MODULE 1

GATHERING AND PROCESSING INFORMATION

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
- A systematic process of discovery; the accumulation of factual data and information
which can be used to support or relate a study. It involves the systematic use of
qualitative and quantitative techniques of investigation to obtain information/data on a
given subject or phenomenon. Information or data can be obtained from various
sources.

Features of Research (possible multiple choice question)

- Well structured
- Clear statement of purpose
- Logical and clear
- Empirical: based on observation and experience
- Can be replicated

Steps in the Research Process (question may be asked to put steps in order or identify
steps)
- Identify a problem
- Review the existing literature/information
- Establish aim(s) of the study and objective(s)
- Create research questions
- Select research design: process and method
- Collect information
- Findings and conclusion
Data
- Data is measurable and is captured using various tools or methods. Raw data include
results of surveys or statements derived from observation of a real situation during a
specific time. When data is processed or organised meaningfully, it becomes
information.

Types of Research Techniques or Data Collection Methods

- Quantitative: statistics, figures, numbers
- Qualitative: words, descriptions
- Mixed methods
Quantitative Research
- Numerical data – statistics, figures, numbers
- Data can be converted into numbers
- Used to find patterns / frequencies / trends
- Used to make generalised statements

Advantages of Quantitative Research (possible multiple choice question)

- Large sample size
- Objective
- Accurate
- Can be replicated
- Provides an in depth analysis of themes, patterns, frequencies.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
- Figures only reflect the point in time
- Researcher bias
- Invalid if not analysed accurately
- Takes significant time
- Themes, patterns and frequencies are disregarded if the focus is in numbers only

Qualitative Research
- Textual data / continuous writing
- Points, reasoning, explanations, descriptions
Advantages of Qualitative Research
- Smaller sample size
- Examines reasons / explanations
- Changes in aspects are noted
- Detailed understanding of problem
- Specific aspects, themes, etc. can lead to further research
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
- More time consuming
- Difficult to generalise information
- Information reflects only that point in time
- Researcher bias
- Less objective – opinionated and subjective
Mixed Method Research
- Use of both qualitative and quantitative research
- Instruments / methods of data collection can mix both open-ended and close-ended
questions to gather both types of data
- Open-ended questions: free responses
- Closed-ended: options are – yes/no, true/false, etc.
- Data analysis uses numbers and continuous writing
Advantages of Mixed Method Research
- Detailed understanding of issue
- Comprehensive data collected
- Generalisation is facilitated
- Uses strengths of both
- Disadvantages are offset
Disadvantages of Mixed Method Research
- More time consuming
- Difficult to generalise information
- Research bias
- Expensive
- Researchers must be experienced in using both

Generalisation in Research
- The act of reasoning or drawing inferences based on data
- An umbrella / broad statement or conclusion made about a population based on
similarities in findings
- Must be supported by sufficient data / large sample size
- Common in quantitative research
Factors Influencing Generalisation
- Size of population: large sample yields large amount of fata
- Representative sample: sample population MUST have features / aspects under study

Sources of Information (usually comes for exam)

- Primary Sources
- Secondary Sources
Primary Sources
- Primary Sources are original, first-hand accounts or evidence that were created during
the period under investigation. Primary sources are recorded or created by observers
who write or tell about the events or conditions they experienced. It is first-hand data
collected by a researcher that is raw and unprocessed.
Examples of Primary Sources
- Speeches / Interviews / in-person conversations
- Reports
- Government documents
- Manuscripts
- Original documents: birth certificates, academic transcripts
- Autobiography
- Diaries
- Statistical data
- Scientific research
- Recordings of events or conditions after that time has passed
- Maps / photos / letters
Advantages of Primary Sources of Data
- Authentic and current information
- Reliable
- Objective
- Greater understanding of context
- Direct contact with informants
Disadvantages of Primary Sources of Data
- Time consuming
- Researcher can lose focus
- Researcher bias can occur
- Expensive
- Laborious

