpiration rate, which leads to
 FORESTRY
• By planting infected plants & roots in a site/nursery bed.
• By fungal Spores, sporocarp, fruiting bodies (called 'puff balls') and mycelium.
• Infected soil and humus inoculation – The simplest and most common method of mycorrhizal inoculation,
where we collect infected soil from a previously infected area and spread it to a new site.

4.3 BIO-FERTILIZERS

Fertilizers are organic or inorganic materials of natural or synthetic origin that are added to the soil to supply
certain elements essential to the growth of plants. Biofertilizers or Microbial inoculants - are the artificially
developed culture of useful microorganisms of soil and plant origin, which inoculants to the roots of seedling
nursery beds or plantation sites, i.e., Rhizobium.
IFoS 2023 : What are biofertilizers ? Enlist the
Way of Application : (a) Seed inoculants - 20 grams of factors associated with the mycorrhizal development
Rhizobium culture required to treat 1 kg seed. (b) Soil in trees. Discuss the types of mycorrhizae [15 M]
inoculants - 2 kg/hectare of carrier-based Azotobacter & IFoS 2013 : write a note on the ‘role of
Azospirillum culture mixed with 25 kg of FYM and 25 kg microorganism and rhizobium in amelioration

of soil and broadcasted in the nursery beds uniformly of forest soils (10 ).

before transplanting work. IFoS 2009 : Describe the role of micro-organism in

ameliorating soil (10 m) [Repeated, UKPSC (ACF)
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOFERTILIZERS 2018 | 20 m].

Potassium Solubilizing
Biofertilizers
Mycorrhizal Zink Solubilizing
Bio-fertilizers Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers

Nitrogen fixing Phosphate dissolving

Biofertilizers and mineralizing Biofertilizer

Fungi i.e. Fusarium

Symbiotic Non-Symbiotic & Mycorrhiza
(Nodule forming) (free living)
Bactria i.e. Bacillus
1 Megaterium
In Legumes, i.e.,
Rhizobium (Bacteria)
Free-living Aerobic bacteria i.e.
2 Azotobacter, Azospirillum
In Casuarina & Alnus, (Bacteria) in Cereals.
i.e., Frankia (Bacteria)

3 Free living non-aerobic bacteria

In Azolla leaves [Pteridophytes], i.e. clostridium (Bacteria)
i.e., Anabaena azollae (BGA)

4 Oscillatoria (Cyanobacteria)
In Cycas coralloid roots,
i.e., Nostoc (BGA)

44 IFoS | 2024 07223970423 [email protected]

 CHAPTER TREE’S STRUCTURE &
9 GROWTH FORMS

Morphology means the science of form, especially studying the

outer form (structure), inner structure, and development of their Chapter Outline
parts. Crop morphology means studying the outer form of forest
crops and their development. 9.1 Stand?
9.2 Stand structure
Stand Forms
Stand composition
9.3 Stand density
9.4 Stand Crown
classification

9.1 STAND ?

The stand concept has long been central to the practice of

Silviculture and has traditionally been defined as a group of trees
that are relatively homogenous in composition, age-class
distribution, and structure growing on a site of uniform quality.
Stands, as defined in this context, have served as the primary unit of
forest management around the globe with the stand-by-stand
application of silvicultural treatments for achieving a sustainable
yield of produce.

Stand v/s Forest

A forest is a collection of stands. Remember that a stand is a unit of

silvicultural interest. Forester’s practice silvicultural operations on
stands, but not on forests. It is not an ecological management unit.

9.2 STAND STRUCTURE

Stand Structure refers to the overall look of a forest stand. It is the

horizontal and vertical distribution of components of a stand,
including the height, diameter, crown layers and stems of trees,
 FOREST TYPES
CHAPTER

11

The forest type is a forest category defined with reference to its

Chapter Outline
geographic allocation, climatic and edaphic features,
composition, and condition. Champion and Seth defined it as 'A
unit of vegetation which possesses (broad) characteristics in
physiognomy structure sufficiently pronounced to permit its
differentiation from other such units.

⩥ Definition : Forest type is the categorization of forest Sclerophyll is a type of

vegetation with particular reference to their physiognomic vegetation that is adapted to
characters, structures, geographical allocation, and specific long periods of dryness and
edapho-climatic conditions; that permit us to differentiate heat.
this vegetation.

