MTH 101: ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS I

Prof O. M. Ogunlaran

Mathematics Programme,
College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science,
Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria

Email Address: [email protected]

1 Sequences and Series

1.1 Introduction
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers following a specific pattern or rule. Each number in the sequence
is called a term, and sequences can be finite (having a limited number of terms) or infinite (continuing
indefinitely). The sum of the terms of a sequence is called a series.

1.2 Arithmetic Progression (AP)

An Arithmetic Progression (AP) is a sequence in which the difference between consecutive terms is constant.
This difference is called the common difference (denoted by d).

1.2.1 General Form of an AP

If a is the first term and d is the common difference, the terms of the AP can be written as:

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .

The general term (or nth term) of the AP (denoted by Tn ) is given by:

Tn = a + (n − 1)d (1)

Examples of AP

(i) Natural Numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .

(ii) Even Numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .

(iii) Odd Numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . .

(iv) 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, . . .

1.2.2 Sum of the First n Terms of an AP

The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression is denoted by Sn . To derive the formula for Sn ,
consider:

Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + · · · + (a + (n − 1)d) (2)

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 Writing the sum in reverse order:

Sn = (a + (n − 1)d) + (a + (n − 2)d) + · · · + a (3)

Now adding (12) and (13), we get:

2Sn = n(2a + (n − 1)d)

Solving for Sn :
n
(2a + (n − 1)d) .
Sn = (4)
2
This is the formula for the sum of the first n terms of an AP.
Special Case: If the last term of the AP is l, the sum can also be written as:

n
Sn = (a + l). (5)
2

1.2.3 Examples

Example 1: Find the 15th term of the AP: 5, 8, 11, 14, . . ..

Solution: First term a = 5, Common difference d = 3, The 15th term is:

T15 = a + (15 − 1)d = 5 + 14 × 3 = 5 + 42 = 47

Example 2: Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the AP: 3, 7, 11, 15, . . ..
Solution: First term a = 3, Common difference d = 4, The 20th term is:

T20 = a + (20 − 1)d = 3 + 19 × 4 = 3 + 76 = 79

The sum of the first 20 terms:

20
S20 =× (3 + 79) = 10 × 82 = 820.
2
Example 3: Ade saves N100 in the first month and increases his savings by N50 each month. How much
will he have saved after 12 months?
Solution: This is an AP with a = 100 and d = 50. The sum of the first 12 months is:
12
S12 = × (2 × 100 + 11 × 50) = 6 × (200 + 550) = 6 × 750 = 4500
2
Thus, Ade will have saved N4,500 after 12 months.
Example 4: Given the sequence 4, 1, −2, −5, . . ., find (a) a formula for the nth term, (b) Which terms
of the sequence are -23 and -70?
Solution: (a) Tn = 4 + (n − 1)(−3) = 4 + 3 − 3n = 7 − 3n.
Hence the formula is Tn = 7 − 3n.
(b) If Tn = −23, then 7 − 3n = −23 which gives n = 10. If Tn = −70, then 7 − 3n = −70, which produces
n = 773 . This is not possible because n must be an integer.Therefore −70 is not a term of the sequence.

Example 5: The 12th and 25th terms of an AP are 13 and 52 respectively. Find the AP.
Solution
Tn + a + (n − 1)d.
Then T12 = a + 11d = 13 and T25 = a + 24d = 52.
Solving these two equations simultaneously gives a = −20 and d = 3. So the AP is −20, −17, −14, . . .

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1.3 Geometric Progression (GP)
A Geometric Progression (GP) is a sequence in which the ratio of consecutive terms is constant. This ratio
is called the common ratio (denoted by r).

1.3.1 General Form of a GP

If a is the first term and r is the common ratio, the terms of the GP can be written as:

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . .

The nth term of the GP (denoted by Un ) is given by:

Un = arn−1 (6)

Examples of GP

(i) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, . . .

(ii) 2, −4, 8, −16, . . .

(iii) 1, 12 , 41 , 18 , . . .

1.3.2 Sum of the First n Terms of a GP

The sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression is denoted by Sn . To derive the formula for Sn ,
consider:

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 . (7)

Multiplying both sides of equation (7) by r:

rSn = ar + ar2 + · · · + arn . (8)

Now subtract the equation (8) from equation (7):

Sn − rSn = a − arn

Simplifying:
Sn (1 − r) = a(1 − rn )

Solving for Sn :
a(1 − rn )
Sn = , for r ̸= 1. (9)
1−r
This is the formula for the sum of the first n terms of a GP.