Secondary Sources
- When something is written about a primary source, it is called a secondary source.
Secondary sources use primary sources to illustrate, analyse, interpret and evaluate a
particular time period or event. A secondary source can be a newspaper article, a
review, an article in a magazine or a textbook. It is second-hand information that has
been collected by others and processed or analysed.
Examples of Secondary Sources
- Encyclopaedias
- Textbooks
- Dictionaries
- Biographies
- Magazines
- Commentaries / Reviews
- Newspapers: articles, editorials
- Journal articles
Advantages of Secondary Sources of Data
- Time efficient
- Easily accessible
- Less expensive
- Studies span over a long time
- Wide variety and amount can be collected
Disadvantages of Secondary Sources of Data
- Can be biased
- Outdated and incomplete information
- Can be not specific to research at hand
- Access to data can be difficult
- Data can be inaccurate

Data Collection Methods / Techniques used to obtain Primary Data

- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Observation
- Case studies
- Focus Groups
Primary Data Collection Table
Method/ Technique Advantage Disadvantage
Questionnaire Can be administered in Incomplete responses as a
various ways, e.g. face-to- result of the literacy level of
face, by post, telephone, via respondents or their lack of
internet. willingness to respond
Cost effective Low or slow response rate
can affect outcome
Requires minimal time Questions can be
misinterpreted
Possibility of anonymity Validity of information can
be compromised
Convenient for distributing Time consuming and can
to a large sample size over a become costly
wide geographical area
Respondents can complete it Limited scope for probing
in privacy and at their responses.
convenience.
Interviews Detailed in depth Time consuming and costly
information can be gathered
Smaller sample group Doesn’t offer anonymity
required
Interviewer can probe Sample can be too small
information
 Interviewer can observe Difficult to set up interview
non-verbal cues
Interviewer can observe Personal biases of
setting interviewer can affect
understanding and
interpretation responses.
Observation Opportunity to observe Emotions, prejudices, values
minute by minute aspects of of observer may result in
behaviour erroneous inferences
Researcher can be a Personal interests/bias can
participant or non- influence observation
participant
Ability to record while Respondents may alter
participating behaviour if they are aware
they are being observed
Observer can be easily
distracted
Case Studies Opportunity for detailed Time consuming and costly
research
Researcher can focus on a Loss of respondents
particular area of interest
Researcher and participants
can lose interest
Results may not be
applicable for similar cases.
Focus Groups Group discussion allows for Can be costly and time
detailed information on consuming
group feelings and opinions
Respondents may build on Some participants can be
each other’s responses, more dominant
improving the richness of
the data collected
Results may not be truly
representative of larger
population
Interviewer may be biased
or untrained to deal with
focus groups

Research Designs
- An approach / overall guide to conducting research. It informs the various areas of
research, data collection, process, analysis, techniques, etc.
- Can be based on quantitative/qualitative research.
Types of Research Designs:
1) Cross Sectional Design
- Observations / information made at a specific point in time
- Core issues of a topic are explored at the same time
 - For e.g. flooding and its impacts on residents in 2022.

2) Longitudinal Design
- Observations / information made over a lengthy period of time.
- Case issues are examined over a long time frame.
- Example: flooding and its effects over a 10-year period 2012-2022

3) Cross Sequential / Convergence Design

- Observation / information made both in the past and the present – a holistic view.
- Core issues are examined presently and over the past
- Example: flooding and its effect in the past and present

4) Experimental Design
- Collecting factual data in a controlled way based on labs, experiments etc. to test
hypothesis which will provide data to support of refute one’s claims.
- Use of different participants per group.
- Example: animal testing for medicines and products

5) Correlational Design
- Mainly descriptive and non-experimental
- Measures the correlation / relationship between two things (variables) or the impact of
one on another.
- The correlation can be either positive / negative / neutral.
- Example: the effect of the weather / temperature on the sales of ice-cream.

TYPES OF WRITING
- Genre, derived from the French word meaning, ‘kind’ or ‘type’, is the category of
literary or artistic work identified by content and style.
- It refers to the particular style of expressing oneself in writing. There are two major
genres: Fiction / Artistic Discourse and Non-fiction / Technical or Scientific
Discourse which can then be further categorised.
- Fiction/Artistic Discourse can be divided into; Poetry, Prose and Drama, these can
also be classified according to layout and style to include – novellas, short stories,
novels, sonnets, sonnets, epics, pantomimes and musicals.
- Fiction can also be divided according to content and theme into popular genres such
as: science fiction, historical fiction, romance, adventure, mystery.
- Writing is also classified into four discourse types:
1) Narrative
2) Descriptive
3) Expository
4) Argumentative / Persuasive
 - Each discourse type is characterised by Organisational Features and Modes of
Expression that are determined by the author’s purpose or intention and form of the
writing.