⩥ NEEDS OF SUCH CLASSIFICATION?

With only 2.4% of the world's land area, India accounts for 7
IFoS 2016 : How are the forest classified in
% of the world's recorded species. This tremendous
India ? Discuss its significance in forest
biodiversity and ecosystems with extensive geographical and management (10 m).
local variations creating issues during conservation,
IFoS 2012 : Comment critically on – The
management, and understanding the mechanism and Basis of forest classification and why there
dynamics of the natural ecosystem, especially with the is need for such classification (5).
emerging challenge of climate change.

o It helps us understand our forest, its composition, and How are the forest types defined?
Which factors limit the distribution of
species-specific variations to comprehend species
forest types in terrestrial environment
dynamics with changing environment and forest ? What are the objectives of classifying
management. the forest types? Name the four forest
types occurring in Gujarat [GPSC RFO
o It helps to understand how climatic, edaphic,
(Main) 2020-21 | 10m]
topographic, and biotic factors affect forest vegetation;
What are the bases for the
and how they are responsible for its distribution,
classification of forests? Why is there
composition, and complexity of our forest ecosystem. need for their classification? Write the
o Our 10.8 % tribal population lives in these areas. We type groups of tropical forests and give
depend upon it for food, fodder, medicinal plants, water their distribution and the species of the
area [OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].
resources, and cultural values. That directly or indirectly
play a role at the grass-root level.
 CHAPTER NATURAL
12
REGENERATION

WHAT IS REGENERATION ?
Regeneration or reproduction is an act of replacing the old crop with Chapter Outline
younger ones, either naturally or artificially is called regeneration or
reproduction. What is Regeneration?
TYPES ? NR
AR
▪ Natural regeneration : by nature.
Natural regeneration by
▪ Artificial regeneration : when humans were involved in its
Seed
propagation. Coppice
Root Sucker
Pollarding

Figure 12.1 : Types of natural regeneration.

NATURAL REGENERATION

Definition : Natural regeneration is the renewal of a forest crop by

means of the natural process of seed sowing, germination, and
establishment or by coppice shoots or root suckers.

However, the new crop derived by natural regeneration also

required some suitable conditions of soil, climate, host plants, and
topography. Natural regeneration is often not left to nature, but it is
induced by creating a suitable environment. The various measures
taken to induce natural regeneration may be - (a) cutting some
matured trees to allow more light to penetrate, (b) coppicing of
seedlings or trees, (c) Closing the area to prevent fire and biotic
interference and (d) trenching for getting root suckers, etc.
 SEED SUPPLY
CHAPTER

15

WHY WE REQUIRE SEED SUPPLY ?

• Our forests were already experiencing very heavy biotic pressure
Chapter Outline
and other stresses, now climate change & global warming
further stressing them. The result? Most of our natural forests 15.2 Seed

now start failing to regenerate naturally. Therefore, if we want 15.3 Seed collection

to sustain our forests or our ecosystem, we have to artificially Requirements ?

Collection methods
supplement them through nursery-raised plantations. (Can you
Time
recall the issue of Cardinal temperature that we learned in
15.4 Seed Processing
chapter 5).
15.5 Seed Storage
• Restoration of wasteland, abandoned mines, industrial dumping
Orthodox v/s Recalci
grounds, etc., require artificially raised planting material.
Types of storage
• Our commitment to the INDC (under the Paris Agreement) to
15.6 Seed treatment
the creation of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of additional CO 2 sinks by
Seed dormancy
2030. Apart from this, we further commit to restoring our 26 Seed dressing
million hectares of degraded land by 2030 under UNCCD (2019, 15.7 Seed Testing
Greater Noida). Purity test
• Artificial plantation requirements under – CAMPA, National Germination test
Green Highway Project, raising Industrial demands of timber, Viability test
pulp & papers. Moisture content
15.8 Exercise
STEPS (A review of this chapter)