1.3.3 Examples

Example 1: Find the 8th term of the GP: 2, 4, 8, 16, . . ..

Solution: First term a = 2, Common ratio r = 2, The 8th term is:

U8 = ar7 = 2 × 27 = 2 × 128 = 256

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 Example 2: Find the sum of the first 5 terms of the GP: 1, 3, 9, 27, . . ..
Solution: First term a = 1, Common ratio r = 3, The sum of the first 5 terms is:

1(1 − 35 ) 1 − 243 242

S5 = = = = 121
1−3 −2 2
8
Example 3: The 3rd and 8th terms of a GP are 72 and 27 respectively. Find the values of the first term
a and the common difference d.
8
Solution: U3 = ar2 = 72 and U8 = ar7 = 27 .
ar7 8 1 1
Dividing the second equation by the first equation, we obtain = r5 = × . So r = .
ar2 27 729 3

Then from U3 = ar2 = 72, a( 13 )2 = 72 which gives a = 72 × 9=648.

1.4 Sum to Infinity of a GP

For an infinite geometric progression where |r| < 1, the sum to infinity is:
a
S∞ = . (10)
1−r
Example 1: For the GP: 4, 2, 1, 12 , . . ., find the sum to infinity.
Solution: First term a = 4, Common ratio r = 21 , The sum to infinity is:
4 4
S∞ = 1 = 1 = 8.
1− 2 2

Example 2 Find the sum to infinity, if it exists, of the GP: 5, 10, 20, . . . .
Solution: Since r = 2, the series does not converge to a sum to infinity because |r| > 1.

1.5 Exercises
1. Find the 30th term of the AP: 2, 5, 8, 11, . . ..

2. Calculate the sum of the first 30 terms of the AP: 3, 8, 13, 18, . . ..

3. The sum of the first n terms of an AP is 500, the first term is 8, and the common difference is 6. Find
n.

4. A factory increases its output by 25 units each week. If the initial production is 300 units, how many
units will be produced in total after 15 weeks?

5. Find the 12th term of the GP: 3, 9, 27, 81, . . ..

6. Calculate the sum of the first 12 terms of the GP: 2, 6, 18, 54, . . ..

7. For the GP: 16, 8, 4, 2, . . ., find the sum to infinity.

8. A rubber ball is dropped from a height of 10 meters and rebounds to 80% of its previous height. How
far does the ball travel before it stops bouncing?

9. Which term of the AP 2, 5, 8, . . . is 44?

10. The sum of three consecutive terms of an AP is 6, and their product is -90. Find the terms.

11. The (2pth) term of an AP is 50 more than the pth term, and the (p+1)th term is 56. Find the first
terms.

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 12. The sum to infinity of a GP with first term a is a2 . Find r.

13. The first three terms of a GP are 2x − 1, x + 1 and x − 1. Find the values of x, and the sum to infinity
where possible.

2 Theory of Quadratic Equations

2.1 Introduction
The general form of a quadratic equation is:

ax2 + bx + c = 0, (11)

where a, b, and c are constants, and a ̸= 0. The solutions to the quadratic equation, i.e., the values of x
that satisfy equation (11) are called the roots of the equation. There are four major techniques for solving
quadratic equations: Factorization, Completing the Square, Quadratic Formula and Graphical Method.

2.2 Completing the Square

The completing the square method is a technique used to solve quadratic equations by transforming the
given quadratic expression into a perfect square trinomial. This method works for any quadratic equation
of the form (11).
Steps for Completing the Square
Step 1: Rearrange the equation (11) by moving the constant term (c) to the right-hand side:

ax2 + bx = −c.

Step 2: Divide the entire equation by a (if a ̸= 1) to simplify the quadratic term:

b c
x2 + x = − .
a a
b
Step 3: Take half of the coefficient of x (which is a ), square it, and add it to both sides of the equation.
 2  2
b b c b
x2 + x + =− +
a 2a a 2a

Step 4: Rewrite the LHS as a squared binomial and simplify the RHS
2
b2 − 4ac

b
x+ =
2a 4a2

Step 5: Take the square root of both sides of the equation:

r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =±
2a 4a2
Step 6: Solve for x: √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= , (12)
2a
which is called the Quadratic formula.
Example
Solving 2x2 + 8x − 6 = 0 by Completing the Square.