DISCOURSE PURPOSE ORGANISATIONAL LANGUAGE

STRATEGIES TECHNIQUES
Narrative – tells a To relate an Organising principle is Descriptive
story as a series of experience. a temporal one, such language, Figurative
events / life in To explain. as: Flashbacks, flash- language, Action or
motion (witnessing To entertain. forwards, Dynamic verbs,
an action) foreshadowing / Narrative point of
chronological time view / perspective
sequences. (first or third
person), Dialogue,
conversational tone.

Descriptive – To create a sense Descriptive sequence Vivid or arresting

describes through impression / mental such as top to bottom, verbs, nouns and
sensory details, image or mood. front to back, random adjectives.
persons, places, To describe. movement in Sense data.
times of day, To highlight. describing person or Figurative language
feelings. To illustrate. scene. Point of view (simile, metaphor,
To visually focusing on time or personification,
represent. setting or mood and analogy).
tone. Literary devices.
Details used to create Sound devices
single or dominant (alliteration,
impression. rhythm, rhyme and
Comparison / contrast. onomatopoeia).
General to specific Symbolism.
spatial order.
Time sequence.

Expository – To inform. Classification. Objective and

making an idea, To impart Analysis. precise language.
concept or process information. Definition. Neutral tone.
clear, analysing a To explain. Comparison and Academic language.
situation, defining a To define. contrast. Use of technical
term, giving To chronicle. Illustrations and terms.
instructions. To establish. examples. Jargon
Cause and effect.
Analogy.
Logical structure and
sense of progression.
A main controlling
idea developed by
similar supporting
ideas.
 Chronological order.
Deductive ordering.
General statement(s)
explained or illustrated
by using specific
examples or details.
Inductive ordering –
examples and details
are used as the basis
upon which a general
idea or conclusion can
be drawn.
Process analysis.
Problem and solution.
Historical, statistical
data.
facts

Argumentative / To prove. Comparison and Use of logic.

Persuasive – To convince. contrast. Restatement.
convincing or To influence. Evidence. Rhetorical question.
persuading an To justify. Facts / statistics. Repetition /
audience of a claim To urge. Authoritative opinion. tautology.
though logical or To complain. Personal experience. Anecdotes.
emotive appeal. To criticise. Counter-arguments. Use of pathos
To highlight. Rebuttal. (emotional appeal).
Illustrations and Non-neutral tone.
examples. Exaggeration /
Lists. hyperbole.
Order of importance. Understatement.
Problem and solution. Contrast /
Logical reasons. juxtaposition.
Quotes / clichés /
proverbs.
Personal pronouns
to address, include
or exclude the
reader / audience.
Words with positive
or negative
connotations.
Irony / sarcasm.

Tips on Distinguishing the Main Point / Main Idea and the Writer’s Purpose / Intent.
- Remember that the MAIN IDEA / MAIN POINT is what the writer is writing about,
the idea that’s coming out from what you are reading; if you were asked what the
piece was about, whatever you respond would be the Main Idea. The Main Idea/Point
is NEVER A VERB so it can never be stated like this, “The main idea of this passage
 is to inform…” if you have done this then your answer will be incorrect. Always
remember that the main idea/point is NEVER TO DO something, rather it is stated
like this, “The main idea / point of this piece is THAT students have problems
answering the module one essay…”.
- On the other hand, the writer’s PURPOSE / INTENT is ALWAYS STATED AS A
VERB! It is what the writer wants to happen as a result of your reading the piece. The
writer’s purpose / intent can be, “to inform”, “to entertain”, “to criticise”, “to argue”,
“to convince”, “to educate”, “to highlight”, etc.
- If you understand and identify these two different concepts, then you are on your way
to satisfying 1/3 of the essay requirements. The other 2/3 are based on correctly
identifying the organisational strategies and language techniques/devices that the
writer employed to help achieve the main point/idea and the purpose/intent.
- Tone conveys the attitude of the author towards the topic that he / she is writing
about. One easy way of understanding tone is to ask, “what attitude did I get from
reading the author’s words?” always use adjectives to describe tone, e.g. humorous,
sarcastic, straight-forward, critical, conversational, serious, tone of concern, etc.
Positive Tones/Attitudes – light-hearted, hopeful, enthusiastic, confident, optimistic,
loving, passionate, amused, elated, sentimental, sympathetic, compassionate, proud.
Negative Tones/Attitudes – angry, disgusted, outraged, accusing, irritated, indignant,
threatening.
Irony / Sarcasm – sarcastic, cynical, critical, facetious, patronizing, satirical, irreverent,
mock serious, taunting, ironic, flippant.
Sorrow / Fear / Worry – sombre, elegiac, gloomy, melancholic, disturbed, mournful,
solemn, serious, apprehensive, concerned, hopeless, resigned.
General / Organisational – formal, objective, nostalgic, ceremonial, candid, shocked,
reminiscent, restrained, clinical, baffled, sentimental, detached objective, questioning,
urgent, instructive, matter-of-fact, banned, factual, didactic, informative, authoritative.