Figure 15.1 : basic

steps in the seed
collection process
 FOREST NURSERY
CHAPTER

16

A Forest nursery is an area where plants are growing for

transplanting for use as stocks for vegetative reproduction (i.e.,
Chapter Outline
budding, grafting).
16.1 Requirements of
Seedlings are young plants obtained from seed sowing.
nursery
These young plants can be about one meter in height. Transplants
16.2 Types of Nurseries
are seedlings that have transferred from one bed to another to make
16.3 Establishment of a
the seedlings suitable for planting. Seedlings, transplants, and other
permanent nursery
planting material, i.e., rooted cuttings etc., together are generally
16.4 Seed bed or Nursery
called planting stock.
bed
16.1 REQUIREMENTS OF NURSERY? 16.5 Planting stock
Artificial regeneration of forests and afforestation of wastelands is 16.6 Use of Containers for
carried out either by sowing seeds directly in the field or/and raising seedlings
planting nursery-raised seedlings, stumps, cuttings, etc. The easiest 16.7 Stump preparation
and cheapest method of artificial regeneration of forests and 16.8 Grading of planting
afforestation of wastelands is to sow the seeds of desired species material
directly in the field and tend them to grow after the seeds have 16.9 Nursery Journal
germinated. Artificial regeneration by seed sowing has not shown 16.10 Nursery Callender
the desired results in the case of several species due to several 16.11 Nursery register
problems. Planting of Nursery-raised seedlings, stumps, cuttings, 16.12 Exercise
rhizomes, etc., offers several advantages over seed sowing. These
advantages are as follows

• Several species are initially slow-grown. If seeds of these

species are sown in the field, the seedlings are most likely to be
swamped by weeds and killed by intense competition. The
nursery-raised seedlings are better equipped to compete with
weeds and tolerate adverse site factors, therefore, better
success is ensured in planting nursery-raised seedlings.
• Several species do not seed every year and produce good
quality seeds during a good seed year only. So, we can produce
seedlings in the Nursery by collecting seeds through the years.
• Several species, when grown by direct sowing, are not
 CHAPTER VEGETATIVE
17
PROPAGATION

A Forest nursery is an area where plants are growing for

transplanting for use as stocks for vegetative reproduction (i.e., Chapter Outline
budding, grafting).

⩥ Objective of plant propagation ? 17.2 Macro Propagation

o Increase the number of plants of the same species Root Sucker

o Preserving the essential characteristics of the plants Coppice

o Way to introduce exotics Cutting

Budding
⩥ Methods of plant propagation?
Grafting
o Sexual : by seeds Layering
o Asexual : by vegetative parts like cutting, Root suckers, etc.
17.3 Micro-Propagation
⩥ Vegetative propagation?
17.4 Green House
o The method to regenerate the new independent plant
from the body tissue of the parent plant.
o Also known as asexual propagation.

⩥ Methods of vegetative propagation ?

Advantages of vegetative propagation IFoS 2006 : Define vegetative

propagation and discuss in detail the
• Vegetative propagation helps to produce genetically identical plants.
various techniques adopted in
• This method eliminates variability and maintains clonal fidelity. vegetative propagation.
• Many tree species do not produce viable seeds, and some trees do not
 FORESTRY

TYPES OF CUTTINGS .

⩥ Rhizome cutting involves planting a piece of Bamboo rhizome,

which can grow and reproduce; Bamboo like Bambusa arundinacea,
Bambusa vulgaris, and Dendrocalamus strictus are commonly
propagated this way.

⩥ Root section cutting : A small root section of 5 to 30 cm in length

and 0.5 to 2 cm in diameter, cut and planted horizontally during its
dormant season, can generate new plants from its dormant buds
when favorable conditions return, as seen in species like Bombax
ceiba, Ailanthus excelsa, and Robinia pseudoacacia.

⩥ Stump cutting : Stumps, prepared from nearly one-year-old nursery Bamboo Rhizome
seedlings, involve taking out plants with bare roots, cutting the
central axis to include a 30 cm portion of stem and taproot, and
making a cut just 2 or 3 cm above the collar with a sharp knife, as
done with species like Tectona grandis, Bombax ceiba, Gmelina
arborea, and Dalbergia sissoo.

⩥ Leaf cutting, i.e., Bryophyllum.

Root Cutting

⩥ Stem and Branch Cuttings : It maybe three types (1) softwood

cutting, (2) semi-hardwood, and (3) hardwood cutting.

• The softwood cuttings : when we used a portion of soft tissue

that does not typically develop wood or cuttings taken prior to
its lignification i.e. herbaceous cuttings or greenwood cuttings.
• Hardwood cutting : after lignification of it.