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 Rearranging the equation,
2x2 + 8x = 6.
Dividing by 2 (the coefficient of x2 ),
x2 + 4x = 3.
Adding the square of half the coefficient of x to both sides,
x2 + 4x + 4 = 3 + 4
(x + 2)2 = 7
Taking the square root of both sides
√
x+2=± 7
Solving for x
√
x = −2 ± 7
√ √
Thus, the two solutions are x = −2 + 7 and x = −2 − 7.

2.3 Sum and Product of Roots

The sum and product of the roots are helpful in various applications, such as:
1. Constructing a quadratic equation when the roots are known.

2. Checking the correctness of solved roots.

3. Solving problems in algebra where information about the sum and product of the roots is given instead
of the actual roots.
If the two roots of the quadratic equation (11) are denoted as r1 and r2 , then from (12)
√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
r1 = , r2 = .
2a 2a
Equation (11) is equivalent to:
(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) = 0
Expanding, we obtain
x2 − (r1 + r2 )x + r1 r2 = 0. (13)
Comparing equation (13) and
b c
x2 + x + = 0,
a a
b c
we have that: r1 + r2 = − and r1 r2 = .
a a
Therefore, for any quadratic equation (11) with roots r1 , r2 ,
b c
Sum of the roots: r1 + r2 = − , Product of the roots: r1 r2 = .
a a
Examples
Example 1: If the roots of 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0 are r1 and r2 , find r1 + r2 and r1 r2 .
Comparing the given equation with the standard form (11), a = 2, b = 5 and c = −3.
5 3
Hence r1 + r2 = − , and r1 r2 = − .
2 2
√ √
Example 2: Construct an equation with roots 3 − 2, 3 + 2.
√ √ √ √ √
In this case let r1 = 3 − 2 and r2 = 3 + 2, such that r1 + r2 = 3 − 2 + ( 3 + 2) = 2 3 and
√ √
r1 r2 = ( 3 − 2)( 3 + 2) = −1.
√
Hence the equation is x2 − 2 3x − 1 = 0.

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2.4 Symmetric Functions of the Roots
The values of other functions of r1 and r2 can easily be calculated provided they are symmetric and the
value of r1 + r2 and r1 r2 are known for a given equation. For a symmetric function of r1 and r2 , the
function remains the same or is multiplied by −1 if r1 and r2 are interchanged. For example, r12 + r22 is a
symmetric function and so also r12 − r22 since it becomes −(r22 − r12 ). However, r12 + 2r22 is not symmetric. The
values of a symmetric function of r1 and r2 can be obtained without knowing the values of the roots r1 and r2 .

Example 1: If r1 and r2 are the roots of 3x2 − 10x − 4 = 0, find the values of (a) r12 + r22 (b) r1 − r2 (c)
r12 − r22 .
b 10 c 4
(a) Here a = 3, b = −10, c = −4. r1 + r2 = − = , r1 r2 = = − .
a 3 a 3
Now,
 10 2  4  124
r12 + r22 = (r1 + r2 )2 − 2r1 r2 = −2 − = .
3 3 9
 10 2  4  148
(b) r1 − r2 cannot be found directly. So we use (r1 − r2 )2 = (r1 + r2 )2 − 4r1 r2 = −4 − = .
√ √  3 3 9
148  2 37
Hence r1 − r2 = ± = depending on whether r1 > r2 or r1 < r2 .
3 3
 10  √148   20√37 
2 2
(c) r1 − r2 = (r1 + r2 )(r1 − r2 ) = = taking r1 > r2 .
3 3 9

Example 2: If r1 and r2 are the roots of 3x2 + 5x − 1 = 0, construct equations whose roots are (a) r12 , r22
(b) r11 , r12 .
From the given equation, a = 3, b = 5, c = −1.
(a)
25 2 31
r12 + r22 = (r1 + r2 )2 − 2r1 r2 = + = .
9 3 9
1
r12 r22 = (r1 r2 )2 = .
9
Therefore, the new equation is
31 1
x2 − x + = 0
9 9
2
or 9x − 31x + 1 = 0.
(b)
1 1 r2 + r1 −5
+ = = 13 = 5.
r1 r2 r1 r2 −3
 1  1   1 
= = −3.
r1 r2 r1 r2
Therefore, the new equation is
x2 − 5x − 3 = 0.