Organisational Strategies or Features of Narrative and Descriptive Discourse

1) Flashback – an episode that took place in a time earlier than the present action. It may
be for different purposes; to create tension, to move the story forward by providing a
relevant back-story, to provide context to current events, to provide insight into a
character’s motives. They can often be promoted through a dream sequence, where
the character falls asleep and dreams about the past, or they may see, hear or feel
something that takes them back to a time past. They can also be presented in a
straightforward manner, in which the character will indicate that they are going back
in time.
2) Flash-forward – this is the opposite to flashback in that it takes the narrative forward
in time from the current time in the sequence of events being presented. The author
interrupts the current flow of events to insert an event that will take place at some
future time, it can be used to create momentum and can help readers understand the
significance of characters’ actions.
 3) Foreshadowing – A hint that an author gives in advance of what is to come in the
narrative. It can be done through the character’s dialogue or given through the title of
the text or a chapter in the narrative. Authors use foreshadowing to create suspense
and it therefore adds dramatic tension in the narrative as it has readers anticipating
what is coming next.
4) Time Sequence – much artistic discourse uses time sequencing as an organisational
strategy. Often this is chronological. A narrative discourse often has an initiating
event, problems and complications that build to the climax, then the strands of the plot
are worked out, leading to a resolution. Authors will use chronological order to help
the audience to understand the relationship between the causes and effects of events.
They can understand why things happen the way they do.
5) Comparison – this is a description that focuses on the similarity between two or more
things, ideas or individuals. An author may use comparison in order to emphasise a
quality or make the quality more vivid in the minds of the audience. Author may use
similes, metaphors, analogies or even personification to compare.
6) Contrast – this is the opposite of Comparison as it focuses on the differences between
two or more things, ideas or individuals. An author may use the strategy in order to
make a concept clearer to readers and it strengthens the author’s argument and makes
it stands out more in the minds of the audience.
7) Description – uses sensory details to portray a person, place, thing or even an idea or
concept. It creates images in the audience’s minds, making recalling details easier. It
can cause audience to lean towards author’s bias according to his/her purpose.
8) General to Specific – with this method of organisation the author moves from broad
observations on the topic to giving more specific details. Authors tend to use this
strategy to focus on important details.
9) Spatial Order – in this kind of description, the information on items is presented
according to their physical position in relation to each other or according to their
location in space.

Organisational Strategies/Features of Expository, Argumentative and Persuasive

Discourse
1) Cause and Effect – the reason something happens (the cause) what happens because of it
(the effect).
2) Classification – author arranges or groups ideas, information, things according to shared
characteristics or similarities, so that it is ordered into categories.
3) Comparison and Contrast – author highlights similarities and differences between two or
more things, ideas, individuals, throughout discourse.
4) Concession and Rebuttal – author acknowledges a point or argument opposing his/her
position (concession) before proving it wrong (rebuttal).
5) Counterarguments – similar to concession and rebuttal, counterarguments make
allowances for the opposite perspective. The difference is that a counterargument is an
objection to an objection. Be mindful that counterargument has two features – the
objection and the rejection of the objection.
6) Definitions – author explains the meaning of a concept, idea or thing or clarifies a
concept, idea or thing by explaining what it is.
7) Evidence – author presents facts and data to prove or disprove something or to
substantiate and strengthen claims made by the author.
8) Illustrations and examples – author makes an idea clearer by providing illustrations and
examples. These provide further evidence and support for an argument.
9) Juxtaposition – used mainly in argumentative and persuasive discourse, the author will
often juxtapose a conflicting argument or statement with a counterargument to strengthen
his claim.
10) Lists – the author may provide a series of details, facts or images to add to the general
mood of the piece and brings across factual information clearly and succinctly.
11) Order of importance – author presents and develops his/her points based on their level of
importance.
12) Problem and Solution – author presents a problem, details the specifics of the problem
(explains the problem) and then gives an outline as to how it can be solved.
13) Reasons – author rationalises a point of view by outlining causes, justifications and
explanations. This often creates empathy and leads to the audience believing that the
argument’s end point is a logical conclusion.
14) Refutations – author argues against a particular position. He/she identifies the mistake or
weaknesses in an argument and presents reasoning to indicate why the conclusions or
reasons are mistaken, flawed, weak or wrong.