FACTORS AFFECTING ROOTING OF CUTTINGS

Despite having the easiest and cheapest method of propagation, it

has a significant setback... the majority of cutting work failed to
establish a root system because of a few factors that are -

 Age of the stock plant : old plants have insufficient rooting

power
 Condition of the cutting : chances of rooting increase when we
did it in its dormant phase. It should have proper length and
diameter too.
 Nutritional and hormonal conditional of the plant
 The relative position of the shoot
 Maturity of the tissue
 Position of the basal cut with reference to the node.
Salix hardwood cutting

150 © Hornbill classes 07223970423 [email protected]

 FORESTRY

TENDING OPERATION
CHAPTER

20

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY TENDING OR TENDING OPERATION?

From the establishment of the regeneration and

IFoS 2021 : What do you mean by tending operations?
subsequent growth to the harvesting, several
Enumerate various tending operations carried out in
operations are carried out at different stages of forest crops. Discuss improvement felling (15 m).
growth in order to provide a healthy environment Explain briefly the tending operations carried out in
for their growth. These operations are called tending a forest [UKPSC (ACF) 2018].
operations – Explain different types of tending operations used in
• Weeding, forestry [MPPSC (ACF) 2017| 20 m].

• Cleaning, What do you understand by tending? Write in detail

about various tending operations in forest trees.
• Thinning & improvement felling
How are tending operations different from cultural
• Climber cutting operations [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017| 20 m].
• Pruning
• Girdling of unwanted growths.

CULTURAL OPERATION ?
IFoS 2011 : Short notes on – cultural
The operation, as a rule not directly remunerative,
operation (5 m).
undertaken to assist or complete existing regeneration, to
IFoS 2010 : Distinguish between ‘Tending
promote the proper development of the crop or to minimize
operation’ and Cultural operation in
the after-effects of felling damage. It, therefore, includes Forestry (10 m) [Also in, Arunachal PSC civil
subsidiary felling, weeding, cleaning, unremunerative (Main) 2015-16; Odisha PSC Civil (Main)
2018].
 CHAPTER PLANTATION
21
FORESTRY

A forest plantation is an area of land of not less than one hectare owned by the govt. or private sector, upon
which the owner proposes to develop and maintain a forest crop of usually even-aged and single species.

Plantation forestry, based on the successful breeding of superior tree genotypes, is becoming more widely used
by international forestry companies since it offers the possibility to grow and manage forests of high economic
value and superior quality. However, a number of highly desirable traits are not readily available in the breeding
population and may be introduced using desirable genes from other organisms.

21.1 OBJECTIVES or NEEDS OF PLANTATION FORESTRY

• Production purpose : for production of Timber, Fuel

Explain the following – (a) Plantation
wood, fodder, Fibres, pulpwood, etc. to fulfil population
Forestry [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10 m]
demands with depressurized Forest resources.
• Protection against adverse weather, i.e., Windbreak, planting a shade tree in Tea gardens (Usually Albizzia
spp.), Soil and water conservation in a given watershed area.
• Forest enrichment and mixing species to control epidemics like the Sal heartwood borer attack in 1998 in
central India.
• Climate change and global warming forced many species unsuitable for germinating naturally or sustained
after germination, so they required human intervention.
• Our industrial and domestic demands are changing with time in quality, quantity, and requirement specific.
We required the introduction of fast-growing species as well as new species.
• To create employment and investment opportunities.
• Environmental concern & Carbon storage purpose : Compensatory afforestation under CAMPA, fulfills our
INDC obligations under the Paris Agreement by creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes
of CO2 equivalent till 2030. Our PM recently announced, "India will restore 26 m hac. of degraded land by
2030" at the 14th CoP of UNCCD at Greater Noida.

21.2 PRODUCTIVITY OF INDIAN FOREST

Against the global average productivity of 2.1 million m3/hectare/ year, the productivity of the Indian Forest
is only 0.7 million m3/hectare/ year.

Causes of Poor Productivity

• Unregulated grazing
• Uncontrolled fuelwood collection : Nearly 50% of the demand for fuel in rural India is being met from the
adjoining forests. The annual demand for fuel wood is estimated nearly 250-300 million m3. The recorded
 To all our successful candidates in

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