2.5 Types of Roots

The discriminant (∆) of the quadratic equation (11) helps determine the types (nature) of the roots. The
discriminant is defined as:

∆ = b2 − 4ac
There are three possible types of roots based on the value of ∆.

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1. Two Distinct Real Roots (∆ > 0)
If the discriminant is positive (∆ > 0), the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots. This happens
when the value under the square root in the quadratic formula is positive, allowing two real solutions.
The roots can be found using the quadratic formula:

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Example 1: Consider the quadratic equation x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.
Here, a = 1, b = −5, and c = 6. The discriminant is ∆ = (−5)2 − 4(1)(6) = 25 − 24 = 1.
Since ∆ > 0, the equation has two distinct real roots. Solving the equation:

√
−(−5) ± 1 5±1
x= =
2(1) 2

The two roots are:

5+1 5−1
x= =3 and x = =2
2 2
Thus, the roots are x = 3 and x = 2.

2. Two Equal Real Roots (∆ = 0)

If the discriminant is zero (∆ = 0), the quadratic equation has two equal real roots, also known as a
repeated root or double root. This happens when the value under the square root in the quadratic
formula is zero, giving only one solution.
Example 2: Consider the quadratic equation x2 − 4x + 4 = 0.
Here, a = 1, b = −4, and c = 4. The discriminant is ∆ = (−4)2 − 4(1)(4) = 16 − 16 = 0.
Since ∆ = 0, the equation has two equal real roots. Solving the equation:

√
−(−4) ± 0 4±0
x= =
2(1) 2

Thus, the only solution is:

4
x= =2
2
The root is x = 2 (a double root).

3. Two Complex Roots (∆ < 0)

If the discriminant is negative (∆ < 0), the quadratic equation has two complex conjugate roots. In
this case, the value under the square root is negative, and the roots are not real numbers. They involve
√
imaginary numbers and are expressed in terms of i, where i = −1.
The roots are of the form: p
−b ± i |∆|
x=
2a
Example 3: Consider the quadratic equation x2 + 4x + 5 = 0. Here, a = 1, b = 4, and c = 5. The
discriminant is ∆ = (4)2 − 4(1)(5) = 16 − 20 = −4.
Since ∆ < 0, the equation has two complex conjugate roots. Solving the equation:

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 √
−4 ± −4 −4 ± 2i
x= =
2(1) 2

The two roots are:

−4 + 2i −4 − 2i
x= = −2 + i and x = = −2 − i
2 2
Thus, the roots are x = −2 + i and x = −2 − i, which are complex conjugates.

2.6 Exercises
1. What is the discriminant of a quadratic equation? Write its formula.

2. If r1 and r2 are the roots of the following quadratic equations, state the values for r1 + r2 and r1 r2 .
√
(a) x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 (b) 2x2 + x − 3 = 0 (c) 2x2 − a + 3x + a2 = 0 (d) x2 + 3x + 1 = 0.

3. Construct and quadratic equations whose roots are

√ √ 1 1
(a) −5, − 13 (b) 2 − 3, 2 + 3 (c) √ , √ .
1+ 2 1− 2
4. Given that r1 and r2 are the roots of the equation 3x2 − x − 5 = 0, form the equation whose roots are
1 1
2r1 − , 2r2 − .
r2 r1
5. If r1 and r2 are the roots of (a) 3x2 − 2x = 1 (b) 2x2 + x − 4 = 0, construct new equations whose
roots are (i) 2r1 , 2r2 (ii) r12 , r22 , (iii) r13 , r23 , (iv) r1 + 1, r2 + 1.

6. One root of the equation 2x2 + bx + c = 0 is three times the other roots. Prove that 3b2 = 32c.

7. If the equation x2 − 3x + 1 = p(x − 3) has equal roots, find the possible values of p.

8. Find the roots of the equation x2 + 4x + 13 = 0 and determine their nature.

9. 3x2 − 7x + 2 = 0, find the product of the roots.

10. For the equation 5x2 + 10x − 3 = 0, determine the sum of the roots.

11. If the sum and product of the roots of a quadratic equation are 5 and 6, respectively, form the quadratic
equation.

12. Given that the roots of a quadratic equation are 3 and 4, write the equation in standard form.

13. Describe the nature of the roots of the following equations. (a) 3x2 −2x+4 = 0, (b) 4x2 −28x+49 = 0.

14. If the equation x2 + px + 4 = 0 has equal roots, find the possible values of p.