Modes of Expression of Narrative and Descriptive Discourse

- Modes of expression refers to the various ways in which the author expresses his/her
ideas, his/her language style and the techniques and strategies he/she uses.
Descriptive Language
- Author uses descriptive language to help the audience build impressions and images
and to keep them engaged in the piece. Words can have Denotative (dictionary
meanings) or Connotative (associative meanings). Words can create mood, tone,
atmosphere. Words can convey the author’s attitude towards his/her subject. Words
can also adhere to the audiences five senses.
- Adjectives, Adverbs and Vivid Verbs are instrumental in Descriptive writing.
1) Adjectives – specific and descriptive adjectives enhance a description, helping to
paint a better picture of the person, event, incident or thing being described.
2) Adverbs – adverbs add further colour to the description as they give greater detail
about how something was done or when. They make the piece more vivid and
images easier to visualise.
3) Vivid Verbs – authors will choose verbs that clearly create an image of what is
happening so that the audience can better picture the action and be drawn into it.
E.g. instead of saying ‘John walked into the house’, ‘walk’ may be replaced with a
more vivid verb that highlights his exact movement, e.g. ‘stumbled’, ‘crawled’,
‘sauntered’. Each of these alternatives show a clear movement but they also
convey other ideas. They suggest Tom’s mood and/or condition.
Figurative Language and Literary Devices
- Figurative Language is the use of words or expressions to convey meaning in ways
which may be outside of their literal meanings.
- Literary devices use words in a particular way to create an effect.
- Figurative Language and Literary Devices make the piece more interesting and
dramatic and help paint pictures in the minds of the audience. As with descriptive
language the author chooses the words he/she uses very carefully to suit his/her
purpose.
Types of Figurative Language and Literary Devices
Alliteration Occurrence of same consonant sound at the
beginning of adjacent or connected words,
e.g. she sells seashells by the sea shore.
Allusions Call someone to mind without mentioning
them explicitly, e.g.’ he struts around poised
and pampered’. Also ‘the Prodigal Son’
Analogy A comparison between one thing and
another for the purpose of clarification.
Assonance Repetition of vowel sounds, e.g. the bad cad
was a sad lad.
Euphemism Use of a milder or softer expression, in
place of one that may be deemed impolite or
insensitive, e.g. he is no longer with us, as
opposed to he is dead.
Hyperbole An exaggeration made in order to create a
desired effect, e.g. ‘he was a huge as a
mountain’, ‘I run faster than the speed of
light’.
Irony Using words in such a way that the intended
or implied meaning of the words used is
different from the actual meaning.
Situational Irony – ‘Lisa left her umbrella
home for the first time in weeks and today it
rains’.
Verbal Irony – ‘as the rain came down on
her, Lisa muttered, “what a great way to
have a bath, bring it on universe”.
Litotes A form of understatement used for emphasis
by stating the negative in order to highlight
or affirm the positive, e.g. your friend gives
a speech and does it very well but
afterwards you tell him, ‘that wasn’t bad’.
Metaphor Comparative technique that presents the
likeliness between two things by saying one
is the other, e.g. “the ocean is a hungry dog.
Onomatopoeia The use of a word which imitates the sound
it makes, e.g. hiss, fizz, buzz, clang, bang
Oxymoron The use of two contrasting terms to create
 an effect which is dramatic or comical,
usually a combination of an adjective and a
noun, e.g. painfully sweet, honest lies,
serious joke.
Paradox A seemingly contradictory statement that
conveys a truth, e.g. ‘it is a pity that youth is
wasted on the very young’.
Pathetic Fallacy Aspects of nature are given human feelings
or emotions, “the tress danced in the wind”,
“hurricane jane showed all her fury”.
Personification A device used for comparison, give human
characteristics to inanimate objects, ideas or
animals, e.g. ”the wind whispered among
the trees”.
Pun The intentional use of a word with two or
more meanings or words that sound similar
to create a desired effect, usually humour,
e.g. “why can’t a bicycle stand up? Because
it is two tyred”.
Sarcasm This is where the literal meaning of what is
said or written is different from what the
author intends to communicate, e.g. “well
done to all our politicians, great job, keep it
up”.
Satire Satire uses humour, irony, exaggeration and
ridicule to comment on a serious matter in a
way that is funny. Many comedians use
satire to joke about serious topics.
Simile A comparison using expression such as ‘as’
or ‘like’, this is a direct comparison like
metaphors, e.g. her skin is smooth as
porcelain.
Synecdoche A figure of speech in which a part is
substituted for a whole or a whole is
substituted for a part, e.g. ‘he had some cool
new wheels’, ‘Jamaica took home 6 gold
medals’.
Tautology Repetition of an idea using different words,
‘we take our last breathe and we die’.

Conversational Tone
- To make a narrative more conversational, authors may use more contractions, shorter
sentences and may even start sentences with conjunction or end with a preposition,
mirroring everyday speech. Also, slang and colloquialisms, even personal pronouns,
as a way to make the narrative more relatable to the audience.
Dialogue
 - A conversation between two or more people. It may be used in narrative discourse not
only to move the story along but also to help you understand the characters, it creates
interest and pulls the audience in to help them better understand the story.

Voice/Narrative Perspective
- When creating a narrative, the author needs to decide who is telling the story or from
whose point of view the story is told. The point of view used helps to control how the
audience will receive the story. The narrative perspective used, influences the
impressions the audience forms and the conclusions they draw from the plot, authors
tend to use one of three points of view:
1) First Person – the person telling the story is a character in the story. He/she has
an active role (sometimes the protagonist) in the unfolding of the plot. The
pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’ are used when stories are narrated in first person. This point
of view shares the inner thoughts of the character with the audience and so they
are generally more empathetic towards him/her.
2) Third Person Limited – the narrator has an all-knowing role; however, the story
is told through one single character. This means that the narrator knows the
thoughts and feelings of only one character, whom is followed throughout the
story. In narrating events, the pronouns ‘she’, ‘he’, and ‘it’ are used.
3) Third Person Omniscient – the narrator has an all-knowing role. He/she is not
involved in the narrative but has an overview of everything that goes on in the
story. This allows him/her to move between events and to know all the character’s
actions and feelings.

Anecdotes
- These are short, generally amusing or interesting stories that are based on facts that
are used to tell readers about an event or incident that happened in the past.
- Often authors will include anecdotes to assist in communicating the point of
discourse. It may be a personal anecdote or it may be just a story that helps to relate a
relevant idea. The objective is that it should help the audience get a better
understanding of what is being presented in the discourse as it adds a human quality
and provides insights into the situation being presented that might not have been
conveyed any other way.

Modes of Expression of Expository, Argumentative and Persuasive Discourse

1) Objective Arguments – the information and arguments presented in expository and
argumentative discourse are based on facts. They are free of bias. In argumentative
texts, the audience should be able to see all aspects of the argument and be able to
form their own conclusions even though the author’s purpose may be to convince
them that a particular position is superior.
 2) Lack of Objectivity – persuasive discourse may be biased. The text may reflect the
author’s personal feelings and opinions. The author may not present all sides of the
argument or he/she may attempt to influence the audience to accept his/her position.
3) Precise Language – In expository and argumentative discourse the author aims to
make the information and arguments presented clear and accessible. Authors are
likely to use denotative (dictionary) meaning of words and avoid figurative language.
Authors of persuasive discourse may also use precise language so that the audience
can follow their arguments.
- Technical terms and Jargon – authors will tailor the language they use to their
audience. An author addressing the general public would tend to avoid using technical
terms and jargon as they may not be understood. However, an author addressing an
audience working in his/her field would use them. Technical terms and Jargon are
content specific and allow the author to present information and arguments with
precision and economy expression. An author using technical terms and jargon when
addressing the general public may be attempting to make himself/herself appear
authoritative.
- Logical Linkages – these are transitional words and phrases that help to establish
logical connections and relationships between ideas and also between paragraphs or
sections of the text. Authors use these to help the audience understand the information
and follow the argument more easily.
Use of Logos and Neutral Tone
- Authors of expository and argumentative discourse use logos and a neutral tone.
- When authors use logos, they are appealing to logic.
- They use rational arguments when presenting their claims.
- Claims are supported by evidence and reasoning.
- A fallacy is an incorrect or misleading statement based on inaccurate facts or faulty
reasoning. An author may point out a fallacy in an argument put forward by
somebody with an opposing view.
- They use a neutral tone to present information and the audience has to think in order
to assess the information.
Use of Pathos and Non-Neutral Tone
- Authors of persuasive discourse may use pathos and a non-neutral tone.
- When authors use pathos they are appealing to emotions.
- Authors use emotive language and their aim is to convince the audience to accept
their arguments by eliciting an emotional response, such as, anger, pity, fear, sorrow,
patriotism or empathy.
- They may use a passionate tone to demonstrate that they are convinced of the
correctness of their point of view.
- They may use inclusive language to give the impression that they are talking from the
audience’s point of view.
- They are more likely to use figurative language and literary devices, such as,
hyperbole and litotes, to make their arguments more persuasive.
Presentation of Evidence
- Facts – authors use facts (i.e. information that has been accepted as true and that is
able to withstand scrutiny) as evidence to support their points and arguments. Facts
add credibility to the piece and give it greater authenticity. The audience is more
likely to believe an author who uses facts than one who doesn’t.
- Statistical or Historical Data – authors use numerical data to substantiate the claims
they put forward. Again, this adds credibility and so is used by authors to prompt you
to accept what they are presenting as acceptable.
- Expert Opinion – although expert opinions are based on factual evidence they may
not be counted as fact because they are conclusions drawn by individuals, albeit those
who may be considered an authority on the matter. Generally, people are more
trusting when information comes from a source of authority. Expert opinion is
therefore, another way to add credibility to the claims and arguments being made by
the author.
Rhetorical Questions
- These are used for dramatic effect. They are attention grabbing and they invite the
audience to think but they can also invite the audience to share the author’s opinion.
Restatement and Reiteration
- At some later point in his/her writing or speech, the author repeats an earlier idea
without changing the wording – restatement, or alludes to an idea presented earlier –
restatement. These strategies are used largely for emphasis and help to clarify the
author’s argument or pint of view.
List of Three
- Lists are used to show that there are a number of examples and to demonstrate range
and variety, but they also reinforce an idea. A list of three creates rhythm without the
text, making it particularly powerful. It is a device very often used in political
speeches.

Levels of Comprehension
Literal
- At this level you are required to understand what the text is actually saying.
- Answers to questions based on the literal level of understanding can be found in the
text; it therefore deals with understanding and absorbing facts.
- It allows you to answer questions which ask, ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’.
- Your understanding at this level is the foundation for the higher-order comprehension
skills.
- If you respond at the literal level, you need to be able to:
1) Summarise a main idea
2) Understand facts and data given in the text
3) Sequence events
4) Identify characters in a story and the relationship between them
 5) Identify settings

Interpretative
- At this level of comprehension, you are required to ‘read between the lines’. The
focus is on what the author meant by what he said.
- You will need to build on your understanding of the facts in the text and use that to
determine the deeper meaning behind the stated information.
- You will need to use evidence from the text and your reasoning ability to draw
conclusions.
- Questions that require you to process at this level will often require you to supply
examples from the text to support your responses.
- It allows you to answer questions which ask ‘what if’, ‘why’, ‘how’.
- If you respond at the interpretative level, you need to be able to:
1) Make predictions
2) Make inferences
3) Identify the main idea when it is not explicitly stated;
4) Identify the author’s purpose
5) Recognise cause and effect relationships
6) Recognise tone and mood
7) Identify theme

Evaluative
- At this level of comprehension, you are required to analyse the text and form an
opinion based on the information given.
- At this level you are thinking critically about everything in the text as you are
required to make a value judgement about an aspect of the text (an issue, idea,
character or even the author himself/herself).
- It allows you to answer questions which ask ‘why is something important?’, ‘how
does something relate to real life?’.
- If you respond at the evaluative level, you need to be able to:
1) Consider the significant of actions, ideas or attitudes.
2) Explain your position in response to information from the text
3) Make generalisations about the text
4) Consider underlying implications.

Applied
- At this level of comprehension, you are required to analyse the text and go on to apply
the information in the text to real-life situations.
- You need to make a connection between what you have read or heard and what you
already know or believe.
 - Your response will be based on the author’s language, style, purpose, imagery and
values. You need to merge what you understood at the literal and interpretative levels
and extend these concepts beyond the situation.
- You will need to support your responses with logic or reason.
- It allows you to answer these questions such as, ‘if you were…’, ‘in what ways’ or ‘if
these are…’, to name a few.
- If you respond at the applied level, you need to be able to:
1) Focus on translating topics into real-world situations.
2) Create something based on your response to the text.

Reliability and Validity of Data Collection Methods

Reliability
- This refers to how accurately and consistently the data collection methods of research
instruments performed.
- A data collection method will produce reliable information if the design of the
instrument is appropriate. If it is not, then this could affect reliability as the data
collected may be irrelevant and useless.
- Information can be said to be reliable if the methods used procure the same data every
time, under the same conditions. The research must be replicable.
Validity
- Validity, to the researcher, refers to the extent to which the data collection methods or
questionnaire, interview and observation, actually measure what they are supposed to
measure.
- Data collection involves taking samples. If the research has validity, the sample is a
true representation of the population under consideration and the results of the
research can be generalised.
Reliability and Validity of Information
- What influence does a primary source have on the level of reliability of information
received? Is this primary source valid? To what extent? Why or why not? What of the
context – the situation surrounding the collection of data? Could this affect the
reliability and validity of the information? What medium was used? Can it be trusted
not to compromise the reliability or validity of the information?
- These are the questions which need to be considered when evaluating the effect of the
different elements on reliability and validity. But, what is reliability, what is validity?
Reliability
- Speaks to consistency, trustworthiness and dependability.
- You need to be able to look at different elements of the information – the source, the
context, etc. and say what makes this reliable. Ask yourself, ‘can I trust the
information I will receive from this source? Can I depend on it to be the truth?’.
Validity
-speaks to the cogency of the information.
- Ask yourself, ‘is the information based on sound reasoning? Does it have a logical
structure? Is it supported by evidence? Can the information be considered to be
incontestable?’.

Reliability of Sources and Information

Author Is the author an expert in the field? what
qualifications does he/she have?
Professional Standards Does the author have certain professional
standards? E.g. doctors, academics.
Publisher Is the publisher reputable?
Organisation or Institution If the data is from an organisation or
institution, we need to evaluate their
reputation and their role or responsibilities.
Research Method Does the research method chosen generate
the necessary data?

Validity of Sources and Information

Accuracy – there are several aspects to 1) Currency – when was it published, is
evaluate accuracy: data out of date.
2) Relevance – does the data relate to
the circumstances you are applying
it to?
3) Data Collection – was data collected
by reliable methods and accurately
recorded.
4) Sample size – was sample size big
enough for generalisation to be
accurate?
5) Replicable – do other sources have
similar information? Would another
similar piece of research have the
same result?
Bias – several aspects can be looked at to 1) Representation – does sample
evaluate bias: include all the variables within the
population, such as age, gender,
social class, religion, education
level, which may affect response?
2) Cultural bias – has the data been
collected by someone of the same or
different culture?
3) Political bias – is data being
presented by either a right-wing or
left-wing perspective?
 4) Social bias – aspects such as gender,
race, age and social class may affect
the presentation of data.
5) Faulty research methods – even the
best academic researchers can make
mistakes and inexperienced
researchers, such as students, may
have issues with poorly designed
and executed questionnaires and
interviews.
6) Aim of the source in presenting the
data – the reason for the data being
presented may cause bias, e.g. a
government may present certain
statistics on economic performance
if they are favourable and might
avoid other less favourable.

Using the Internet as a Source

- Check author’s credentials to determine authority and reliability of the information
presented.
- Check that the source is reputable; addresses ending in .gov and .edu tend to be good
sources.
- Ensure there is an author sponsor
- Is there any contact information given?
- Is there any reason for author bias?
- Check for a copyright symbol on the page.
- Ensure the website is kept up-to-date and is being maintained.
- Always verify the information you find on a website by looking at other sites to see if
the information is consistent with the general consensus.